Humans often consider tool use a mark of intelligence. Yet many animals find creative ways to solve problems. A new study reveals how carrion crows - which seldom use tools in the wild - can learn to master them when trained.



Their performance suggests that with only small evolutionary changes, they might one day adopt tools as part of their natural behavior.



Researchers from the <a href="https://uni-tuebingen.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tübingen</a> trained three carrion crows to handle sticks and retrieve food pellets placed inside a transparent Plexiglas box. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-beaks-to-borrowed-sticks">From beaks to borrowed sticks</h2>



The birds could not access the pellets with their beaks, so they had to explore with sticks. Success depended on careful manipulation: moving the pellet too quickly risked losing it from the platform.



"Tool use is very rare in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-hold-grudges-for-up-to-17-years/">animal kingdom</a>, but relatively common in dexterous generalists such as primates, parrots, and corvids," said lead author Felix&nbsp;Moll.



Only two crow species - the New Caledonian and Hawaiian crow - use tools regularly. This experiment tested whether carrion crows could, with training, refine similar skills.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crows-master-deliberate-tool-actions">Crows master deliberate tool actions</h2>



The crows did more than just copy actions. They aligned sticks carefully with their beaks and guided food into reach.



"The crows first picked up the stick from a holder and adjusted it until they were grasping it so that it was precisely aligned with their beak. Then they used it to guide the pellet within reach," said Moll. They even returned the stick to the holder before eating.



Recordings showed early awkwardness: sticks shoved pellets back and forth with little success. Over time, movements became refined, efficient, and highly repeatable.



"By comparison, recordings of later training sessions showed extremely precise movement patterns. The movements of the stick varied little in standard situations; the crows determinedly guided the food pellet to one side of the box and fished it out," said co-author Julius Würzler.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practice-reveals-hidden-intelligence">Practice reveals hidden intelligence</h2>



The study used pose estimation to analyze thousands of trials. It found that the crows improved through reinforcement learning, a trial-and-error process where variability early on helped them discover effective strategies. 



This variability mirrors processes seen in human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-fuels-learning-in-young-songbirds/">motor learning</a>, where exploration refines skill. 



Such parallels remind us that intelligence does not always require a complex evolutionary leap. Sometimes, it is about applying existing flexibility to new challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crows-show-flexible-problem-solving">Crows show flexible problem-solving</h2>



Each crow developed its own style - some preferred sliding pellets out to one side, while others adjusted depending on pellet position. 



These strategies were consistent and efficient, highlighting not just learned precision but also individuality in problem-solving. The presence of personal approaches suggests that tool use is not a rigid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-can-recognize-geometric-patterns-in-shapes/">behavior</a> but a dynamic process shaped by learning and constant feedback. 



Mistakes added another layer of insight: when a pellet slipped from control, the crows reacted within fractions of a second, adjusting stick movements to regain control. 



Such rapid corrections revealed continuous monitoring and flexibility, showing a level of awareness that goes beyond instinct and hinted at truly adaptive cognition.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/carrion-crows_precise-tool-use_infographic_UTubingen_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/carrion-crows_precise-tool-use_infographic_UTubingen_1s.webp" alt="Typical stick-tip trajectories during an early and late training session. The crow can’t reach the food reward without the stick-tool. Credit: University of Tübingen" class="wp-image-1986134"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Typical stick-tip trajectories during an early and late training session. The crow can’t reach the food reward without the stick-tool. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Tübingen</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tool-grip-reveals-hidden-intelligence">Tool grip reveals hidden intelligence</h2>



Another striking behavior was how they adjusted stick orientation before use. Often, the stick was misaligned when pulled from the dispenser. 



The crows tossed and re-gripped it until alignment was perfect. This fine motor adjustment revealed an advanced capacity to prepare tools for effective use.



"Animal tool use is supported by a number of enabling factors: motivation, conceptual knowledge and advanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ravens-develop-sophisticated-cognitive-skills-by-the-age-of-four-months/">cognitive skills</a>, as well as fine motor control," said co-author Andreas&nbsp;Nieder.



The carrion crows displayed all of these, suggesting their brains integrate the stick as part of their own body. Similar processes occur in primates, where neurons adapt to represent the working end of tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crows-hint-at-evolution">Crows hint at evolution</h2>



The findings show that non-habitual tool users can still reach high levels of dexterity. This supports the idea of “tooling,” where animals treat body and object as one system. 



Such results deepen our understanding of cognition in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-count-out-loud-just-like-toddlers/">birds</a> and may guide future research into neural mechanisms.



"If woodpeckers didn't already - with their highly-specialized long tongues - fish beetle larvae out of their burrows in dead wood, this nutritious source of protein might one day be exploited by carrion crows using tools," Moll adds. 



These experiments suggest that with only small evolutionary nudges, carrion crows could naturally evolve into regular tool users. 



The work also invites reflection on intelligence across species: when given the right opportunities, animals may reveal skills that once seemed uniquely human.



Click here to <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)01100-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch videos of carrion crows using precision tools...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)01100-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Carrion crows can create, prepare, and use tools with great precision

Humans often consider tool use a mark of intelligence. Yet many animals find creative ways to solve problems. A new study reveals how carrion crows - which seldom use tools in the wild - can learn to master them when trained. Their performance suggests that with only small evolutionary changes, they might one day adopt tools as part of their natural behavior. Researchers from the University of Tübingen trained three carrion crows to handle sticks and retrieve food pellets placed inside a transparent Plexiglas box. From beaks...

Caring for insects as pets may sound strange, but thousands of people all over the world already have praying mantises and other stick <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-found-a-terrifying-decline-in-flying-insects/">insects</a> as pets, according to a new report from <a href="https://pensoft.net/">Pensoft Publishers</a>.



Praying mantises are gaining popularity and fueling a largely unknown market. They are sold at fairs and pet markets, or collected in the wild and then reared by amateurs or professionals.&nbsp;



Some are elegant, with flower-like coloration (the Orchid Mantis, Hymenopus coronatus), and some resemble Pokémons (the Jeweled Flower Mantis, Creobroter wahlbergii). Surprisingly, some of these creatures can even be cuddled (the Giant Shield Mantis Rhombodera basalis).



When selecting an insect as a pet, features such as shape, size, colors, and behaviors are considered. Customers also shop for species that are rare or easy to care for.&nbsp;



It is important to understand how this market, which is largely unregulated, is changing. This could be crucial to conserve rare species and promote awareness of their habitat and place in the ecosystem.



Now, researchers have published a <a href="https://doi.org/10.3897/jor.31.71458">first overview</a> of the praying mantis pet market. The research team includes Roberto Battiston of Museo di Archeologia e Scienze Naturali G. Zannato (Italy), William di Pietro of the World Biodiversity Association (Italy) and entomologist Kris Anderson (USA).&nbsp;



The study authors surveyed 200 hobbyists, professional sellers in the mantis community from 28 different countries. The results showed that the targets of this market are indeed predictable. The typical mantis breeder or enthusiast is 19 to 30 years old, prefers beautiful species over rare ones, and is willing to spend over $30 per insect.&nbsp;



The researchers identified buyers as “mostly curious enthusiasts with poor knowledge of the market dynamics and the laws behind it, even if they seem to generally care about their pet.”



But the data suggests the trade is not always legal. One out of four instances lack permits or transparency from the seller. To ensure these species are conserved in nature, the researchers emphasize that collaboration between scientists and the insect pet community should be considered.&nbsp;



The biology, distribution, and threats to insects are largely unknown. Many species are still waiting to be discovered. This is a big limit to conservation, since you cannot protect what you don’t know.



“Hobbyists and pet insect enthusiasts are producing and sharing a huge quantity of observations on the biology and ecology of hundreds of species, even rare or still undescribed ones, a priceless heritage for the scientific community,” said the researchers.&nbsp;



“Strengthening the dialogue between them, promoting a white market over a black one, may be a crucial help for the conservation of these insects, fundamental parts of the biodiversity of our planet, that are replacing our traditional pets at home.”



The research is published in the <a href="https://jor.pensoft.net/">Journal of Orthoptera Research</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Praying mantises are becoming more popular as pets

Caring for insects as pets may sound strange, but thousands...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/acv.12788">Animal Conservation</a> has provided the first global evaluation of all terrestrial vertebrate species that have not been declared <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pink-pigeons-need-a-genetic-rescue-to-survive-extinction/">extinct</a> in order to identify which of these species have not been spotted for at least 50 years, and are thus considered to be “lost,” but perhaps not yet fully extinct. By reviewing information on 32,802 species from the IUCN Red List, the experts have identified 562 such lost species.



The IUCN considers a species as extinct “when there is no reasonable doubt the last individual of a species has died,” and declared a total of 311 terrestrial vertebrate species as extinct since 1500. However, according to the study authors, extinction declarations are rare, partly due to inherent uncertainties in knowing when the last individual of the species has died. 



"This has led to the growth of a group of ‘lost’ species that have not been observed in decades or even centuries, yet are not declared extinct, and as such possess an uncertain conservation status," said the researchers.



From the 562 species that are considered lost, the Red List categorizes 75 as “possibly extinct.” Among this list, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-in-five-reptiles-is-currently-at-risk-of-extinction/">reptiles</a> lead the way with 257 lost species, followed by 137 species of amphibians, 130 of mammals, and 38 of birds. Most of these species were last spotted in megadiverse countries such as Indonesia (69 species), Mexico (33), and Brazil (29).



While not surprising, this distribution of lost species is particularly worrying. “The fact most of these lost species are found in megadiverse tropical countries is worrying, given such countries are expected to experience the highest numbers of extinctions in the coming decades,” explained study lead author Thomas Martin from the <a href="https://www.paigntonzoo.org.uk/">Paignton Zoo</a> in the United Kingdom.



According to study senior author Arne Mooers, a professor of Biodiversity at the<a href="https://www.sfu.ca/"> Simon Fraser University</a>, future survey efforts concentrated on the identified “hotspots” where the existence of many species is uncertain are needed to either rediscover lost species or to remove the reasonable doubt that a particular lost species actually still exists. 



“While theoretical estimates of ongoing ‘extinction rates’ are fine and good, looking hard for actual species seems better,” Professor Mooers concluded.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

More than 500 animal species are lost, but are they extinct?

A new study published in the journal Animal Conservation has...

Recently, a highly pathogenic strain of avian influenza – commonly known as bird flu – has been spreading across North America. In order to control such devastating outbreaks, which have the potential of spilling over into humans and other mammals, identifying which bird species carry the virus and how they spread it is highly essential.&nbsp;



A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://vet.tufts.edu/">Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine</a> at Tufts University has now provided a detailed assessment of which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-report-confirms-that-bird-species-are-steadily-declining/">bird species</a> drive avian influenza spillover and global spread.&nbsp;



“The scientific community has become accustomed to speaking about influenza viruses in birds as a group, but birds are an incredibly diverse taxa of animals with&nbsp;different natural history, physiology, and anatomy,” said study senior author Jonathan Runstadler, an expert in infectious diseases and global health at the Cummings School.



According to Professor Runstadler and his team, the lineage of bird flu circulating now in the US originated around 1996 and was first identified in a domestic goose in China. After several mutations, it caused the first big wild bird outbreak in 2005 in a major wetland in central Asia, and was introduced in the US via the Pacific Northwest in 2014, causing major losses to the poultry industry and forcing the culling of over 40 million chickens and turkeys.



“It was a big blow,” said study lead author Nichola Hill, an assistant professor of Biology at the University of Massachusetts Boston, who previously worked in Professor Runstadler’s lab.&nbsp;



“After it ended, we knew that we were between outbreaks and there was a high probability of an outbreak happening again. We felt we needed to look at long-term, historical data to find patterns and determine which birds are really driving global spread. So we compared birds at a finer taxonomic scale than prior studies, such as wild ducks, gulls, land birds, and geese versus domestic poultry like chickens, and we came up with some really interesting findings.”



Historically, duck species such as mallards have been considered super-spreaders of bird flu, infecting both wild and domestic birds. However, other species such as wild geese or gulls are particularly good at amplifying the virus and spreading it widely in animal populations.&nbsp;



While the 2014 outbreak was most likely initiated by ducks which carried the virus via the Pacific, the current outbreak – which already spread through 40 different bird species, including crows, sparrows, owls, and hawks - was possibly brought about by black-backed gulls flying over the Atlantic.



“Knowing that gulls, geese and ducks may be moving this virus in different ways is a big contribution to understanding or eventually modeling with more accuracy how we expect a virus like this to spread. Ultimately, we could put this data into a model that allows us to predict if there’s a virus emerging, when that virus might enter North America, and what bird populations we might target for surveillance to detect it,” Professor Runstadler concluded.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1010062">PLoS Pathogens</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Experts identify the super spreaders of bird flu

Recently, a highly pathogenic strain of avian influenza – commonly...

Cold-water corals, just like their tropical counterparts, build three dimensional reef structures that offer complex habitats for many different species, including commercially important fish. They form <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-impacts-biodiversity-in-protected-areas-worldwide/">biodiversity</a> hotspots and are considered important in deep-sea ecosystem functioning, food web structure and nutrient cycling. Today, cold-water coral reefs are considered vulnerable ecosystems because they are exposed to threats from destructive fishing techniques, such as bottom trawling and towed dredges.



In addition, these corals are expected to suffer dramatically from future environmental changes in the oceans due to global warming, which may bring food shortages, decreases in oxygen availability, and acidification. However, it is difficult to predict how cold-water corals will respond to future climate changes because there is a complete lack of any data documenting local extinction events involving these corals.&nbsp;



To get around this problem, a team led by Rodrigo da Costa Portilho-Ramos of the University of Bremen made use of ancient evidence of past climate change captured in the sediments of the seabed. They analyzed sediments collected at or near six sites of cold-water coral ecosystems in the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, applying standard techniques to reconstruct ocean conditions and the abundance of the common coral species&nbsp;Lophelia pertusa&nbsp;over the last 20,000 years. This period encompasses Earth’s last major global warming event.



This approach allowed the researchers to reconstruct paleoceanographic conditions and link the proliferation or reduction of cold-water corals with changes in environmental conditions. This was possible because of the fact that cold-water coral ecosystems take a long time to develop and then are persistent over long time periods.&nbsp;



The results of the analysis are published today in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLoS Biology</a>. They show that the abundance of the cold-water coral L. pertusa&nbsp;in times gone by was most strongly correlated with changes in food supply, the tiny suspended organisms that arrive either from shallower waters above, or by lateral water flow along the seafloor. Low oxygen concentration also appeared to be a key stressor for&nbsp;L. pertusa. In contrast, changes in ocean temperature and salinity did not appear to be significantly associated with the proliferation or disappearance of&nbsp;L. pertusa&nbsp;over time.



The findings suggest that cold-water coral ecosystems are most likely to be affected in future by climate change-driven alterations to ocean processes that affect their food and oxygen supplies. In some cases, the data suggest, high abundance of food may compensate for low oxygen levels.



“Marine sediment records from the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea reveal that events of growth and mortality of cold-water corals induced by climatic changes over the last 20,000 years were mainly triggered by food supply, controlled by export production and turbulent hydrodynamics, rather than by changes in the bottom-water temperature," said Portilho-Ramos.



"Therefore, climate-driven changes in oceanic processes concerning food supply are also likely to be the determining factors of life and death of cold-water coral species in the coming decades.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ancient sediments predict future stressors for cold-water corals

Cold-water corals, just like their tropical counterparts, build three dimensional...

Scallops are usually caught by dredging, a destructive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphin-bycatch-from-fishing-activities-is-unsustainable/">fishing</a> method that tears up the seafloor and harms other life. Now, a study published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/fisheries-research">Fisheries Research</a>, shows there may be a better way.&nbsp;



A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> fitted lobster pots with LED lights, and used them experimentally with fishermen off the coast of Cornwall in the UK. The lights did not seem to make a difference in the amount of lobster or crabs caught in the traps. Scallops on the other hand, swam into the pots in droves.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"We were working on lights for crab and lobster pots and I gave some to a fisherman for testing," said Dr. Rob Enever of Fishtek. “He told me the lights made no difference to crabs or lobsters, but he noticed quite a lot of scallops in his pots. We decided to test this properly in this study."



"When I saw the results, I couldn't believe my eyes. Boats that would only see two or three scallops in their pots annually were now seeing 20 or more in a single pot. We have found something really astonishing here. This could be a real opportunity for crab and lobster fishers, because the lights don’t seem to reduce the number of crabs and lobsters they can catch – they just bring in an extra haul of scallops."



More than 500 scallops were caught. Of those, 99.6 percent were caught in lobster pots with lights in them. The researchers believe this breakthrough could ultimately lead to a widespread, improved method for catching scallops.



"We are delighted to be working with an excellent local company to do the science that underpins innovation that could be good for fishers and the environment," said Dr. Phil Doherty.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Breakthrough study reveals that scallops are attracted to light

Scallops are usually caught by dredging, a destructive fishing method...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/">University of Portsmouth</a> has revealed a dramatic increase in shipping traffic in the North East Atlantic. Scientists have warned that in order to help protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-are-key-for-our-future/">marine</a> life, more monitoring is needed.&nbsp;



The researchers discovered that over a five-year period, rates of shipping in the North East Atlantic rose by 34 percent. What is even more concerning to scientists is the rate of shipping growth in marine protected areas. Vessel movements in these sensitive environments have increased by 73 percent in the same time period.



The<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X22003630"> report</a> is the first survey of shipping activity in the North East Atlantic. Using data recorded by Automatic identification Systems (AIS), the researchers studied the change in shipping between 2013 and 2017 across ten distinct vessel types. The study area covered 1.1 million km2, including waters off Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, and the UK



”This change is likely to put more pressure on the marine environment, and consequently may have implications for the conservation of exposed and at-risk species," said study lead author James Robbins. "Renewed monitoring effort is needed to ensure that protective measures are adequate to conserve species under threat in a changing environment, where the footprint of human activities is expanding.”&nbsp;



The increase in traffic may have implications for species that these areas are designated to protect. Shipping impacts on the marine environment include the spread of non-indigenous species, noise, chemical, and air pollution, collisions with wildlife, and marine litter.



Shipping is a likely cause of the unintended movement for more than half of non-indigenous species in European waters (<a href="http://eader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0964569113000562?token=A04541237DCD04B81B24328A5914A67D8825B950B2553D5EE62F572C9611C44871C801ADE26ACD300CA7D710574DDA26&amp;originRegion=eu-west-1&amp;originCreation=20220517121528">Katsanevakis et al., 2013</a>). Once introduced, the invasive species have a negative impact on the ecosystems they invade, and are considered one of the biggest threats to biodiversity.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<a href="https://pure.sruc.ac.uk/en/persons/sarah-marley">Dr Sarah Marley</a>, Visiting Researcher at the University of Portsmouth and Lecturer at Scotland’s Rural College, said&nbsp;



“Shipping is the most widespread human activity in our oceans, carrying a multitude of threats - from subtle impacts like underwater noise pollution to dramatic outcomes when ships hit whales," said study co-author Dr. Sarah Marley. "We need to understand when and where shipping occurs in order to best mitigate these risks”.



The results found the greatest increases in shipping are taking place across multiple designated protection areas across the world.



<ul><li>In areas close to the Spanish coast, the Espacio Marino de la Costa da Morte saw a rise of 413 per cent in vessel activity. This area is designated to protect seabirds.&nbsp;</li><li>Several areas off the west coast of Scotland also saw increases of 463 per cent in shipping, a zone designated to protect harbour porpoises.&nbsp;</li><li>The Vadehavet med Ribe Å, Tved Å og Varde Å vest for Vard off the coast of Denmark, where fish, seals and harbour porpoises are protected saw a 443 per cent increase in ship movements.&nbsp;</li></ul>



As the human population continues to grow, increased demands on international trade will intensify shipping across the world. Current predictions see a global increase of 240 percent and 1209 per cent by 2050.&nbsp;



The impacts of shipping on the marine environment prove that it is crucial for policy makers to closely monitor areas that are designated to protect vulnerable species and ecosystems that will face continuous pressures over time.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/marine-pollution-bulletin">Marine Pollution Bulletin</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dramatic increase in shipping traffic threatens marine life

A new study from the University of Portsmouth has revealed...

The climate crisis is threatening the yellow-billed hornbill, a cousin of fan-favorite Zazu from The Lion King, with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-threatens-two-new-fish-species-with-extinction/">extinction</a>.



Climate change is worsening extremes, such as high temperatures and the frequency and intensity of drought periods associated with arid regions. Animals that inhabit these regions are already suffering the consequences.&nbsp;



A team of researchers recently studied the breeding success of southern yellow-billed hornbills by investigating the impacts of high air temperatures and drought from 2008 to 2019. This study, published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a>, is one of the first to examine how climate change impacts breeding success over a longer timescale.



“There is rapidly growing evidence for the negative effects of high temperatures on the behavior, physiology, breeding, and survival of various bird, mammal, and reptile species around the world,” said first author Dr. Nicholas Pattinson of the University of Cape Town.



“For example, heat-related mass die-off events over the period of a few days are increasingly being recorded, which no doubt pose a threat to population persistence and ecosystem function.”



The southern yellow-billed hornbill is found in most of southern Africa, largely within the Kalahari Desert. Known for its peculiar breeding and nesting strategy, the southern yellow-billed hornbill is a socially monogamous species.&nbsp;



The birds are cavity nesters; the female seals herself into the nest cavity and stays there for 50 days to care for chicks. They are protected by a narrow slit, which is only used by the males, who enter to feed the females and their chicks. This strategy protects the young hornbills from predators.&nbsp;



Breeding success depends on factors such as climate and food availability. The yellow-billed hornbills initiate breeding in response to rainfall, which corresponds with the hottest days of the year.&nbsp;



The research team studied pairs breeding in wooden nest boxes, and looked at breeding success at broad and fine scales (long term trends and individual breeding attempts). Climate trends within the region were also analyzed.&nbsp;



The study found a collapse in breeding during the monitoring period (2008-2019) due to an increase in the maximum air temperature. This was because high temperatures resulted in deadly impacts, such as reduced foraging, which affected the chances of successful breeding.&nbsp;



During the last three seasons (2016 to 2019), the experts found a decline in occupied nest boxes, dropping from 53 to 12 percent. Nest success - where pairs successfully raised at least one chick - also declined from 58 to 17 percent. Furthermore, the average number of chicks produced per breeding attempt decreased.&nbsp;



When the threshold air temperature reached above 35.7°C, no successful breeding attempts were recorded. The study revealed that breeding was negatively correlated with increased periods of heat - when the maximum air temperature exceeded the threshold that the hornbills could maintain normal breeding and nesting behavior. These effects were seen even in non-drought years.&nbsp;



The climate crisis is accelerating at a much faster pace, resulting in severe negative effects for species over alarmingly short time periods. The researchers predict that the southern yellow-billed hornbills could be wiped out as soon as 2027. The consequences of increased warming could drive local extinctions, where no young animals will replace the dying population.&nbsp;



“Much of the public perception of the effects of the climate crisis is related to scenarios calculated for 2050 and beyond,” said Dr. Pattinson. “Yet the effects of the climate crisis are current and can manifest not just within our lifetime, but even over a single decade.”



The study was published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cousins of beloved Lion King character are vanishing as temperatures rise

The climate crisis is threatening the yellow-billed hornbill, a cousin...

In a new study from the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a>, experts have investigated how the development of roads and railways may affect tiger populations. The findings can be used to help to assist <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildlife-conservation-can-help-stabilize-the-climate/">conservation</a> efforts and may ultimately help to save endangered tigers, such as those in Nepal.



"The rapid development of transport infrastructure is a major threat to endangered species worldwide. Roads and railways can increase animal mortality, fragment habitats, and exacerbate other threats to biodiversity," wrote the study authors.



"Predictive models that forecast the future impacts to endangered species can guide land-use planning in ways that proactively reduce the negative effects of transport infrastructure. Agent-based models are well suited for predictive scenario testing, yet their application to endangered species conservation is rare."&nbsp;



"Here, we developed a spatially explicit, agent-based model to forecast the effects of transport infrastructure on an isolated tiger (Panthera tigris) population in Nepal’s Chitwan National Park - a global biodiversity hotspot."



The researchers used the model to analyze what would happen to tigers in the future with the looming threats of transport infrastructure, including death or reduced prey availability.



“We found that roads and railways would dramatically increase tiger mortality, as tigers would frequently encounter vehicles and trains while patrolling their territories,” said study lead author Professor Neil Carter. “On average, in our model, tiger deaths along the roads and railways would reduce the tiger population from around 130 animals to just 50 animals over a 20-year period.”



Professor Carter noted that results are alarming and that these reductions would jeopardize the future of tigers in the region.



Based on their findings, the researchers urge land managers, developers, and researchers to utilize Smart Green Infrastructure planning to minimize impacts on tigers and their prey. This type of planning involves strategies such as realigning roads and railways to avoid critical habitats and reducing traffic volumes and speeds, according to the experts.



“There is still much to be learned about the effects of roads and railways on tiger behaviors and populations, but we think using models like ours can help promote tiger-friendly conservation development," said Professor Carter.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/">PeerJ</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tigers are threatened by road and railway development

In a new study from the University of Michigan, experts...

Monitoring marine biodiversity and ocean health usually involves teams of scientists that collect samples of seawater while traveling around on board a research vessel. This is a time-consuming and costly activity that can really only survey small areas and involves considerable laboratory work once back on shore to identify all the organisms present in each sample.&nbsp;



In a groundbreaking new step, researchers from the <a href="https://www.mbari.org/">Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute</a> (MBARI) have now used autonomous underwater robots to sample DNA from marine environments. They combined two novel autonomous platforms, both developed by MBARI, in order to sample and analyse environmental DNA (eDNA) in ocean locations.&nbsp;



The long-range autonomous underwater vehicle (LRAUV) is a nimble, streamlined robot that can travel to remote areas of the ocean and remain submerged for long periods of time. The Environmental Sample Processor (ESP) is a robotic “laboratory-in-a-can” that filters seawater and extracts the eDNA for future analysis. By equipping an LRAUV with ESP technology, researchers can expand the scale of ocean monitoring enormously over time and space.&nbsp;



“We know that eDNA is an incredibly powerful tool for studying ocean communities, but we’ve been limited by what we can accomplish using crewed research vessels. Now, autonomous technology is helping us make better use of our time and resources to study new parts of the ocean,” said study lead author Kobun Truelove, a biological oceanographer at MBARI.



Organisms that inhabit marine environments, from the smallest plankton to the largest whales, form communities that are connected by food webs. The biodiversity of these organisms is a measure of ocean health and it is important that scientists know which organisms are present in which localities. Autonomous tools like the LRAUV and ESP enable MBARI researchers to maintain a persistent presence in the ocean and monitor changes in sensitive ecosystems in ways that were not possible previously.



“Organisms move as conditions change in our oceans and Great Lakes, affecting the people and economies that rely on those species. We need cheaper and more nimble approaches to monitor biodiversity on a large scale. This study provides the synergistic development of eDNA and uncrewed technologies we need, in direct response to priorities laid out in the&nbsp;<a href="https://sciencecouncil.noaa.gov/Portals/0/Omics%20Strategic%20Plan_Final%20Signed.pdf?ver=2021-01-19-112404-443">NOAA ‘Omics Strategic Plan</a>,” explained study co-author and NOAA scientist Kelly Goodwin.



In the current research, MBARI collaborated with researchers at the NOAA Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory and the University of Washington to complete three expeditions in the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. The teams carried out sample collection via MBARI’s fleet of LRAUVs as well as conducting traditional, ship based sampling using MBARI’s three research vessels and the NOAA Fisheries ship&nbsp;Reuben Lasker. The purpose of this multi-pronged approach was to find out whether the two different sampling procedures produced comparable results in terms of the marine organisms present in the different water samples.&nbsp;



The ship-based researchers lowered bottles to a specific depth to collect and preserve water samples, while LRAUVs equipped with ESP technology autonomously sampled and preserved eDNA at similar locations and depths. The eDNA samples were returned to the lab for in-depth sequencing.



Environmental DNA allows scientists to detect the presence of aquatic species from the tiny bits of genetic material they leave behind. This DNA soup offers clues about biodiversity changes in sensitive areas, the presence of rare or endangered species, and the spread of invasive species – all of which is critical to understanding, promoting, and maintaining a healthy ocean.&nbsp;



In this study, researchers analyzed eDNA samples with a technique known as metabarcoding. This method looks for short sections of DNA, known as gene markers, which are shared by related organisms. In this way the researchers can get an idea of the groups of organisms that are present in the water at each location. This technique enables eDNA data to be interpreted as a measure of biodiversity.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed four different types of gene markers, each representing a slightly different level of the food web. Together, the results yielded a more holistic picture of community composition. The samples collected from research ships and autonomous vehicles revealed similar patterns of biodiversity, which supports the future use of autonomous vehicles for marine sampling and monitoring.



LRAUVs are able to travel for weeks at a time and for hundreds of kilometers underwater. They allow more frequent sampling in areas of interest than do traditional research vessels. Autonomous robots will allow researchers to study previously unsurveyed regions of the ocean and fill in gaps in knowledge about global ocean health. Ship-based research will continue to play an important role in oceanographic studies, but adding new autonomous technology to the toolkit will expand capacity for research, monitoring, and resource management. Ultimately, MBARI researchers envision deploying a fleet of LRAUVs equipped with ESP technology.



Truelove noted that the findings from the study mark an exciting step forward for monitoring marine ecosystems. “This work is all about increasing the scale of eDNA research. Instead of looking at an individual species, we can start to more broadly characterize biological community structure in the ocean,” he said.&nbsp;



“Good data are the bedrock of sustainable ocean management,” said Francisco Chavez, MBARI Senior Scientist and a co-author of the study. “Regular environmental DNA monitoring tells us who is there and what is changing over time. When it comes to understanding the impacts of climate change – one of the biggest threats to ocean health – this information is essential.”



The research is published today in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/edn3.299">Environmental DNA</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Autonomous vehicles will help monitor ocean health

Monitoring marine biodiversity and ocean health usually involves teams of...

A recent study published in <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/401">Acta Neuropathologica</a> has found evidence that some headbutting animals suffer traumatic brain injuries (TBI). This evidence suggests that experts can study the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blueberries-may-protect-our-brains-against-dementia/">brains</a> of these animals to help understand and treat human brain injuries.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Scientists at the <a href="https://icahn.mssm.edu/">Icahn School of Medicine</a> at Mount Sinai studied headbutting animals because they are known to engage in head-on head collisions for reproductive access and high social ranking. Furthermore, these animals’ brains are more relevant to study than previously studied rodent brains, said the researchers.



“One of the difficulties of TBI research is that most of it is performed on smooth, rodent brains. We thought that studying the brains of ramming bovids might provide a better model for understanding TBI in humans," explained study senior author Dr. Patrick R. Hof.



The study had a small sample size that included three musk oxen, four bighorn sheep, and one bison. The researchers analyzed the brains of the animals by scanning them and then treating slices of the brains with antibodies that allow doctors to detect TBI in humans.&nbsp;



Although the brains looked normal and scans revealed no damage, the experts detected damage in the bighorn sheep and musk oxen once they exposed the brain slices to antibodies and put them under microscopes.



"The fact that we detected these antibodies was important. It suggested that the brains of these animals, especially the muskoxen, sustain TBI-like damage," said study lead author Dr. Nicole Ackermans.&nbsp;



“This pattern is sometimes seen in the brains of people who suffer from CTE. Our results open the possibility that these animal’s brains undergo chronic, repetitive damage, as seen in some TBI patients.”



Interestingly, one of the sample brains belonged to an old female muskox. Her brain showed 20 times more damage than an older male and five times more damage than another female, and the experts are not sure why.



Despite the small sample size and unexpected results, the researchers are keen to continue exploring how headbutting bovines can be used to expand treatments for traumatic brain injuries.&nbsp;



“Death and disability caused by traumatic brain injury is a widespread problem that needs better solutions,” said Dr. Ackermans.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Headbutting animals can suffer from traumatic brain injuries

A recent study published in Acta Neuropathologica has found evidence...

Although yawning is a shared trait across multiple species, its evolutionary functions have remained a mystery until now. Scientists have proposed different theories to explain why animals <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-yawn/">yawn</a>, mostly focusing on this behavior’s possible physiological functions, such as replenishing oxygen supplies, cooling the brain, or even stretching the lungs.&nbsp;



A recent study conducted by Andrew C. Gallup, a behavioral scientist at the <a href="https://sunypoly.edu/">State University of New York Polytechnic Institute</a>, has now argued that yawning evolved as a social cue aiming to warn others that an individual is less alert, so they need to be extra vigilant in the lookout for predators. The contagiousness of yawning could in turn enhance group synchrony and collective vigilance.&nbsp;



“Yawning is a neurophysiological adaptation that is omnipresent across vertebrates, and the detection of this action pattern in others appears to be biologically important among social species,” explained Professor Gallup. “[It] serves as a cue that enhances individual vigilance and promotes motor synchrony through contagion.”



Yawns can be either spontaneous or contagious. Since each contagious yawn can be traced back to an original spontaneous yawn, the former must have evolved more recently. “Evidence suggests yawning evolved originally as a spontaneous event, and therefore physiological in nature. Contagious yawning emerged thereafter, and has only been documented in social species,” said Professor Gallup.&nbsp;



Moreover, contagious yawning develops later in ontogeny too, emerging only after infancy. One of the evolutionary functions of this phenomenon appears to be motor and behavioral coordination within social groups (the “synchronization hypothesis”), which could provide survival benefits to the group members. In addition, yawn contagion could also increase collective vigilance against threats such as predators (the “vigilance hypothesis”).



According to Professor Gallup, further analysis of yawning in animals could led to important insights into the social role of this behavior and its function in structuring group dynamics. Clarifying these issues “could offer applications for improving performance in surveillance settings and organized group activities in our own species.”&nbsp;



Bridging human and non-human animal research will provide a deeper understanding of this fascinating behavior that was conserved throughout evolutionary history.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347222000719?via%3Dihub#sec4">Animal Behavior</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Yawning may have evolved to increase group vigilance

Although yawning is a shared trait across multiple species, its...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.sdsu.edu/">San Diego State University</a> (SDSU) has found that contaminants which were banned decades ago are still imperiling California <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/andean-condors-ride-wind-currents-for-hours-at-a-time/">condors</a>, which are already critically endangered. Since they feed upon marine mammals stranded on the Californian coast and harboring high levels of halogenated organic contaminants (HOCs), these condors are at increased risk of reproductive impairment.&nbsp;&nbsp;



California condors were nearly extinct a few decades ago, mostly from lead poisoning due to ingesting fragments from land animals shot with lead ammunition. Fortunately, their population has been slowly recovering thanks to extensive breeding and reintroduction efforts.&nbsp;



Since coastal habitats present a lower risk of exposure to lead because of the availability of marine species that condors can feed on, these sites appeared highly advantageous for condor reintroduction. However, old contaminants detected in marine mammal carcasses are now posing a new threat to coastal condors.



Although HOCs were banned a long time ago, they are highly resistant to environmental degradation and continue to accumulate in marine food webs. Some of these compounds, such as DDT or PCBs, are endocrine-disrupting chemicals, leading to reproductive problems in the animals that consume them.&nbsp;



The scientists found that on the California coast, marine mammals had about seven times more DDT and 3.5 times more PCBs than their counterparts in Baja California, Mexico.



“This kind of broad survey of contaminants shows us that the condors and the marine mammals have a multitude of contaminants that have never really been examined before, especially in detail,” explained senior author Nathan Dodder, an analytical chemist at SDSU. “The non-targeted contaminant analysis we used not only identifies known legacy contaminants, but has the added advantage of identifying novel contaminants, in addition to known but less-examined contaminants that are not routinely screened.”



Dr. Dodder and his colleagues detected an average of 32 contaminants in the coastal condor blood samples, compared to only eight in their inland counterparts. Besides a high prevalence of DDT and PCBs (seven times and 40 times more abundant, respectively, in coastal condors compared to inland ones), other harmful contaminants such as TCMP and TCPMOH have also been found in these birds, posing new threats to an already highly endangered species.



“Some of the contaminants present in marine mammal samples that we collected are ‘unknown’ in terms of their structure and potential to disrupt hormone function,” said study co-author Christopher Tubbs, the associate director of the <a href="https://sandiegozoowildlifealliance.org/">San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance</a>. “This study exclusively looked at one hormone pathway, estrogen, but many of the contaminants identified are well known to interfere with multiple hormone pathways. These warrant further study,” he concluded.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.1c07302">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

California condors are threatened by organic contaminants

A new study led by San Diego State University (SDSU)...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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