Greenland sharks cruise the North Atlantic at a pace slower than most people walk, yet some were already adults when the United States was founded. 



Their astonishing lifespan has turned this elusive fish into a living time capsule, capturing the imagination of biologists and longevity researchers alike.



Julius Nielsen of the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> leads many of the modern expeditions that tag, scan, and sometimes briefly corral these giants in the icy dark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-greenland-sharks-live-so-long">Why Greenland sharks live so long</h2>



<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaf1703" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eye‑lens radiocarbon dating</a> shows females can live at least 272 years, with one specimen estimated at 392 ± 120 years. The method pinpoints birth dates because the lens proteins stop exchanging carbon after a shark pup forms in utero.



“This is the longest living vertebrate that we know of,” said Nielsen, who helped age the record fish. He and colleagues calculate that females do not reach sexual maturity until roughly 150 years, a timetable unheard of in other sharks.



Slow annual growth, barely half an inch, means injuries heal gradually but bones and organs escape the cumulative cellular wear seen in faster‑growing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-skeletons-could-lead-to-technological-innovations/">animals</a>. 



Researchers suspect a combination of frigid water, low oxygen demand, and genes that police DNA damage all contribute, yet no single “silver bullet” for longevity has appeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-sharks-have-slow-heartbeats">Greenland sharks have slow heartbeats</h2>



Greenland sharks have resting <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/221/19/jeb186957/33812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart rates</a> of about 10 beats per minute and unusually low blood pressure. That’s much lower than what you’d find in other large sharks, and it may help protect their blood vessels from long-term damage like heart attacks or strokes.



Even with such a slow heartbeat, each pump moves a lot of blood, keeping their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/different-shark-species-seen-scavenge-feeding-together-in-rare-event/">bodies</a> fueled during slow swimming under Arctic ice. 



Doctors are paying attention, hoping this natural “strong pump, gentle pressure” system could offer ideas for treating high blood pressure in people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-bodies-save-energy">Slow bodies save energy</h2>



These sharks burn energy very slowly. In fact, their oxygen use is among the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-76371-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lowest ever recorded</a> for a fish their size. That kind of slow metabolism may reduce cell damage over time and help them survive long gaps between meals. 



A 280-pound shark might get through the day on fewer calories than a cheeseburger, making a single big meal last for months.



Because the deep Arctic is so cold, they digest food slowly too. Instead of burning energy for speed or growth, they stretch it out for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-sharks-face-growing-threats-despite-conservation-efforts/">survival</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-they-are-toxic-top-predators">Why they are toxic top predators</h2>



Greenland shark meat is laced with <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5127123/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trimethylamine N‑oxide</a>, a compound that stabilizes proteins under high pressure yet renders the raw flesh neurotoxic to mammals.



Icelanders neutralize it through months of fermentation to create the ceremonial dish kæstur hákarl, but few tourists finish more than a nibble.



The species ranks as an apex predator; evidence shows adults seizing fish, squid, and the occasional sleeping seal. 



Sightings in the Gulf of Mexico and off Spain reveal a wider range than once believed, hinting at deep‑water corridors that connect polar and temperate seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-sharks-are-at-risk">Greenland sharks are at risk</h2>



Commercial trawlers unintentionally haul up about 3,500 Greenland <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/melissacristinamarquez/2022/11/07/greenland-shark-finally-gets-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> each year as bycatch. Because breeding may not begin for a century and a half, losing even sub‑adults chips away at population recovery.



The <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/60213/3112909" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> lists the species as “Vulnerable,” citing low fecundity and expanding deep‑sea fisheries. 



Simple changes, switching to LED‑lit nets that deter sharks, banning deep set gill nets in nursery zones, and funding release‑training for crews, can cut mortality without shrinking catches of cod or halibut.



Scientists also urge Arctic nations to establish no‑take refuges around known mating aggregations once those secret sites are found. Protecting a fish that may still be swimming in 2425 demands policies that look far beyond typical political horizons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-for-hidden-nursery-grounds">The search for hidden nursery grounds</h2>



No one has ever observed Greenland sharks mating or giving birth in the wild. Only one pregnant female has been studied, and her embryos suggest the species may be <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/sharpen-your-shark-facts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aplacental viviparous</a>, meaning the young develop inside eggs that hatch within the mother’s body.



Females seem to carry up to 10 pups at a time, but the <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/five-wild-facts-about-shark-reproduction" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gestation period</a> could last several years. Without regular breeding or nursery sightings, it's hard to estimate how often they reproduce or whether their range shifts during these vulnerable periods.



This gap in knowledge makes population modeling difficult. Without better data, scientists can't say how quickly these sharks could recover if current bycatch trends continue. 



Tagging mature females may help reveal mating routes or hidden nursery grounds. Learning how and where they reproduce could play a key role in designing effective marine protected areas.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaf1703" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



Image Credit: Julius Nielsen



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Longest-living vertebrates on Earth survive for centuries in icy waters

Greenland sharks cruise the North Atlantic at a pace slower than most people walk, yet some were already adults when the United States was founded. Their astonishing lifespan has turned this elusive fish into a living time capsule, capturing the imagination of biologists and longevity researchers alike. Julius Nielsen of the University of Copenhagen leads many of the modern expeditions that tag, scan, and sometimes briefly corral these giants in the icy dark. Why Greenland sharks live so long Eye‑lens radiocarbon dating shows females can live at...

More than 160 years after its discovery, the first complete dinosaur skeleton ever identified has been described in great detail. Research from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>, published as four separate studies, reveals what the mysterious <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/birds-got-their-diverse-skulls-in-the-time-of-dinosaurs/">dinosaur</a> looked like, as well as where it falls in the family tree.

The dinosaur, known as Scelidosaurus, was recovered from rocks on the infamous Jurassic Coast. These rocks date back about 193 million years to the Mesozoic Era, which is often called the “Age of Dinosaurs.”

The skeleton was initially sent to Richard Owen - the man who invented the word dinosaur - at the British Museum. Owen published two short papers on the anatomy of the specimen, but some of the most important details were not documented. For example, Owen did not reconstruct the skeleton or analyze the relationships of Scelidosaurus with other dinosaurs.

For the past three years, Dr. David Norman has been preparing a detailed description of Scelidosaurus. The work has revealed that it was an early ancestor of Ankylosaurus, an armor-plated herbivore of the Late Cretaceous Period.

For more than 100 years, dinosaurs have been primarily classified according to the shape of their hip bones as either "lizard-hipped" saurischians or "bird-hipped" ornithischians.

However, Dr. Norman and his team proposed that bird-hipped and lizard-hipped dinosaurs evolved from a common ancestor. The researchers also discovered that the first ornithischians appeared in the Early Jurassic Period. 

"Scelidosaurus is just such a dinosaur and represents a species that appeared at, or close to, the evolutionary 'birth' of the Ornithischia," said Dr. Norman. "Given that context, what was actually known of Scelidosaurus? The answer is remarkably little!"

"Nobody knew that the skull had horns on its back edge. It had several bones that have never been recognized in any other dinosaur. It's also clear from the rough texturing of the skull bones that it was, in life, covered by hardened horny scutes, a little bit like the scutes on the surface of the skulls of living turtles. In fact, its entire body was protected by skin that anchored an array of stud-like bony spikes and plates."

Scelidosaurus was regarded for many years as an early relative of the family that includes Stegosaurus, but the new investigation suggests that the dinosaur is an ancestor of Ankylosaurus alone.

"It is unfortunate that such an important dinosaur, discovered at such a critical time in the early study of dinosaurs, was never properly described," said Dr. Norman. "It has now - at last! - been described in detail and provides many new and unexpected insights concerning the biology of early dinosaurs and their underlying relationships. It seems a shame that the work was not done earlier but, as they say, better late than never."

The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean">Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Scientists describe the first complete dinosaur skeleton ever identified

More than 160 years after its discovery, the first complete...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.umt.edu/">University of Montana</a> describes a previously unknown strategy used by tropical songbirds to adjust to the stress of climate change. The researchers have discovered that these birds reduce their reproductive activity during severe <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/latest-climate-models-show-more-intense-droughts-ahead/">droughts</a>, and this actually works to their advantage.

"We were extremely surprised to find that not only did reductions in breeding activity mitigate costs to survival, many long-lived species actually experienced higher survival rates during the drought year than during non-drought years," said study co-author Thomas Martin. "In contrast, shorter-lived species that kept breeding during droughts faced strong reductions in survival."

Over the course of his career, Martin has spent months at a time living in remote jungles to study birds. For the current investigation, he observed 38 different tropical bird species in Venezuela and Malaysia over multiple years. At each field site, there was one drought year during the study period.

The scientists modeled future population results for the birds using three different climate change scenarios. They monitored nests of each species to evaluate reproductive activity before and during the droughts. The researchers also marked birds with colored material to estimate survival rates. 

The analysis revealed that drought reduced reproduction by an average of 36 percent in the Malaysian species and by 52 percent in the Venezuelan species.

"The negative impacts of drought on survival are well documented," said  Martin. "We therefore also expected the droughts to reduce survival, but thought that the reduced breeding activity might limit the decrease in survival."

He said the population impacts of droughts were largely offset by the reproductive behavioral shifts in longer-lived species, but shorter-lived species did not benefit as much.

"Overall, our results have several major implications," said Martin. "First, we show that understanding behavioral responses to drought are critical for predicting population responses. Behavioral responses to environmental conditions can help buffer the most sensitive vital rates for a given species and mitigate the overall effect on fitness."

"Second, our results provide unique support to the idea that reproduction can negatively affect survival. This idea of a 'cost of reproduction' is central to life history theory but only rarely documented in wild populations."

The research suggests that many longer-lived tropical songbirds may actually be more resilient to droughts than previously expected.

"Ultimately, we hope our study can help motivate future studies into behavioral and demographic responses to shifting patterns of rainfall in more species so we can better anticipate the different impacts of climate change among species," said Martin.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate">Nature Climate Change</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Tropical songbirds reproduce less during severe droughts

A new study from the University of Montana describes a...

How and why do dogs and other animals know when to shed their fur for the spring and summer months? Mystery solved! Scientists at the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a> have determined how <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sea-creatures-built-ecosystems-that-diversified-ocean-life/">animals</a> prepare for seasonal changes, such as growing a warm winter coat, depending on the length of the day. The researchers discovered a biological switch which initiates changes that are critical fur survival. 

"The genetic 'flip-flop' timer we have identified is key to functions such as fertility as sheep transition between winter and summer. We speculate that this genetic timer is likely to be fundamental to yearly changes in many species," said study co-lead author Professor Andrew Loudon.

The experts analyzed the brain activity of sheep as they experienced short winter days with less sunlight versus long summer days with more light. The team found that these neural responses govern seasonal changes, as well as key behaviors like breeding cycles.

The circadian clock controls hormone cycles and influences the timing of important activities, such as eating and sleeping. These circadian rhythms, which are influenced by genetics, follow a daily cycle based on light and darkness.

Seasonal changes between winter and summer that are similar to daily circadian rhythms have also been observed in animals, but scientists were not sure which factors may be affecting these biological shifts.

The research team looked at activity in the pituitary gland, which is an endocrine gland attached to the brain, as sheep were exposed to short or long days.

The experts analyzed brain tissue to examine changes in gene activity over time. This allowed the scientists to observe the biological processes that happen in response to long or short days.

The study revealed that one of two possible biological mechanisms is activated within the pituitary gland depending on the length of the day. 

During the long days of summer, the brain generates hormones that cause a cascade of gene activity leading to biological characteristics associated with summer. When days are short, the switch is flipped. On shorter days, night-time hormones are released, triggering biological processes linked to winter.

The study showed that both processes involved a circadian gene known as BMAL2.in the sheep brain. This circadian gene is also present in other animal brains, which may ultimately explain the timing of seasonal adaptations in a number of species such as birds, reptiles, and mammals.

"Fluctuations in hormones and behavior are part of a delicate biological orchestra that is crucial to life. Many animals depend on seasonal changes in their biology to survive and our findings are a crucial part of the puzzle to understand the underlying processes,' said study co-lead author Professor Simone Meddle.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Animals' biological switch prepares them for seasonal changes

How and why do dogs and other animals know when...

The vast majority of people who own bulldogs, French bulldogs, and pugs say they would own these breeds again and would recommend them to prospective dog owners, according to a study published by <a href="https://plos.org/">PLOS</a>. Such widespread loyalty to brachycephalic, or flat-faced, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dogs-improve-social-and-emotional-well-being-in-children/">dogs</a> suggests that the popularity of these breeds will persist despite some shocking health risks.

The demand for brachycephalic dogs has exploded in recent years, even though these breeds are strongly predisposed to a range of serious health conditions such as pneumonia, respiratory disease, heat stroke, eye disease, and spinal disease. Compared to other breeds with longer muzzles, bulldogs and pugs have shorter lifespans by about four years.

Some veterinarians consider these health concerns to be too risky to continue breeding flat-faced dogs. To make matters worse, owners of pets with chronic illnesses often experience psychological distress and have a lower quality of life.

Researchers led by Rowena Packer of the <a href="https://www.rvc.ac.uk/">Royal Veterinary College</a> set out to investigate breed loyalty among brachycephalic dog owners to gain a better understanding of why the dogs are so popular. The team also wanted to know whether the popularity of bulldogs and pugs is likely to persist.

"Although dog breed popularity often follows a boom and bust pattern, our results are of real concern as they indicate that this 'brachy boom' is here to stay," wrote the study authors. "Owners are becoming hooked on the loving personalities of these sweet dogs, but also accepting and normalizing their shocking health issues."

The researchers surveyed more than 2,000 owners and found that 93 percent would choose to own their current breed again in the future. About 66 percent of the respondents said they would recommend a bulldog or pug to a potential first-time dog owner. Owners often said they would recommend their breed as a great companion dog or for households with children. 

"Five themes described why owners recommended against their breed: high prevalence of health problems, expense of ownership, ethical and welfare issues associated with breeding brachycephalic dogs, negative effects upon owner lifestyle, and negative behavioral attributes," wrote the study authors.

"Understanding how breed-loyalty develops, and whether it can be attenuated, will be key to controlling the current population boom in brachycephalic breeds in the long-term."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Bulldogs are popular despite frightening health issues

The vast majority of people who own bulldogs, French bulldogs,...

Sea turtles will lose habitats due to climate change and coastal development. Some sea turtles will lose a significant amount of suitable nesting habitat in the United States due to the pressures of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-climate-and-land-use-could-lead-to-catastrophic-levels-of-soil-erosion/">climate</a> change and coastal development. Researchers led by <a href="https://admissions.fsu.edu/">Florida State University</a> found that even in areas that will remain or become suitable despite climate change, increased development will make it difficult for sea turtles to adapt.

Study lead author Mariana Fuentes is an assistant professor of Oceanography in the FSU Department of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Science.

"A reduction in available nesting habitat coupled with the pressures associated with coastal development could likely have detrimental impacts on the reproductive output of sea turtle nesting areas in the U.S. and population stability," said Professor Fuentes. 

The researchers used computer models to simulate future climate and sea-level conditions on the East Coast through 2050 to estimate the suitable coastal habitats for loggerhead, green, and leatherback sea turtle nesting,

The results varied across different regions, but the overall outcome was the same - decreasing suitable nesting grounds accompanied by increasing pressure from coastal development.

Loggerhead turtles will see a decrease of about 10 percent in suitable nesting areas in Florida, South Carolina, and North Carolina. Green turtles will see some improved nesting habitat in southwest Florida, but less suitable habitat elsewhere. Meanwhile, leatherback turtles will not experience major changes in the availability of suitable areas through 2050.

Sea turtles need certain climate conditions for egg incubation, but will face shifting temperatures and levels of precipitation at climate change. The study showed that about 80 percent of habitat that will have a suitable climate for nesting will be submerged by sea level rise. Sea turtles will lose habitats due to climate change and coastal development

The researchers also found that sea level rise will more than compensate for the area it submerges by creating new beaches. In most of these areas, however, coastal development will impact how well the sea turtles function at their nesting sites.

The team identified a few regions in North and South Carolina that are projected to have high climate suitability for sea turtle egg incubation, little risk from sea-level rise, and no substantial housing growth. Pinpointing these optimal nesting habitats could inform management and conservation policies.

In places where coastal development is expected to add pressure to sea turtles, management strategies are needed to help minimize the impacts of human activity. These strategies could include turtle-friendly lighting, beach debris removal, and the protection of nesting areas.

"Sea turtles have existed for millions of years, and they have persisted through dramatic changes in climate in the past," said Professor Fuentes. "They have the ability to adapt to changing conditions, but coastal development and the unprecedented speed of current climate change are things they have never had to deal with, which may hinder their ability to adapt to the future."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/10113">Regional Environmental Change</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

&nbsp;

Sea turtles will lose habitats due to climate change and coastal development

Sea turtles will lose habitats due to climate change and...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.uark.edu/">University of Arkansas</a>, scientists have re-analyzed fossils from a significant site in Romania that date back to the early <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/predators-pleistocene-flexible-diets/">Pleistocene</a> two million years ago. The study revealed that there was a stunning collection of animals in Eastern Europe at this time, including giraffes with short necks, large monkeys, rhinos, and saber-toothed cats.

"The Early Pleistocene of Eurasia is marked by significant climatic, environmental, and faunal shifts and is the time during which Homo first appears in the Eurasian fossil record," wrote the study authors. 

"To better characterize the environments that were available to these hominins, accurate data regarding the faunal composition of eastern European sites are necessary, as this is the region through which Homo is hypothesized to have dispersed into Europe."

The researchers hope the fossils will ultimately provide new insight into how and when early humans migrated to Eurasia from Africa. Understanding these types of past environments will help scientists predict future climate changes.

"My colleagues and I are excited to draw attention back to the fossil site of Grăunceanu and the fossil potential of the Olteţ River Valley (ORV) of Romania," said study co-author Professor Claire Terhune. 

"It's such a diverse faunal community. We found multiple animals that hadn't been clearly identified in the area before, and many that are no longer found in Europe at all. Of course, we think these findings alone are interesting, but they also have important implications for early humans moving into the continent at that time."

&nbsp;

Around 125 miles west of the Romanian capital of Bucharest, the ORV is one of Eastern Europe's richest fossil sites. Many these fossil deposits, including Grăunceanu, were discovered after landslides in the 1960s. The landslides were partly triggered by deforestation due to the expansion of agricultural activity in the region.

&nbsp;

Archeologists and paleontologists from the Emil Racovi Institute of Speleology excavated the sites soon after they were discovered. Decades later, an international research team including Professor Terhune and researchers from Romania, Sweden, and France has turned its attention to this important fossil region. The experts havely extensively analyzed the fossil collection and conducted additional field work.

Remarkably, the researchers also identified the fossil remains of animals that are similar to modern-day deer, pigs, ostriches, horses, and bison, among others. 

The study is published in <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/quaternary-international">Quaternary International</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Eastern Europe had a stunning collection of animals two million years ago

In a new study from the University of Arkansas, scientists...

Some experts theorize that in the past, climate change promoted the evolution of new species in the tropics, contributing to the rich <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-loss-in-smaller-habitats-is-underestimated/">biodiversity</a> found near the equator. if that was the case, however, the trend is now shifting. New research has confirmed that climate change is rapidly forcing waterbirds to move away from the world's tropical regions and toward the poles.

An international team of scientists led by Dr. Tatsuya Amano of the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> reviewed more than a million records of waterbird species and determined that temperature increase is drastically affecting the abundance of equatorial species.

"Using 1,303,651 count records of 390 species, we show that with temperature increase, the abundance of species and populations decreased at lower latitudes, particularly in the tropics, but increased at higher latitudes. These contrasting latitudinal responses indicate potential global-scale poleward shifts of species abundance under climate change," wrote the researchers.

"The negative responses to temperature increase in tropical species are of conservation concern, as they are often also threatened by other anthropogenic factors."

For example, another major cause of biodiversity loss in recent years is habitat destruction and degradation caused primarily by land-use changes, including urbanization and deforestation.

Dr. Amano said the findings of the UQ study show climate change continues to pose a serious threat to biodiversity.

"There's an urgent need to understand how species respond to changing climates on a global scale. Earlier global reviews have rarely included species and studies in the tropics - being largely conducted in Europe, North America, Australia and the Arctic."

"As a result, although tropical species have long been predicted to be more vulnerable to increasing temperature, there was little empirical evidence on how climate change really affects species abundance in the tropics."

The investigation was focused on data collected by the International Waterbird Census and Christmas Bird Count since 1990. An analysis of this data revealed that 69 percent of the tropical species exhibited negative responses to temperature increases.

"The global dataset of waterbird abundance is the fruit of invaluable, long-term survey efforts in over 100 countries and covers regions for which there is little information on climate change impacts," said Dr. Amano.

"Waterbirds can be observed relatively easily, offering an early proxy for climate change impacts on other species. They help us assess the status of biodiversity in wetland ecosystems, which has been lost at higher rates than other ecosystems."

Dr Amano said he hoped the findings will help strengthen the case for real action on a warming climate.

"Large species shifts and loss can have serious consequences not only for biodiversity, but also for human well-being. Our findings are a step forward, but it would be great to see this area receive more research attention, especially in the tropics," said Dr. Armano.

"Further studies could provide crucial evidence for a more effective allocation of limited resources for the conservation of species and ecosystems most threatened by climate change, and for assessing how these changes in biodiversity may affect human societies."

The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate">Nature Climate Change</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Waterbirds are being forced out of the tropics by climate change

Some experts theorize that in the past, climate change promoted...

Several critically endangered species may have a high risk of COVID-19 infection, according to new research from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a>. 

An international team of scientists conducted a genetic study of 410 different species of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/humans-could-wipe-out-billions-of-years-of-evolution-among-vertebrates/">vertebrates</a>, including birds, fish, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals to determine which may be most vulnerable to SARS-CoV-2.

In humans, the ACE2 protein that serves as the cellular gateway for COVID-19 contains 25 amino acids that are important for the virus to bind and gain entry into the body. The genomic analysis was designed to investigate how many of these amino acids are found in the ACE2 proteins of the different species.

"Animals with all 25 amino acid residues matching the human protein are predicted to be at the highest risk for contracting SARS-CoV-2 via ACE2," said study first author Joana Damas. "The risk is predicted to decrease the more the species' ACE2 binding residues differ from humans."

The study revealed that about 40 percent of the species potentially susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 are classified as "threatened" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. These animals may be particularly vulnerable to human-to-animal transmission. 

"The data provide an important starting point for identifying vulnerable and threatened animal populations at risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection," said study lead author Professor Harris Lewin. "We hope it inspires practices that protect both animal and human health during the pandemic."

The researchers found that several critically endangered primate species have the highest risk of COVID-19, including the Western lowland gorilla, Sumatran orangutan, and Northern white-cheeked gibbon.

Marine mammals such as gray whales and bottlenose dolphins  were also identified as having the highest risk of infection.

Cats, cattle, and sheep were determined to have a medium risk of ACE2 binding, while dogs, horses, and pigs were found to have a low risk. 

Further research is needed to better understand the implications of the findings. In documented cases of SARS-COV-2 infection in animals such as cats, dogs, hamsters, and tigers, the virus may be using ACE2 receptors or may be using different receptors to gain access to host cells. 

The National Zoo and the San Diego Zoo, which both contributed genetic material to the study, are among many institutions that have strengthened programs to protect both animals and humans from COVID-19.

"Zoonotic diseases and how to prevent human to animal transmission is not a new challenge to zoos and animal care professionals," said study co-author Klaus-Peter Koepfli. "This new information allows us to focus our efforts and plan accordingly to keep animals and humans safe."

The researchers said the predicted animal risks should not be overinterpreted, as more studies are needed to determine the susceptibility of animals to SARS-CoV-2.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Several endangered species may be vulnerable to COVID-19

Several critically endangered species may have a high risk of...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en">University of Helsinki</a> has demonstrated that active dogs are less afraid of the world. A behavioral survey of nearly 14,000 dogs revealed that non-social <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-fear-can-be-erased-from-our-memories/">fears</a> among dogs are related to their living environment, lifestyle, and breed.

Noise sensitivity, fear of new situations, and fear of heights are common behavioral issues for dogs. The new research has shown that active dogs who were well-trained as puppies are less likely to exhibit these types of fears.

"Physical exercise has been shown to have a positive effect on the mood in both dogs and humans," said study co-author Emma Hakanen. "As social animals, dogs enjoy doing things with their owners. At the same time, people do not necessarily wish to subject fearful dogs to training situations that are stressful for them. This can also make owners less inclined to train with their dog."

The survey responses indicated that puppies who were not sufficiently socialized and introduced to new environments were much more likely to be afraid of loud noises, unfamiliar situations, and various walking surfaces.

The fear of fireworks and walking surfaces was most prevalent among dogs who belonged to first-time owners, and there were differences between dogs who lived in the country and the city.

Study lead author Hannes Lohi is a professor of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Helsinki. The research is part of Professor Lohi's Academy of Finland project, which investigates the environmental and genetic factors that influence canine behavior.

"Our prior research on the environmental effects of social fear observed the same phenomena where urban dogs were more fearful than their rural counterparts," said Professor Logo. 

"Indeed, it is interesting that human mental health problems too occur more frequently in the city than in rural areas. The ways in which our environment shapes us and our best friend is definitely an interesting topic for further research."

The investigation confirmed the findings of previous studies that fearfulness is most common in sterilized females and small dogs. Fearfulness was found to vary substantially across different dog breeds. Cairn Terriers ranked among the most fearful breeds and Chinese Crested Dogs ranked among the least fearful.

"The breed-specific differences support the idea that fearfulness is inherited. In other words, breeding choices matter, even without knowing the exact mechanisms of inheritance," said Professor Logo. 

"However, this study offers dog owners tools and support for previous notions related to improving the wellbeing of their dogs. Diverse socialization in puppyhood and an active lifestyle can significantly reduce social and non-social fearfulness."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Active dogs have less fear

A new study from the University of Helsinki has demonstrated...

Why do zebras have their iconic black and white stripes? After more than a decade of research, experts at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> are still working to prove that zebra stripes emerged as a defense mechanism against parasitic <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-reveal-mercury-pollution-levels-in-national-parks/">flies</a>.

"Not only do these exciting studies bring us closer to understanding one of the world's most iconic and photogenic species, they will be of great interest to farmers attempting to reduce the damage caused by fly bites and even general horse-wear companies," said study co-senior author Professor Caro.

There are many theories about the purpose of zebra stripes, ranging from their potential role in social interactions to the idea that they act as a camouflage that confuses large predators. But Professor Caro and his colleagues have examined and discredited many of these theories, and believe that the stripes evolved to help zebras evade biting flies that carry deadly diseases.

The researchers previously showed that when blood-sucking horseflies approached horses wearing striped rugs versus solid ones, they failed to slow down in time to land on the horses. The stripes were found to dazzle the flies, forcing them to collide with the skin or simply fly away.

In a new paper, the Bristol scientists have explored this concept even further by testing out an optical illusion known as the aperture effect.

"The aperture effect is a well-known optical illusion that, in human vision, is also known as the barber-pole effect," said study lead author Dr. Martin How. "Moving stripes, such as those on the rotating barber-pole signs outside barbershops, appear to move at right angles to the stripe, rather than in their true direction, so the pole appears to move upwards, rather than around its axle."

"We set out to see if this illusion also takes place in the eyes of biting flies as they come to land on striped hosts. As any fly approaches a landing surface, it will adjust its speed according to how quickly the surface expands across its vision, enabling a slowed and controlled landing."

"Stripes however could disrupt this 'optic flow' through the aperture effect, leading the fly to believe the landing surface is further away than reality. Thus, the fly fails to slow down or land successfully."

For the current investigation, the team observed horsefly behavior among horses wearing gray coats, striped coats, and checkered rugs. 

Since the checkered pattern provides the flies with visual input that is free from the aperture effect, it would seem that the flies could land on checkered coats without difficulty.

However, the flies were just as confused by the checkered patterns as they were by the striped ones and hardly landed on these types of rugs at all. 

If other patterns beside stripes can deter horseflies, this means that the aperture effect is not the mechanism that links zebra stripes and fly confusion. 

Regardless, the strongest theory of why zebra stripes emerged is for protection from horseflies.

"Horseflies in Africa carry diseases that are lethal to members of the horse family - the equidae. The pressures on not being bitten by these flies are therefore very strong," Professor Caro told <a href="https://www.cnn.com/">CNN</a>.

"Evolution will fine tune the coat patterning to what is most effective in stopping flies landing - given developmental constraints of how patterns develop in utero. Our research and that of colleagues show that stripes do this job very well."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Why the zebra got its stripes: to dazzle horseflies

Why do zebras have their iconic black and white stripes?...

Researchers have found that the life cycles of bees and flowering plants are not always synchronized as a result of climate change. Some <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-is-wiping-out-bees-and-other-wild-pollinators/">pollinators</a> are now emerging later than their sources of nectar and pollen.

The study, conducted by Michael Stemkovski of <a href="https://www.usu.edu/">Utah State University</a> and Professor Rebecca Irwin of North Carolina State University, was focused on 67 bee species in the Colorado Rockies.

The experts say that a  "phenological mismatch," which alters the timing of life cycles between bees and flowers, has the potential to disrupt this mutually beneficial relationship altogether.

The researchers analyzed data collected from sites around Colorado's Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, and found that bee emergence is advancing with the timing of snowmelt. However, the seasonal variation in the life cycles of plants are more sensitive to global warming.

"We analyzed time-series abundance data collected at 18 sites around the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory (RMBL) in the Elk Mountains of western Colorado during a nine-year, National Science Foundation-funded bee monitoring project," said Stemkovski.

"We find bee emergence timing is advancing with snowmelt timing, but bee phenology - timing of emergence, peak abundance and senescence - is less sensitive than flower phenology," said Professor Irwin. "Given global concerns about pollinator declines, the research provides important insight into the potential for reduced synchrony between flowers and their pollinators under climate change."

According to Stemkovski, previous studies were primarily focused on temperature, but this study also accounted for the effects of topography and bee species traits.

"Elevation played a large role in when bees started foraging, as well as the bees' functional traits, such as whether bees nested below or above ground, and the life stage in which they overwintered," said Stemvokvski. "We found all of these factors predicted bee emergence, but the most important factor was snowmelt timing."

If bees begin foraging later than plants reach their flowering peak in the spring, this will reduce the abundance of pollinators as well as plants.

"In the short-term, we expect mutualist species to suffer fitness losses," said Stemkovski. "In the long-term, bees and plants may be able to adapt and reestablish some synchrony, unless climate change outpaces the rate of adaptation."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14610248">Ecology Letters</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Climate change is altering the life cycles of bees and plants

Researchers have found that the life cycles of bees and...

Seabirds often mistake plastic debris for food, and ingestion poses many health risks to the animals such as intestinal blockages. A new study has shown, for the first time, that plastic waste can release potentially harmful <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-produce-medically-valuable-chemicals/">chemicals</a> into the stomach fluid of seabirds for extended periods of time.

The findings highlight the urgent need to reduce plastic pollution in our oceans and to dispose of our waste more responsibly. As levels of marine plastic pollution continue to grow, so do the threats to wildlife.

Pieces of plastic can remain in birds' intestines for long periods of time, and scientists are now concerned that the plastic is capable of releasing harmful chemicals.

"I've been working on northern fulmars for almost 10 years," said study lead author Susanne Kühn of the Wageningen Marine Research in the Netherlands. "As these seabirds ingest plastics regularly, and 93% of the fulmars from the North Sea have some plastic in their stomachs, it is important to understand the potential harm this could cause."

The researchers set out to investigate whether plastics may release chemicals after being eaten by fulmars. 

The team replicated the conditions found in the fulmar stomach, as well as the plastic debris that the seabirds ingest. The experts collected stomach oil, a nutrient-rich liquid found in the fulmar stomach, from hunters in the Faroe Islands.

"Previous studies have typically used uniform plastic pellets, sometimes artificially contaminated, which is not representative of plastic found in the sea," explained Kühn. "Instead, we went beach combing and found a variety of plastic types and shapes to create a marine plastic sample that a fulmar might realistically ingest."

After covering the plastic samples in stomach oil, the researchers mimicked the temperature and levels of agitation that can be found in the fulmar stomach. Next, the team chwmically analyzed the oil at different points in time to determine whether chemicals had leached out of the plastic.

The study revealed that the plastic released a variety of chemicals in the stomach oil over time. In some cases, foreign chemicals leaked from the plastics for more than three months. The chemicals turned out to be additives such as plasticizers, flame retardants, and stabilizers.

The team was shocked to find that the stomach oil of fulmar chicks already contained plastic-derived chemicals before the experiments, indicating that their parents had mistakenly feed them plastic waste.

While the long-term health implications are unclear, previous studies have shown that several of the leached chemicals can disrupt hormones and reproduction among seabirds and may have genetic effects in birds.

The research suggests that the impacts of plastic pollution on birds are not limited to immediate effects, such as entanglement, but have the potential to be much longer lasting.

"I hope that these results will increase awareness of the various negative effects of plastic debris in the oceans," said Kühn. "We urgently need to reduce the amount of plastic in the marine environment."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/environmental-science">Frontiers in Environmental Science</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Chemicals from plastics leak into seabird stomachs over time

Seabirds often mistake plastic debris for food, and ingestion poses...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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