Rats scurry through alleyways, tunnels, and parks. While these creatures are a common sight in city life, their movements may carry far more danger than many realize. 



A newly published six-year study reveals how rat migrations within cities contribute to the spread of a serious bacterial infection called leptospirosis - a disease that can be fatal for both humans and animals.



In this study, scientists from <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tufts University</a>, along with researchers from Northern Arizona University, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), worked together to track the spread of leptospirosis in Boston. 



The team also introduced a new way to test rat kidneys for this disease-causing bacteria, a method that may change how future infections are traced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-leptospirosis">What is leptospirosis?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-and-shrews-living-close-together-trade-gut-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leptospirosis</a> is caused by a bacterium that often thrives in rats. It's spread primarily through rat urine, which contaminates soil, water, and other parts of the environment. From there, it can infect humans, dogs, and other animals. 



While common in tropical areas, this disease is now appearing more in colder regions, likely due to the warming effects of climate change.



In Boston, the disease has been found in the city’s rat populations, with various strains moving between neighborhoods as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shipping-superhighways-helped-brown-rats-conquer-north-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats migrate</a>. 



The research team was able to genetically link a 2018 human case of leptospirosis in Boston to infected rats in the same area, confirming a strong connection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-a-hidden-bacteria-in-rats">Tracking a hidden bacteria in rats</h2>



From 2016 to 2022, researchers worked with Boston’s Inspectional Services Department to trap and test rats from 17 different sites. 



They collected and analyzed DNA from the kidneys of 328 rats. Out of those, 59 rats - covering 12 different sites - tested positive for the Leptospira bacteria. Culturing this bacterium is no easy task. 



Marike Rosenbaum is an assistant professor in the Department of Infectious Disease and Global Health at Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University.



“The primary way to get a full genomic sequence of a virus or bacteria is to culture it, which was a challenge in this case because Leptospira is considered a fastidious organism. It has specific requirements for temperature, pH, and nutrients," said Rosenbaum.



"But our USDA collaborators cultured the bacteria from not only fresh but also frozen rodent kidneys, which has never been reported in the literature before, to get isolates."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-the-whole-genome">Using the whole genome</h2>



Experts at Northern Arizona University’s Pathogen &amp; Microbiome Institute used specialized DNA techniques to isolate and enhance the bacterial genetic material. This allowed researchers to gather a detailed view of how the bacteria spread and evolve.



“The new genetic and tools that we developed and used in this study are real game changers for leptospirosis research, as we can now use the power of the whole genome to look for relatedness among samples, something that just wasn’t possible before,” said Dr. Dave Wagner, executive director of the PMI at NAU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-movement-of-disease">Mapping the movement of disease</h2>



By combining genetic sequencing with information on rat migration, the team was able to see how leptospirosis travels through the city. 



“Because we were able to do the culturing and the sequencing, we were able to look more closely at how the different strains of leptospirosis are related, which helps us understand how the bacteria are getting transmitted between rats and rat populations in the city,” Rosenbaum said.



This information could help shape better strategies for controlling rat populations and minimizing human exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-human-health">Threats to human health </h2>



The researchers also studied a single human case of leptospirosis in Boston, working with the CDC to analyze the bacterial strain. They compared it to those found in local rats. 



The result was striking: the strain in the human was nearly identical to those found in three rats from the same area, even though those rats were collected in different years. "It's very strong evidence that the source of that human case was a rat,” said Rosenbaum.



Not every case of leptospirosis is detected. Some people may have no symptoms at all. Others might feel slightly sick before recovering. However, a small number of infections lead to serious complications - including organ failure or even death.



“Human exposure to rats is not very common. But certain populations might be at higher risk, like unhoused people or people who engage in outdoor injection drug use, which are situations that lead to more direct contact with rats,” said Rosenbaum.



Diagnosing leptospirosis is tricky. Many doctors don’t think to test for it unless they suspect exposure. And even when they do, antibiotic treatment can eliminate the bacteria before it shows up on a test. 



Positive results also aren’t always reported to public health databases, making it harder to track.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-how-rats-travel">Understanding how rats travel</h2>



The research also uncovered how rats move throughout Boston. “Rats have a high degree of genetic structure, which means there are distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rat-populations-are-increasing-in-cities-as-temperatures-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rat populations throughout the city</a> that are highly related to each other,” Rosenbaum explained.



These populations don’t mix often. But when rats do migrate - due to construction, habitat disruption, or environmental changes - they can carry bacteria with them. Each rat group tends to maintain its own unique strain of leptospirosis over time.



A rat in Boston typically needs to travel over 600 meters - more than a third of a mile - to encounter a genetically different group. Wide roads limit this movement, while green spaces and corridors make it easier for them to spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eradicating-rats-isn-t-the-answer">Eradicating rats isn’t the answer</h2>



The goal is not to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rat-eradication-is-beneficial-for-seabirds-and-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eradicate rats</a> entirely. That would be nearly impossible. Instead, scientists want to understand how different pest control methods affect rat migration and disease spread.



“Extermination is not realistic,” Rosenbaum said. “But I think better understanding of how the different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eco-friendly-pest-control-this-simple-cinnamon-trick-keeps-mice-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pest control</a> interventions are impacting rat migrations and transmission of pathogens amongst the rat population would be really helpful.”



By combining genetic science, city mapping, and public health, this study sheds new light on how a quiet pest in our cities can carry a very loud threat - one that deserves more attention.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0012966" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Rats are spreading a deadly disease across cities

Rats scurry through alleyways, tunnels, and parks. While these creatures are a common sight in city life, their movements may carry far more danger than many realize. A newly published six-year study reveals how rat migrations within cities contribute to the spread of a serious bacterial infection called leptospirosis - a disease that can be fatal for both humans and animals. In this study, scientists from Tufts University, along with researchers from Northern Arizona University, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the Centers for Disease...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.duke.edu/">Duke University</a> have found that trace elements in fish ear bones can be used to track down <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/trumps-epa-coal-plants/">coal ash contamination</a> in the waters where the fish lived.

“Calcified structures - or otoliths - found in a fish's inner ear are known to store a lot of life history information, including chemical and physical records of the fish's age, natal habitat and migration patterns,” said study lead author Jessica Brandt, who is currently a postdoctoral researcher with the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/">U.S. Geological Survey</a>. “We've shown that otoliths also capture the signatures of contaminants that have affected the fish's ecosystems.”

The team discovered that strontium isotope ratios in the otoliths of fish from two North Carolina lakes matched the strontium isotope ratios in sediment samples from the lake bed. Both of the lakes had received waste water from coal ash ponds at nearby power plants.

“This shows otoliths can be used as biogenic tracers to assess the potential for ecological impacts of coal ash waste streams in affected waters,” said Brandt. “While strontium behaves differently than the toxic elements in coal ash effluents, it helps us connect high levels of those elements back to the contamination source.”

Even after coal is burned and the ash comes into contact with water, the naturally occurring trace element strontium retains its isotopic ratios. According to study co-author Professor Avner Vengosh, this is the first time that strontium isotope ratios have been used to measure the impacts of coal ash on living organisms. 

“This definitely shows the strontium in the fish must be from coal ash contamination,” said Professor Vengosh.

Study co-author Richard Di Giulio is the Sally Kleberg Professor of Environmental Toxicology at Duke. He explained that while strontium isotope ratios in surface water samples from the lakes did not always match those in the fish otoliths, this could be because surface water ratios are more variable over time.

“This study's finding demonstrates that otolith studies can add to our existing research efforts,” said Brandt. “Water-based strontium isotope tracers only give us information about coal ash impacts at a particular point in time, but because otoliths continuously grow over a fish's lifetime, we could use time-series analyses of otoliths to determine the timing of waste stream discharges or spills going back several years. This represents an emerging and important new direction in environmental toxicology and water-quality research.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/estlcu">Environmental Science &amp; Technology Letters</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Jessica Brandt, Duke University

Coal ash contamination in water can be tracked using fish bones

Researchers at Duke University have found that trace elements in...

A team of researchers has identified ways that human interactions with nonhuman primates may be putting people at risk of infection with new diseases. Zoonotic diseases, which originate in other animal species before infecting humans, are a major threat to human health.  

Zoonotic diseases account for more than 60 percent of emerging infectious diseases, and 70 percent of them are believed to come from wild animals. The similarity between humans and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/small-babies-laugh-primates/">nonhuman primates</a> makes monkeys and apes ideal carriers for pathogens that threaten human populations.

A team led by Tamara Giles-Vernick of the <a href="https://www.pasteur.fr/en">Institut Pasteur</a> and Victor Narat of the <a href="http://www.cnrs.fr/index.html">French Center for National Scientific Research</a> used surveys, real-time data collection, and oral history interviews to investigate the physical exposure of people in southeastern Cameroon to nonhuman primate species. The researchers collected data in 2016 and 2017 that involved multiple villages and hundreds of people.

The investigation revealed that Cameroonian adults have frequent physical contact with primates, particularly with monkeys. This contact is most often through hunting, butchering, preparing, and consuming meat, but also includes injuries sustained from gorillas. 

Of the survey respondents, 85 percent had eaten primate meat in their lifetimes. Overall, the risk of exposure to disease in any given village was found to be directly linked to the relative density of nonhuman primates and their proximity to human settlements.

“National and international authorities should support improved surveillance of humans and abundant monkey species, as well as popular messages to promote safe meat handling practices,” wrote the researchers. “Multidisciplinary social science and ecological approaches should be used to improve surveillance and communications with forest populations about neglected tropical diseases.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosntds/">PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: S. Rupp, 2018 (CC BY 4.0)

Human contact with primates is promoting the spread of disease

A team of researchers has identified ways that human interactions...

A research team led by scientists from <a href="https://www.uu.se/en">Uppsala University</a> has sequenced the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/decoded-genomes-shark-evolution/">genomes</a> of 11 eastern gorillas using specimens that date back as far as 100 years for comparison to the genomes of present-day gorillas. The study revealed that the Grauer's gorilla, which is classified as critically endangered, has recently lost genetic diversity and has accumulated harmful mutations.

“We found that the genetic diversity in Grauer's gorilla has declined significantly in just a few generations,” said PhD student Tom van der Valk.

Habitat destruction and poaching in the Democratic Republic of the Congo has led to an 80 percent decline of Grauer's gorillas in recent decades. The genetic analysis showed that this dramatic population decline increased the frequency of inbreeding, leading to a loss of genetic variation. 

Animal species with low genetic variation are at a higher risk of extinction because they are less equipped to handle environmental changes or to fight off disease. In the Grauer's gorillas, the researchers also identified several potentially harmful mutations that have become more prevalent over the last four or five generations. 

“This recent increase in harmful mutations really emphasises the need to reverse the ongoing population decline in Grauer's gorillas,” said study co-author Love Dalén at the <a href="http://www.nrm.se/en/16.html">Swedish Museum of Natural History</a>.

Some of the mutations identified in the study were found in genes that affect disease resistance and male fertility. Other mutations are associated with genes that regulate the development of fingers and toes, which could explain why some present-day gorillas have fused digits.

Study co-author Katerina Guschanski concluded, “Our study highlights that historical museum specimens constitute a unique resource for monitoring recent changes in the genetic status of endangered species.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Amy Porter, Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International

Eastern gorillas have lost genetic diversity and gained mutations

A research team led by scientists from Uppsala University has...

A new study by scientists at <a href="https://www.ncl.ac.uk/">Newcastle University</a> has revealed that the noise from <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/wind-turbines-harm-birds-100-miles-away/">wind turbines</a> interferes with a strategy used by robins to protect their territory. In an article written for <a href="http://theconversation.com/au">The Conversation</a>, Professor Mark Whittingham details the study findings. 

“Much of the evidence for how wind turbines affect birds concerns their distribution patterns around turbines, but we know little about why birds choose to avoid them,” writes Professor Whittingham. “The robin, a widespread small bird which lives in rural areas where turbines are common, seemed a perfect candidate to investigate.”

The researchers subjected male robins to one of three conditions: another robin’s song, a robin’s song with wind turbine noise, and wind turbine noise alone.

“Robins defending their territory typically respond to an intruder by increasing the proportion of low frequency sounds in their songs,” writes Professor Whittingham. “We found that the robins subjected to robin song and wind turbine noise simultaneously had significantly fewer low frequency elements in their songs and so their songs sounded higher pitched. We interpreted this as interference from the wind turbine noise which occurs at low frequencies.”

The experts speculate that lower frequency noises are used by the robins to make them sound bigger and more intimidating in an effort to defend their territory. 

“But with the low frequency sound emitted by wind turbines drowning them out, there was a suggestion that robins were having to rely more on puffing out their red chest to deter aggressors,” says Professor Whittingham. 

“That may be why breeding songbirds, such as the skylark, avoid turbines. Recent work has found breeding bird populations such as the Dupont’s lark, a near-threatened species of songbird found in North Africa and Spain, declined in areas with wind turbines.”

The research suggests that there are reasons,  beyond the risk of fatal collision, that birds are avoiding wind turbines. 

“Noise emitted from turbines could disrupt their communication and leave them vulnerable. This is particularly troubling when we consider that wind turbines are often located in remote areas, some with high densities of songbirds, such as meadow pipits and skylarks in upland areas of the UK.”

“Of course, it is important to remember the bigger picture. While wind turbines may harm birds nearby, renewable energy is a vital solution to climate change - perhaps the most pressing threat to biodiversity globally.”

Nevertheless, says Professor Whittingham, noise pollution from wind turbines should be measured during assessments of wind energy projects to minimize the impacts to surrounding wildlife. 

The full article, “Robin hushed: wind turbines are making songbirds change their tune,” can be found <a href="https://theconversation.com/robin-hushed-wind-turbines-are-making-songbirds-change-their-tune-109136">here</a>.
--
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wind turbines hurt the robin’s ability to defend its territory

A new study by scientists at Newcastle University has revealed...

African clawed frogs are known for being cannibals of their own offspring, and experts at <a href="https://www.sun.ac.za/english">Stellenbosch University</a> in South Africa wanted to know if the tadpoles of other species of frogs were also at risk of being devoured by them. In particular, the team was concerned about the safety of tadpoles belonging to an endangered species in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cape-town-water-crisis/">Cape Town</a> known as Cape platanna.

The researchers placed African clawed frogs in tanks with tadpoles from both their own species and from those of the Cape platanna. The study confirmed the scientists’ fears, revealing that the frogs preferred eating the tadpoles of the endangered species.


According to <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/">New Scientist</a>, study lead author Dr. John Measey said the findings suggest that the African clawed frog could actually distinguish between the two types of tadpole. Dr. Measey said this is “very bad news for the Cape platanna.”

To help prevent the extinction of the Cape platanna, Dr. Measey believes it may be necessary to physically remove African clawed frogs.

The invasive frog species has now managed to spread out across four continents. This is due, in part, to a significant pet trade in the 1950s and 1960s. The African clawed frogs are native to the cooler regions of sub-Saharan Africa, but not to Cape Town.

Study co-author James Vonesh told New Scientist, “It’s another interesting example where human alteration of the landscape has changed the playing field.”

The research is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652028">African Journal of Ecology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cannibalistic frogs are threatening an endangered Cape Town species

African clawed frogs are known for being cannibals of their...

A new study has revealed that bees require very few brain cells to count objects. The researchers found that organization in the brain is much more important than the size of the brain. 

Researchers at <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/">Queen Mary University of London</a> set out to understand how <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/first-vaccine-bee-colonies/">bees</a> count. The team simulated a very simple “brain” on a computer with just four nerve cells, which is far fewer than the one million cells that are typically found in a bee brain.

By inspecting one single item at a time just as bees do, the simulated brain could easily count small quantities of items. This is much different from how humans count by looking at a group of objects at once and counting them together. 

The researchers propose that the clever strategy used by bees makes the complex task of counting much easier and gives bees impressive cognitive ability that requires minimal brain power.

“Our model shows that even though counting is generally thought to require high intelligence and large brains, it can be easily done with the smallest of nerve cell circuits connected in the right manner,” said study lead author Dr. Vera Vasas. “We suggest that using specific flight movements to scan targets, rather than numerical concepts, explains the bees’ ability to count. This scanning streamlines the visual input and means a task like counting requires little brainpower.”

“Careful examination of the actual inspection strategies used by animals might reveal that they often employ active scanning behaviours as shortcuts to simplify complex visual pattern discrimination tasks. Hopefully, our work will inspire others to look more closely not just at what cognitive tasks animals can solve, but also at how they are solving them.”


To model the input for their simulated brain, the experts studied the point of view of a bee as it flies close to the objects and inspects each one. The researchers found that the simulated brain was able to accurately estimate the number of items on display when provided with the actual visual input that a bee receives while carrying out the same task.

“These findings add to the growing body of work showing that seemingly intelligent behaviour does not require large brains, but can be underpinned with small neural circuits that can easily be accommodated into the microcomputer that is the insect brain,” said Professor Lars Chittka.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

When it comes to bee brains, size does not matter

A new study has revealed that bees require very few...

A study by Dr. Michael O'Sullivan at the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/">University of Portsmouth</a> has revealed previously unknown details of well-armed flying reptiles from British Jurassic fossils. Dr. O'Sullivan has also discovered a new species of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-mass-extinction-event/">pterosaur</a> with a wingspan of two meters, which was a giant in its time.

Over the last two centuries, more than 200 fossils of flying reptiles known as pterosaurs have been recovered from the Stonesfield Slate. However, their significance has been overlooked by palaeontologists, likely because they are mere fragments.

But now, a detailed investigation has found that the fossils contain evidence of multiple pterosaur lineages in the UK's Jurassic past, including some unexpectedly large and formidably armed species.

The new species was named Klobiodon rochei, which mean “cage tooth” in reference to its huge, fang-like teeth. This feature, which is known from inspection of the lower jaw of Klobiodon, is particularly interesting because few pterosaurs had any teeth at this time. The coastal flier would have caught fish and squid using its enormous teeth, swallowing them whole.

“It's large fangs would have meshed together to form a toothy cage, from which little could escape once Klobiodon had gotten a hold of it,” said Dr. O'Sullivan.

“The excellent marine reptiles and ammonites of the UK's Jurassic heritage are widely known, but we celebrate our Jurassic flying reptiles far less.”

[caption id="attachment_1864283" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Flying-reptiles.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1864283" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Flying-reptiles-768x1024.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="933" /></a> Image Credit: Mark Witton[/caption]

“The Stonesfield pterosaurs are rarely pretty or spectacular, but they capture a time in flying reptile evolution which is poorly represented globally. They have an important role to play in not only understanding the UK's natural history, but help us understand the bigger global picture as well.”

Klobiodon and other Stonesfield pterosaurs lived alongside Megalosaurus, which is one of the most famous dinosaurs in the world and was the first ever named. As global sea levels rose and the world warmed, however, Jurassic Britain turned into a series of large tropical islands.

Dr. O'Sullivan explained, “Klobiodon has been known to us for centuries, archived in a museum drawer and seen by dozens or hundreds of scientists, but it's significance has been overlooked because it's been confused with another species since the 1800s.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.app.pan.pl/">Acta Palaeontologica Polonica</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Mark Witton

A fresh look at old fossils reveals Britain’s Jurassic past

A study by Dr. Michael O'Sullivan at the University of...

Discussions on <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/internet-global-wildlife-trafficking/">wildlife trafficking</a> usually revolve around iconic species such as elephants and rhinos. These species provide a charismatic face to the issue but are far from the only animals exploited for the illegal wildlife trade. But a new<a href="https://wildlifejustice.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/WJC-DragonReport-LR-DEF.pdf"> report</a> by the Wildlife Justice Commission outlines the little known world of illegal turtle and tortoise trading for the live pet trade.

The report, entitled Operation Dragon: Revealing new evidence of the scale of corruption and trafficking in the turtle and tortoise trade, details the organization’s 2-year investigation into the illegal trade of turtle and tortoise species in South Asia. The Wildlife Justice Commission used undercover investigators to learn about the inner workings of major trafficking networks and put a halt to these operations.

“Eight wildlife trafficking networks were significantly disrupted, 30 arrests were made, and five traffickers have already been jailed, while other suspects are awaiting trial. More than 6,000 live reptiles, ranging from vulnerable to critically endangered, were seized by the authorities from the illegal pet trade,” the Wildlife Justice Commission stated in a<a href="https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/operation-dragon-new-evidence-of-the-scale-of-corruption-in-the-illegal-turtle-and-tortoise-trade-in-southeast-asia-a-report-by-the-wildlife-justice-commission-817689585.html"> press release</a>.

Another important discovery detailed in the report was the massive trade in threatened species of turtles and tortoises. Four of the six most commonly sighted species by undercover investigators are currently either endangered or critically endangered. The other two species of turtles are both vulnerable.

"Our teams also noted an increase in the trafficking of rarer and higher-value freshwater turtles. Given their vulnerable population status, there is concern that any removal from the wild will have a significant impact on their ability to recover," Sarah Stoner, Senior Investigation Manager at the Wildlife Justice Commission stated in the press release.

Threatened and endangered species are often more valuable in the illegal wildlife trade because of their rarity. A 2017<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Serene_Chng2/publication/317664475_Rising_internet-based_trade_in_the_Critically_Endangered_ploughshare_tortoise_Astrochelys_yniphora_in_Indonesia_highlights_need_for_improved_enforcement_of_CITES/links/59f92bf"> study</a> which analyzed the internet-based trade in critically endangered ploughshare tortoises in Indonesia found advertisements for 126 tortoises from 2010-2015. The turtles were being advertised from $509–$47,000. It is estimated that there are currently less than 600 ploughshare tortoises left in the wild and the species is considered at an<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/9016/12950950#population"> “extreme risk”</a> of extinction within the next 10 to 15 years. 

Despite the species dire state and protection from the wildlife trade by international treaty, there is still a high demand for the species.

In April 2018, over<a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/04/wildlife-watch-radiated-tortoises-poached-madagascar/"> 10,000 critically endangered radiated tortoises</a> were found by authorities crammed into a house in Madagascar, believed to be en route to the wildlife trade where they are highly sought after by reptile collectors for their prominent patterns. Undercover investigators with the Wildlife Justice Commission sighted 1,546 ploughshare tortoises during their operation.

The Wildlife Justice Commission report found that the corruption of transportation officials helped to enable the trafficking of turtles and tortoises. Wildlife traffickers often transported their products through certain routes because of their confidence that the product would not be detected.

This report provides important insight that can be used to crack down on the illegal turtle and tortoise trade. “Whilst corrupt officials facilitated this trade, we focused our activities on developing the intelligence picture to inform investigative efforts by dedicated wildlife and police officials in India and Malaysia… It is these officers who are the unsung heroes, working to do what is right in an area where many find the allure of money all too tempting,” the report states.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Inside the illegal trade of turtles and tortoises

Discussions on wildlife trafficking usually revolve around iconic species such as...

While the holidays are a time of warmth and celebration, they also pose some of the biggest risks for your four-legged friends. From the extra sweets and chocolate around the house to the colorful decorations and ornaments that a cat or dog may try to play with, it’s important to take a few extra precautions to ensure your pet is safe over the holiday season. 

Along with knowing the risks, it’s also important to understand what it is about certain household items, foods, and decorations that causes harm. 

First, there’s the most obvious risk for pets, especially dogs, during the holiday season: the increased risk of eating candies, cookies, or chocolates that are toxic to animals. 

Most pet owners are generally aware that it’s unsafe for their dog to consume chocolate of any kind. However, some chocolate and cocoa products are more dangerous than others and knowing which ones could mean the difference between a puppy with a little tummy trouble or an emergency trip to the vet. 

Chocolate, just like any other sweet, is enticing to dogs, but the cocoa beans used to make chocolate contain compounds called methylxanthines which are toxic to dogs. Coffee beans also contain methylxanthines.

Some chocolate has higher quantities of methylxanthines compared to others. For example, baking chocolate and cocoa powder poses a much higher risk than milk chocolate. 

While a little chocolate may not be deadly to your dog, it’s always a good idea to call your vet if you suspect your dog has eaten any. The size of your dog and the kind of chocolate consumed will factor into the type of treatments your vet may recommend.

Ingesting methylxanthines, even at low doses, can cause vomiting, diarrhea, an elevated heart rate, and seizures, according to the <a href="https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/people-foods-avoid-feeding-your-pets">American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals</a>. 

During the holidays, the number of chocolate poisonings and trips to the vet increase because there are more chocolate and sweets out in the open. 

Chocolate isn’t the only sweet holiday treat that’s bad for pets. Anything <a href="https://www.wagthedoguk.com/2014/08/22/bad-nuts-for-dogs/">containing nuts </a>should be avoided, as some nuts like <a href="https://www.aspca.org/news/animal-poison-control-alert-macadamia-nuts-are-toxic-dogs">macadamia nuts</a> are poisonous and will cause similar symptoms as chocolate poisoning. 

It’s not known which toxin causes the problem in macadamia nuts, but macadamia nuts are part of the same family as grapes which contain another toxin that can cause kidney failure in dogs. 

In order to avoid unnecessary trips to the vet, always be aware of the food in your pantry and refrigerator, and if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-holiday-baking/">you’re baking</a> with nuts, sweeteners like xylitol, or chocolate, keep anything potentially harmful out of reach of your pet. 

Holiday hazards don’t end at food, though, and your pet’s natural tendency to chew on things can make seemingly benign holiday decorations and plants a real danger. 

Chords from lights and batteries are a chewing hazard for dogs and could even cause electrocution or mouth burns. Cats are famous for knocking things off of surfaces, and the colorful glass ornaments on the tree are no exception. 

Fragile glass ornaments also have a tendency to break, and shards could end up in an unsuspecting paw or worse, could cause severe damage to the digestive tract and mouth if eaten. 

When it comes to the Christmas tree itself, many pet owners may not realize just how problematic holiday plants can be as well. 

Christmas trees sometimes tip over and could cause an unfortunate accident if your pet happens to be nearby. Real pine trees also need water which could contain harmful fertilizers and sugar that aren’t good for pets to drink. 

If a cat or dog ends up chewing and swallowing pine needles they may end up damaging the intestines or stomach. 

Holly and mistletoe are two common plants that tend to pop up in abundance during the holidays, and both are poisonous to pets. 

The shiny red berries of holly may be what attracts your pet, but the leaves actually pose a bigger threat. According to the <a href="https://www.petpoisonhelpline.com/poison/holly/">Pet Poison Helpline</a>, holly contains the same toxic substance that chocolate does, methylxanthine, and if eaten could cause vomiting, diarrhea, and continued lip smacking. 

The holly plant also has sharp and pointy leaves which could damage the gums, tongue, or throat of your pet. Mistletoe is also toxic to pets, and the risks can vary depending on what type of species your pet comes in contact with. 

Phoranedruon serotinum mistletoe contains a toxin called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/mistletoe">phoratoxin</a> which is known to cause blurred vision, nausea and <a href="https://www.petpoisonhelpline.com/poison/mistletoe/">stomach pain in pets</a>. Phoranedruon serotinum is an American mistletoe, but Viscus album, the European variety, is considered more toxic. Mistletoe berries also contain compounds that when ingested could be dangerous for dogs. 

Poinsettias, on the other hand, pose a relatively low risk to pets and have a low level of toxicity, although it’s still not a good idea to leave your pet unsupervised around houseplants no matter how toxic. 

With poinsettias, it’s the sap you need to be concerned about, as the milky, white sap of the plants contain chemicals called <a href="https://csuvth.colostate.edu/poisonous_plants/Plants/Details/115">diterpenoid euphorbol esters</a> which can cause mild skin irritation or digestive problems if eaten. 

Another major holiday risk that is not often discussed is ensuring that house guests make sure medications are kept out of sight and safely stored away. 

Lastly, while pets are social creatures and a house full of guests may be a wonderful and exciting event for some dogs and cats, it’s always important to make sure your pet has a safe and quiet space they can retreat to if things get overwhelming, or if company induces anxiety.

With just a few extra precautions and an understanding of what the risks are, you can enjoy the holidays hazard-free and keep your pet safe from harm. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How to keep your pets safe during the holidays

While the holidays are a time of warmth and celebration,...

As climate change triggers more frequent extreme weather events, some animal species are struggling to adapt, scientists claim.

"The growing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as cyclones, droughts and floods is causing unpredictable and immediate changes to ecosystems and obstructing existing management efforts," said Dr. Sean Maxwell of the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a>, who recently led a analysis of more than 70 years of research into how various species respond to such events.

As an example, he pointed to Austalia’s spectacled flying foxes, a species of megabat. During a heat wave that swept over Queensland in November, up to a third of the bats were killed, Maxwell said. 

That event shows the importance of research into how animals deal – or don’t – with extreme weather events, he said.

It’s not the only one, either.

"Some of the negative responses we found were quite concerning, including more than 100 cases of dramatic population declines and 31 cases of local population extinction following an extreme event,” he said. "Populations of critically endangered bird species in Hawaii, such as the palia, have been annihilated due to drought, and populations of lizard species have been wiped out due to cyclones in the Bahamas."

Cyclones top the list of most dangerous extreme weather events for animal species and plants, the researchers found. Birds, fish and reptiles struggled to survive the massive storms. 

For mammals and amphibians, though, heat waves and droughts are the most dangerous events. Drought was linked to 12 separate major declines of mammal populations, the researchers found, along with 13 cases of breeding declines among birds. 

Dr. James Watson, head of the university’s <a href="https://cbcs.centre.uq.edu.au/">Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation Science</a>, said the research by Maxwell’s team can help inform plans to protect species moving forward.

"The research clearly shows species will respond, often negatively, to extreme events," Watson said. "As climate change continues to ensure extreme climate and weather events are more and more common, we now need to act to ensure species have the best chance to survive.”

The study has been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12878">Diversity and Distributions</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Extreme weather events put wildlife, plants in danger

As climate change triggers more frequent extreme weather events, some...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-zone-speciation-animals/">Speciation</a>, the formation of new species, is a long, slow, and complicated evolutionary process. 

Researchers are still working to unravel the mysteries of speciation, and a new study of hybrid howler monkeys is offering some key insights into the process. 

Geographic isolation, when a population of species is split through a new geographic formation like a river or mountain range, is a common driver of speciation.

The two isolated populations then begin to evolve to adapt to the environmental changes and eventually the two populations are so genetically different from one another that they are recognized as two unique species.

However, there’s more to the equation than just geographic isolation, and researchers from the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> have identified the different forms of natural selection that help move speciation along in a new study published in the journal Molecular Ecology. 

The study, which examined two species of howler monkeys that occasional interbreed in Mexico, provides a rare inside look at natural selection and how reinforcement favors reproductive isolation. 

For nearly two decades, the researchers monitored and studied mantled howler monkeys and black howler monkeys who co-exist and occasionally interbreed in a 12-mile hybrid zone in Mexico. 

The hybrid zone is a recent development as the two species diverged around three million years ago but came together again within the last 10,000 years. 

Interbreeding is common in nature, but if the two species are interbreeding, then that means the howler monkeys are not reproductively isolated. 

Reproductive isolation is part of speciation, and natural selection works to ensure that reproductive isolation is complete by strengthening gene barriers that prevent successful mating between species. 

Natural selection works to prevent hybrids by increasing genetic differences between species. 

This process is called reinforcement and has been strongly debated by biologists because very little evidence of it has been found in nature. 

To see if reinforcement was at play in the hybrid zone, the researchers collected and compared DNA from the two howler monkey species both within the radius of the hybrid zone and outside the parameters where interbreeding occurred. 

“We observed patterns in the genetic data suggesting that hybridization is playing a direct role in completing the speciation process by enhancing genetic differences between species,”  Marcella Baiz, the study's first author. “We found a signal for multiple forms of natural selection driving species differences, including reinforcement, a process that has been highly debated. 

The researchers found stronger genetic differences between the two species in the hybrid zone compared to species that were further away from the zone. 

“Speciation is a complex process that can be driven by direct and indirect mechanisms that interact to maintain and strengthen the process, and this study is one of the few natural examples that document this,” said Baiz.

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Milagros González

Hybrid howler monkeys provide insight into speciation

Speciation, the formation of new species, is a long, slow,...

Scientists have explored how different species of mammals survive living in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/soot-traffic-big-cities/">urban environments</a>. The study revealed that these mammals produce more young compared to those in rural areas, and have also adopted several other strategies for successfully living in cities. 

Study lead author Luca Santini is an ecologist at <a href="https://www.ru.nl/english/">Radboud University</a>.

“This is the first step of many to understand why certain mammals manage to live in cities and why other species don't,” said Santini. “It's important to gain more insight into how mammals live in urban environments, so we can eventually achieve a more peaceful coexistence.”

The research team collected studies from all over the world that recorded the number of mammal species in cities. 

“The large number of studies that have already been conducted show that birds in cities, for example crows, tend to be cleverer, meaning that they are better able to adapt to unexpected situations,” said Santini. “However, mammals in cities are far less investigated, and only studies on a single mammal species, such as bats, have been carried out.”

“Mammals have way more diverse traits than birds, such as a higher diversity in body structure, size, life-history and ecology. Therefore, we were curious to know whether there are particular traits that are positively affecting the ability of mammal species to flourish in new ecosystems, such as urban environments.”

The finding that stood out the most in the review is that all groups of urban mammals seem to produce more young. 

Santini explained, “In general, animals that produce larger litters do so to compensate for a high mortality rate amongst their young. This suggests that a high mortality rate due to, for example, road traffic accidents, persecution by humans, and predation by domestic cats and dogs could be a major selective pressure for mammals in urban environments.”


Some of the other characteristics of urban mammals were much less straightforward.


“For example a larger brain mass appears to be mostly associated with carnivores and primates who only occasionally visit urban environments, such as jackals, wolves, bears and baboons, rather than with mammals who permanently live in cities, such as genet cats and mongooses among carnivores, or hedgehogs and shrews among insectivores. We also found that carnivores and primates that sporadically visit cities tend to be larger than average. This may be because they need to cover large distances in short times.”


Overall, the study findings suggest that different groups of mammals use different strategies to succeed in the city.  

“However, because the number of mammal species in an urban environments compared to the total number of mammal species is quite small - 190 out of approximately 6,000 species - this makes the statistics quite challenging, which makes it hard to make definite statements about specific groups of mammals and traits.”

Next, Santini hopes to investigate which species live in parks, suburbs, or city centers and why they have chosen those areas. 

“We expect that the number of animals living in urban environments will increase, because urban areas will expand and natural habitat will become more fragmented. Many animals that we believe cannot live in urban areas today, might start visiting and using cities in the future.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14610248">Ecology Letters</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How mammals survive living in urban areas

Scientists have explored how different species of mammals survive living...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

News coming your way