Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A recent study has uncovered a link between our planet’s changing path around the sun and periods of intense volcanic eruptions.



Researchers studying ancient rocks and seafloor cores have identified signals that appear tied to these rhythmic variations in Earth’s orbit, which may have affected global climates on timescales of ten thousand to a million years.



Thomas Westerhold from the <a href="https://www.google.com/url?q=https://gerit.org/en/institutiondetail/29278&amp;sa=U&amp;ved=2ahUKEwi38enk7Y6MAxXeHEQIHfFLHVgQFnoECFIQAQ&amp;usg=AOvVaw0XOJ0OBGX4p7-_etkmI5ha"></a>Center for Marine Environmental Sciences (<a href="https://www.marum.de/en/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MARUM</a>) has used geological data to piece together climate archives from both the South Atlantic and the Northwest Pacific.



By aligning these records down to a 5,000-year scale, Westerhold and his colleagues found critical points in time when planetary climate shifts coincided with major volcanic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-orbital-connection">The orbital connection</h2>



These new findings challenge the notion that <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/quasiperiodicity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quasiperiodic variations</a> in Earth’s orbit merely influence climate through changes in incoming solar radiation. 



The possibility that these orbital cycles also set the stage for eruptions adds another layer to our understanding of how the planet’s interior and exterior forces interact.



“Just like a metronome, we used the rhythmic changes in solar insolation imprinted in geological data to synchronize geological climate archives from the South Atlantic and the Northwest Pacific," said Westerhold. 



"These key records span the last million years of the Cretaceous and are synchronized down to 5,000 years or less, geologically a blink of an eye 66 million years ago."



Scientists already knew that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/large-igneous-province" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large igneous provinces</a>, or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/flood-basalt" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flood basalt eruptions</a>, could <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/books/edited-volume/674/chapter-abstract/3807763/Large-igneous-provinces-and-mass-extinctions-An?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">release</a> significant amounts of sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. 



By stacking these massive volcanic outpourings on top of orbital-driven temperature swings, the stage was apparently set for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-next-big-volcano-eruption-will-cause-global-chaos-climate-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dramatic climate swings</a> in a relatively short time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-sediments-reveal-past-eruptions">Ocean sediments reveal past eruptions</h2>



“The formation of the flood basalts and its subsequent weathering will leave a geochemical fingerprint in the ocean," explained co-author Junichiro Kuroda from the University of Tokyo.



"Therefore, we measured the Osmium isotope composition of the South Atlantic and the Northwest Pacific deposits. They should show the same fingerprint at the same time." 



This was another key piece of the puzzle: the hunt for a clear marker in deep-sea sediments.&nbsp;



Samples from those ocean cores revealed two distinct changes in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0012821X80901776" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">osmium isotopes</a>. These changes matched previously dated pulses of massive volcanism in India’s <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/deccan-traps" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Deccan Traps</a>, which are about 1.24 miles thick in places.



“To our surprise we found two steps in the Osmium isotope composition in both oceans contemporaneous with major eruption phases of the Deccan Traps in the latest Cretaceous. And even more surprising, those steps had different impacts on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruption-on-jupiters-moon-io-covers-area-larger-than-lake-superior-juno-mission/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a> as recorded by fossil remains in the drill cores,” said Westerhold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-eruptions-linked-to-mass-extinctions">Volcanic eruptions linked to mass extinctions</h2>



Giant volcanic eruptions have long been tied to major ecological upheavals. 



Studies have suggested that flood basalt events played a central role in several mass extinctions, possibly through toxic gas releases and global temperature shifts that strained ecosystems.



“The volume of the erupted flood basalt must have been much larger than previously thought during this early phase of Deccan Trap volcanism. And the related distinct emissions of carbon and sulfur dioxide had diverse effects on the global climate system,” said Don Penman from the Utah State University.



These findings build on earlier evidence suggesting that <a href="https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-gases" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gases</a> from intense volcanic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruption-zavaritzki-that-cooled-the-earth-and-turned-the-sun-green/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a> may spike temperatures. Yet when <a href="https://www.epa.gov/so2-pollution/sulfur-dioxide-basics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sulfur emissions</a> arrive in the upper atmosphere, they can produce complex cooling or warming patterns that can change ocean chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weathering-warming-and-the-carbon-puzzle">Weathering, warming, and the carbon puzzle</h2>



Weathering of volcanic rocks often draws carbon dioxide out of the air as minerals break down. But if the eruptions themselves add large bursts of greenhouse gases, the balance tips. 



This interplay may show why one wave of eruptions caused modest warming, while a later pulse had more pronounced effects.



Early pulses could have been especially rich in sulfur, hitting local habitats hard but not causing a massive global temperature rise. Later periods likely unleashed more carbon-heavy emissions, shifting global temperatures upward and leaving distinct signs in marine fossils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-now">Why this matters now</h2>



Researchers stress that the planet’s deep past carries lessons for modern climate dynamics. Although today’s changes stem mainly from human activities, extreme volcanic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a> show how quickly the climate system can react when pushed.



This work also reveals the importance of precise dating in geological research. High-resolution age models provide the magnifying glass needed to see correlations between Earth’s orbital rhythms, volcanic eruptions, and environmental changes.



The team’s approach shows that even small differences in dating can mask or unveil key connections in Earth’s history. Matching up ocean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sediment records</a> in fine detail helps scientists identify which events happened simultaneously, offering a clearer picture of cause and effect.



These insights highlight that our world’s climate has always been shaped by both internal forces, such as molten rock movements, and external cycles influenced by cosmic mechanics. 



Looking at these linked changes over millions of years can inform how we view climate shifts on much shorter timescales.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr8584" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Earth's orbit may trigger massive volcanic eruptions

A recent study has uncovered a link between our planet’s...

Human societies often focus on dangers that exist here on Earth, but there are moments when the threats might come from much farther away.



Scientists have long wondered about cosmic events that can affect our planet’s biology. Some have been exploring whether powerful stellar explosions could be tied to catastrophic shifts in Earth’s distant past.



The idea that blasts from massive stars might have influenced global conditions is catching attention. 



Two large-scale losses of life have drawn renewed interest from researchers who see a pattern in the timing of star explosions and severe changes in Earth’s environment.



In a new study from <a href="https://www.keele.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Keele University</a>, lead author Dr. Alexis Quintana, formerly of Keele and now at the <a href="https://www.ua.es/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alicante</a>, worked with Dr. Nick Wright from Keele to examine the distribution of massive stars in our region of the galaxy.



The study found that the rate of these stars going supernova near Earth appears to match two large ancient losses of life that happened 372 million years ago and 445 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-mass-extinctions">Past mass extinctions</h2>



Scientists refer to these moments in Earth’s past as the late <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-newest-oldest-forest-recently-discovered-is-full-of-calamophyton-trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Devonian</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-worms-sparked-explosive-evolutionary-period-of-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ordovician</a> events. 



The Devonian Period occurred about 372 million years ago and led to the disappearance of around 70 percent of all species, shifting the balance of aquatic life.



The Ordovician Period happened 445 million years ago, removing 60 percent of marine invertebrates at a time when life mostly existed in the sea.



Researchers have struggled to nail down a clear spark for those events, though many have pointed to an erosion of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-ozone-layer-is-healing-will-the-hole-disappear-for-good/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ozone layer</a>. 



Some now propose that cosmic detonations may have stripped away that protective layer, allowing intense ultraviolet light to reach Earth’s surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supernovas-within-earth-s-reach">Supernovas within Earth's reach</h2>



The authors say it is "a great illustration for how massive stars can act as both creators and destructors of life". 



These stars generate heavy elements that make planets possible, but their demise can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-coronae-borealis-nova-explosion-nearby-star-light-up-earths-skies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">produce bursts of radiation</a>.



The team embarked on what they call a “census” of nearby massive stars, known as OB stars, within around 3,260 light-years of the Sun.



OB stars are giants that can collapse under gravity when they run out of fuel, leading to an explosion that releases <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/star-collapse-black-hole-instead-of-supernova-vanish-from-sky/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intense waves of energy</a>.



The researchers then calculated how often these explosions might happen within 65 light-years of Earth, which is about 20 parsecs.



By comparing those estimates with the frequency of major losses of life linked to external triggers, they found a match that points to a nearby supernova as a likely suspect in the late Devonian and Ordovician events.



“We calculated the supernova rate close to Earth and found it to be consistent with the rate of mass extinction events on our planet that have been linked to external forces such as supernovae,” Dr Wright explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-would-a-supernova-do-to-earth">What would a supernova do to Earth</h2>



The study suggests that a supernova near Earth might erode the ozone layer, spark chemical reactions that produce acid rain, and expose organisms to harmful solar radiation.



“Supernova explosions bring heavy chemical elements into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-reveal-the-first-detailed-image-of-a-dying-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interstellar medium</a>, which are then used to form new stars and planets. Dr. Quintana explained. 



"But if a planet, including the Earth, is located too close to this kind of event, this can have devastating effects."



If enough shielding is lost, regions of the planet might become biologically hazardous. This could halt the growth of some organisms while allowing others to take over previously occupied niches.



Dr Wright added, “Supernova explosions are some of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kilonova-explosion-light-years-away-would-devastate-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">most energetic explosions in the universe</a>. If a massive star were to explode as a supernova close to the Earth, the results would be devastating for life on Earth. This research suggests that this may have already happened.”



He and his colleagues see the new data as helpful for understanding how elements move around the galaxy and form the basis for new celestial objects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Supernova events are believed to happen at a rate of about one or two per century in galaxies such as the Milky Way. The chance of one erupting in our immediate neighborhood is low, though not impossible.



The researchers note that stars like Antares and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supergiant-star-betelgeuse-may-have-a-buddy-causing-it-to-flicker/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Betelgeuse</a> might run out of fuel in the next million years or so, yet they sit far enough away that the effects on Earth are likely limited.



The project’s census of massive stars also aids in studying black holes and neutron stars, which arise from the aftermath of stellar collapses.



The data can support improvements to gravitational wave detectors, which help scientists pinpoint the origins and structure of cosmic events.



By refining how often massive stars explode, astronomers can hone their forecasts for how often <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/matter-spacetime-gravitational-waves-fabric-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitational waves</a> ripple through space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-supernovas-and-future-study">Earth, supernovas, and future study</h2>



Plenty of questions remain about the ways in which these explosions can set off harmful changes in Earth’s environment.



Some experts wonder how quickly the atmosphere recovers if solar radiation spikes. Others are curious if life on land reacts differently from life at sea when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-particle-acceleration-new-source-of-cosmic-rays-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic rays</a> increase.



Although researchers highlight a connection between supernovae and serious biological upheavals, there could be additional processes at work.



These blasts may seed the universe with valuable ingredients while also posing potential dangers when they happen too close for comfort.



The evidence is still coming together, but it points to a story where Earth’s ancient tragedies may have a cosmic explanation. Scientists plan to keep tracking massive stars in our galaxy to see what more can be learned.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/537/4/3332/8038277" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>.



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Something much worse than asteroids caused two of Earth's mass extinctions

Human societies often focus on dangers that exist here on...

Dark matter is a concept that has intrigued astronomers and physicists for years, as they continue to search for an explanation for the majority of the universe's mass.



These investigations have mostly leaned toward the idea of particles that barely interact with the rest of the universe - a scenario that would make detection tricky.



A new line of research explores a different clue, one that centers on strange processes observed near the Milky Way’s core. According to Dr. Shyam Balaji from <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">King’s College London</a>, these odd chemical signals could point to a much lighter form of dark matter than many earlier models imagined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-signals-at-the-galactic-center">Strange signals at the galactic center</h2>



Scientists have noticed unusual conditions in the <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015IAUGA..2258094K/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Central Molecular Zone</a>, a region roughly 650 light years wide in the middle of our galaxy. This place hosts large clouds of positively charged hydrogen - a fact that left experts scratching their heads because hydrogen in space normally has a neutral charge.



“At the center of our galaxy sit huge clouds of <a href="https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.134.101001" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">positively charged hydrogen</a>, a mystery to scientists for decades because normally the gas is neutral. So, what is supplying enough energy to knock the negatively charged electrons out of them?” said Dr. Balaji.



For a long time, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/cosmic-ray" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic rays</a> were a favored explanation, since these fast-moving particles carry enough power to ionize gas. Observers, however, measured <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-does-not-exist-universe-27-billion-years-old-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy levels</a> that fell short of what cosmic rays would be expected to provide in that part of the galaxy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-lighter-dark-matter-matters">Why lighter dark matter matters</h2>



Many studies have focused on Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1140/epjc/s10052-018-5662-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WIMPs</a>), which are commonly suspected to be the key to dark matter. These heavier candidates have been the subject of multiple experiments that aim to produce direct evidence of their existence.



In this new approach, the evidence points to particles with less mass. Scientists think these tiny objects might collide and produce more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">charged particles</a>, possibly accounting for that persistent ionization in the hydrogen clouds.



“The search for dark matter is science’s biggest manhunt, but a lot of experiments are based on Earth. By peering into the center of our Milky Way, the hydrogen gas in the CMZ is suggesting that we may be closer to identifying evidence on the possible nature of dark matter,” noted Dr. Balaji.



Some believe these lighter particles can generate visible clues in forms other than the big bursts often associated with WIMPs. Instead, they may create steady but smaller effects, which might be why they were overlooked in the past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-overlapping-mysteries">Two overlapping mysteries</h2>



Another intriguing signal in the galaxy is the <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2312.04907" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">511-keV emission line</a>, an x-ray feature that has baffled researchers for years. It is a specific energy reading that could stem from collisions of <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1512.00325" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">low-mass dark matter</a>, which might release positrons that subsequently annihilate with electrons.



Experts see a potential tie between this emission and the curious ionization process near the galactic center. If the same collisions behind the 511-keV signal also knock out electrons in hydrogen, it would address two mysteries at once.



Not everyone is convinced the same mechanism explains both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-big-bang-theory-attempts-to-explain-origin-of-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phenomena</a>. Some note that the ionization signatures might happen more easily than the production of the x-ray signal, raising questions about how neatly they overlap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-difficulty-of-dark-matter-detection">Difficulty of dark matter detection </h2>



Dark matter detection still faces hurdles because these suggested particles rarely interact. Traditional studies rely on specialized detectors or cosmic events that could produce a measurable flash.



The new data, however, uses <a href="https://www.primalucelab.com/blog/study-of-the-galactic-hydrogen-distribution-with-spider-300a-radio-telescope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galactic hydrogen</a> as a direct sign of what might be happening at the Milky Way’s core. That gives scientists a different angle by looking where these particles are most likely to reveal themselves, rather than waiting for them to show up on Earth.



There is also <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/304888/fulltext/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">debate</a> about whether the Milky Way has a “cuspier” center that would concentrate more dark matter in its innermost regions. Some profiles suggest a steeper rise in density, offering a denser target for these particle collisions.



Even so, theories must thread a narrow path between explaining the data and avoiding conflict with other well-known measurements. Researchers continue to refine their models to see what fits best without contradicting existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/directly-detecting-dark-matter-primordial-black-holes-simple-as-monitoring-mars-orbit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">observations</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-in-the-hunt">What’s next in the hunt</h2>



Many experts think that these lighter candidates deserve more attention, given how elusive heavy WIMPs have been in experiments so far. A big question is whether new space-based or ground-based instruments can confirm the signature of any proposed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/existence-of-dark-matter-confirmed-by-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particles</a> in a way that satisfies multiple lines of evidence.



With more sensitive readings, investigators might measure the energy speeds in the central zone to spot patterns that cosmic rays alone cannot explain. Putting all of these details together could give clearer insight into an enduring puzzle in astrophysics.



Possible laboratory experiments may also help test these ideas. By recreating some of these collisions at lower energies, scientists might identify exactly what is needed to <a href="https://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/i/ionised+hydrogen" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ionize hydrogen</a> at a consistent rate.



The hope is that further work will tell us if these smaller particles can truly explain both the positively charged hydrogen and that elusive 511-keV feature. As each piece of the puzzle falls into place, the shape of dark matter may become less of a riddle and more of a specific set of possibilities.



The study is published in <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.134.101001" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



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Strange signals from the center of our galaxy hint at a new kind of dark matter

Dark matter is a concept that has intrigued astronomers and...

For decades, researchers have pursued nuclear fusion as a potential solution for cleaner and longer-lasting energy. They have struggled to keep the process stable because it requires absurdly high temperatures and precise control.



The team operating the <a href="https://www.energy.gov/science/doe-explainstokamaks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tokamak</a> in southern France recently managed to hold <a href="https://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/topic/default?id=what-is-plasma-160-37" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plasma</a> for 22 minutes (1,337 seconds), surpassing a previous record set in China. 



<a href="https://evenements.lepoint.fr/intervenants/anne-isabelle-etienvre-2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Anne-Isabelle Etienvre</a> from the French Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) leads this scientific push toward more reliable fusion conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-fusion-plasma-is-key-to-clean-energy">Stable fusion plasma is key to clean energy</h2>



This form of energy creation involves fusing light atomic nuclei to release heat. Particles need temperatures above 100 million degrees Celsius (over 180 million degrees Fahrenheit) for that reaction to happen effectively, according to data from the <a href="https://www.iaea.org/publications/8879/fusion-physics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Atomic Energy Agency</a>.



At such high heat levels, atoms collide at dizzying speeds. If magnetic fields or other factors become imbalanced, the plasma can cool or leak from the magnetic confinement.



Tokamaks, which are doughnut-shaped devices that confine charged particles, aim to keep plasma hot and stable. Their success hinges on precise control of electromagnetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poorly-understood-force-helps-keep-atomic-nuclei-stable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forces</a> within the chamber.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-22-minute-record">Significance of the 22-minute record</h2>



Holding plasma in a steady condition for over 22 minutes suggests a major step in controlling runaway heat. Once disruptions occur, the efficiency of fusion reactors plummets.



“Experiments will continue with increased power,” said Dr. Etienvre. This short statement offers a glimpse into the <a href="https://www.iter.org/node/20687/data-west-optimize-iters-divertor" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plan</a> for stretching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/molten-salt-could-reshape-the-future-of-nuclear-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stable</a> reactions to longer durations and higher temperatures.



Experts from multiple countries collaborate at the site in southern France. This record comes as a welcome sign that even more complex goals could be on the horizon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fusion-plasma-beats-fission">Fusion plasma beats fission</h2>



<a href="https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/fission-and-fusion-what-difference" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fission</a>, which splits atoms, produces energy in current nuclear power plants but creates long-lived waste. By contrast, fusion unites <a href="https://library.fiveable.me/key-terms/intro-college-physics/hydrogen-nuclei" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrogen nuclei</a>, generating helium and fewer radioactive by-products.



Costs and engineering hurdles have slowed progress in commercial fusion power. Yet many see it as a promising road to net-zero emissions, a target emphasized in climate reports by the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a>.



Some refer to fusion as a nearly endless energy resource because it draws on hydrogen, the most common element in the universe. This potential drives international projects dedicated to refining each design step.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancing-fusion-plasma-research">Advancing fusion plasma research</h2>



A joint project known as <a href="https://fusionforenergy.europa.eu/iter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ITER</a> (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) unites China, the European Union, India, Japan, South Korea, Russia, and the United States. It is currently under construction in southern France and aims to be the largest tokamak in history.



Although ITER’s initial completion date has shifted multiple times, researchers remain optimistic about testing full-scale fusion. Funding from each participating nation underscores its global importance for future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underground-nuclear-testing-will-no-longer-be-a-secret-thanks-to-new-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clean power</a>.



Success in smaller tokamaks helps iron out design concerns ahead of ITER’s launch. By the time ITER operates, any proven methods for extending plasma stability can be integrated into its larger system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taking-aim-at-energy-output">Taking aim at energy output</h2>



Laboratories around the world are racing to produce net energy gain. A successful reactor must generate more energy than it consumes during plasma heating and containment.



High temperatures and advanced magnets have brought partial victories. In January 2022, <a href="https://euro-fusion.org/eurofusion-news/dte3record/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europe’s Joint European Torus</a> achieved 59 megajoules of sustained fusion energy, showing how incremental progress can stack up.



Yet the gap remains in scaling those successes from seconds to minutes, and from modest power to a more commercially viable level. The 22-minute mark is a nudge in the right direction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clean-energy-breakthroughs">Clean energy breakthroughs</h2>



Some groups outside fusion are also pioneering fresh ideas for reducing fossil fuel dependence. A team at Chalmers University of Technology in Sweden has <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-04230-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experimented</a> with storing solar power in a molecular liquid for up to 18 years.



Battery technology has seen continued improvements, although costs can still be high for widespread household adoption. Bolstering solar, wind, and potential fusion solutions could eventually diversify global energy sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-france">Next steps in France</h2>



Scientists plan to stretch plasma durations further while holding on to higher temperatures. Some hope to manage stable reactions for several hours, which would bring reactors closer to real-world energy demands.



Researchers are also focused on avoiding contamination inside the reaction chamber. Even minor impurities can hinder the delicate environment needed for fusion to thrive.



Each new record is seen as an affirmation that design choices and materials are improving. With each challenge solved, a future powered by fusion becomes less far-fetched.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fusion-power-and-a-cleaner-future">Fusion power and a cleaner future</h2>



As climate concerns mount, breakthroughs in controlling extreme temperatures and particle flow take on new urgency. Long-term sustainability relies on innovation that provides abundant power without worsening pollution.



The French accomplishment offers a flicker of optimism. Once a full-scale reactor can run stably and produce excess energy, a new chapter in energy might begin.



Global dependence on fossil fuels will not end overnight, yet practical milestones like this encourage continued support for research into complex systems such as tokamaks.



Humanity’s quest for stable, clean energy has persisted for generations. The long fight to perfect fusion could reward everyone if future devices replicate and expand upon this 22-minute feat.



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Nuclear fusion milestone brings clean energy closer to reality

For decades, researchers have pursued nuclear fusion as a potential...

For decades, the presence of water and ice on the Moon has intrigued scientists and space explorers alike. Many view it as a breakthrough for future missions, with the potential to sustain long-term exploration and provide essential resources. 



Recent findings suggest that ice may be concealed beneath the lunar surface, supported by new temperature measurements taken in the Moon’s south polar region in 2023.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-closer-look-at-lunar-temperatures">Closer look at lunar temperatures</h2>



Durga Prasad and colleagues from the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/chandrayaan-3/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chandrayaan-3</a> mission <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02114-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studied</a> temperature fluctuations at the Moon’s south polar region. The experts saw that some slopes facing the Sun can heat up to about 355 Kelvin during midday, higher than earlier predictions.



“This demonstrates that local topography at meter scales can alter temperature at high latitudes, unlike equatorial regions,” said Durga Prasad, lead researcher on the ChaSTE experiment.



The only past direct measurements on the lunar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-are-searching-for-viable-sources-of-water-on-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface</a> came from the Apollo missions in the 1970s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-slopes-and-ice-deposits">Moon slopes and ice deposits </h2>



Sun-facing ground can reach surprisingly high temperatures, while areas angled away from the Sun remain cooler. This local <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1187726" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">difference</a> in warmth can influence whether water-ice forms or vanishes beneath the soil.



The new data suggests that slopes greater than 14 degrees facing away from the Sun might support ice near the surface. Even slight variations in angle appear to cause large shifts in how heat flows through the top layers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-dishwasher-sized-spacecraft-will-map-moons-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar</a> soil.



Past assumptions often centered on deep craters as prime ice hideouts. Now, smaller ridges and depressions could also hold ice if their slope is steep enough to avoid direct sunlight.



This finding might widen the hunt for accessible ice deposits. The possibility of water-ice in multiple areas sparks ideas about new landing sites for upcoming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/march-2025-stargazing-a-red-moon-and-a-vanishing-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">missions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-ice-could-support-lunar-bases">Moon ice could support lunar bases</h2>



NASA’s future <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/artemis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Artemis</a> missions aim for the Moon’s southern polar region. If these missions find ice just inches below the surface, this reserve could provide a local water supply.



Carrying water from Earth is expensive and adds extra weight to launch vehicles. Accessing water on the Moon would be a major step in planning longer stays and more frequent missions.



Experts suggest that understanding temperature swings is key to figuring out where ice can survive. Sensors on craft like Chandrayaan-3 fill a gap in our knowledge, particularly for high latitudes.



Robots and rovers may soon examine these cooler slopes directly. Drilling tools could confirm the presence of <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/moon/moon-water-and-ices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice</a> and assess its purity and volume.



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41526-022-00244-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lunar dust</a> might complicate attempts to reach these hidden deposits. Researchers must be mindful of how this dust sticks to instruments and affects gear performance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-considerations-for-exploration">Practical considerations for exploration</h2>



Future analyses could refine our awareness of just how far these ice-friendly zones extend across the Moon’s south polar terrain. This knowledge will shape mission strategies and inspire fresh ideas in lunar science.



Some areas on the Moon can drop to 105 Kelvin at night, which is around -268 degrees Fahrenheit. That extreme cold complicates how astronauts and equipment function during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-arrived-on-earth-gradually-not-in-one-big-event/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar</a> nighttime.



Artificial heating systems increase power demands. Engineers must plan carefully for the wide temperature ranges that landers and bases will endure.



Light levels and radio shadows can affect communications. Rovers may have trouble recharging if solar panels see limited sunlight.



Each region has pros and cons. Scientists hope these new temperature insights will help weigh those factors when picking sites for experiments or habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-missions-and-lunar-exploration">Mars missions and lunar exploration </h2>



Mars missions have also used temperature readings to decide where water-ice may lie underground. Instruments like the <a href="https://themis.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Thermal Emission Imaging System</a> have been vital in mapping temperature variations on the Red Planet.



Similar methods now guide lunar exploration strategies. Remote sensing, combined with direct measurements, helps paint a clearer picture of what resources might be within reach.



Multiple space agencies are preparing to launch robotic scouts to different parts of the Moon. Sharing data on local temperatures and ice distribution helps reduce risks for each mission.



Companies also see potential in extracting water for commercial ventures. Agreements on resource usage and environmental protection may define how these discoveries shape lunar policies.



Each success builds trust among global participants. Partnerships could accelerate scientific breakthroughs while lowering overall costs for each party.



A wave of private and public missions is on the horizon. Findings from Chandrayaan-3 may serve as a helpful guide for those next steps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-sustaining-life">Challenges of sustaining life</h2>



Keeping humans safe in a place with huge temperature swings demands robust habitat design. Walls need insulation to shield against scorching midday heat and frigid nights.



Spacesuit technology must handle fine lunar dust that can scratch visors and cling to every surface. Engineers study how dust moves and how best to seal habitats.



<a href="https://blogs.esa.int/exploration/spaceship-eac-recycling-water-on-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Water recycling</a> is another key factor in self-sufficiency. Collecting and reusing liquids can stretch limited resources and cut down on the need for shipments from Earth.



Medical needs also come into play. Pressure swings and radiation levels mean health systems must be meticulously planned.



The Moon’s lower gravity can affect muscles, bones, and fluid distribution. Future residents will likely undergo <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/counteracting-bone-and-muscle-loss-in-microgravity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exercise protocols</a> to keep their bodies in shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dream-of-a-lunar-base">The dream of a lunar base</h2>



As these hurdles are tackled, explorers will gain a clearer roadmap for living beyond our planet. The dream of a permanent lunar base moves closer as research continues.



Some experts envision a time when lunar settlers harvest ice and generate oxygen right on site. That could allow them to stay longer and push deeper into space.



These ambitions hinge on continued scientific progress. As each mission adds new data, the path to living on the Moon takes shape.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02114-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Moon slopes may hide water ice just below the surface

For decades, the presence of water and ice on the...

For centuries, observers have been fascinated by the diverse fish inhabiting rivers, lakes, and oceans. Some dazzle with vibrant colors, while others surprise with unusual shapes and distinctive teeth.



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08612-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have long studied the skeletal features of fish, especially their mouthparts, to unravel how different species adapt to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-evolution-in-the-baltic-sea-how-herring-became-fish-eaters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changing environments</a>.



After many years of investigation at the University of California, Davis, one scientist has discovered a new clue to how fish species branch out faster than most vertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-teeth-help-fish-adapt">Unique teeth help fish adapt</h2>



These fish do not merely differ in color or size. Their teeth also display unique configurations that match the foods they eat and the places they inhabit.



Some sport single-pointed teeth, like little pegs, whereas others have multiple points tucked together in a single tooth. 



“This changes the way we think about key innovations,” said Nick Peoples, first author of the paper and a graduate student working with Professor Peter Wainwright at the <a href="https://biology.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a> Department of Evolution and Ecology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cichlids-and-easy-switches">Cichlids and easy switches</h2>



The <a href="https://ronscichlids.com/collections/african-cichlid-breeder-groups?srsltid=AfmBOoouLZjnMMQ5bBuyEyJw2urqXuWKM56umolPjL4l3ObBqBP6gKCZ" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cichlid group</a> in Africa’s great lakes is famous for its ability to adapt to different food sources. Some species nibble algae, some snap at small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/master-switch-controls-the-timing-of-fish-egg-hatching/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aquatic creatures</a>, and others snack on whatever drifts past.



“It’s not just the teeth, it’s how quickly they are gained or lost,” said Peoples. Scientists have noticed that cichlids can rapidly transition between simpler cone-shaped teeth and more complicated multi-cusped teeth. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-it-all-takes-shape">How it all takes shape</h2>



The researchers used a large dataset to pinpoint moments in fish history when tooth structures switched from one type to another. This reconstruction uncovered a pattern: lineages that can swap between simple and complex teeth form <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coelacanth-ngamugawi-wirngarri-new-species-living-fossil-fish-survived-over-400-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new species</a> at an unusually fast pace.



The ability to shift tooth shapes without major roadblocks seems to give fish a trick up their sleeve. This trait has led to repeated bursts of speciation in different environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-teeth-give-fish-an-advantage">Complex teeth give fish an advantage</h2>



“Complex teeth are one innovation that contributed to the evolutionary success of major vertebrate lineages,” noted the researchers. By examining ancient fossils and modern samples, the team confirmed that these structures appeared in multiple fish families through time.



Some gained a competitive edge in crowded waters, while others exploited new food resources that demanded extra tooth surfaces. Speciation rates are five times higher when transitions between simple and complex teeth occur rapidly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-genetic-toolkit">The genetic toolkit</h2>



Experts propose that certain fish keep the genetic instructions for both tooth types. That might explain how they switch back and forth more effortlessly than other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-find-new-ways-to-reproduce-in-response-to-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groups</a>.



This switch happens faster in African lakes than in marine habitats. Rapid changes in water conditions or food availability could spark a swift rearrangement of tooth shapes in these cichlids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-african-lakes">Beyond African lakes</h2>



Although cichlids steal the spotlight, fish in other regions show hints of similar adaptability. Some reef-dwelling species can alter their mouthparts for scraping rocks or slicing algae.



Those that can revert to older tooth patterns appear better equipped to handle competition from other fish. This insight might encourage broader studies on how such elasticity influences diversification in other aquatic communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaping-evolutionary-patterns">Shaping evolutionary patterns</h2>



<a href="http://phytools.org/mexico2018/lec/Diversification.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lineage diversification</a> describes how species split into new forms. Factors like climate, mating behavior, and resource use drive these splits at different speeds.



In fast-evolving groups, minor genetic changes have outsized effects on survival and reproduction. That flexibility, once unleashed, boosts the odds of stumbling onto a successful new niche.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprises-in-ecological-roles">Surprises in ecological roles</h2>



African cichlids seem to exemplify this idea with their blend of opportunism and versatility. Shifting from a flesh-piercing tooth to a multi-cusped one can open up surprising new diets.



The abrupt changes may send fish into microhabitats that were off-limits before, adding more diversity to the lakes. This phenomenon highlights how even a small tweak in anatomy can reshape entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-summer-fishing-shrinks-atlantic-salmon-size-over-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communities</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-adaptability-and-fish-conservation">Teeth adaptability and fish conservation </h2>



Experts suspect similar processes might occur with other physical traits. <a href="https://phys.org/news/2012-06-sticky-gecko-toes-arose-independently.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sticky toe pads</a> in climbing reptiles or specialized beaks in birds can emerge repeatedly across distant groups.



Some lineages might keep the blueprint for these traits in their genetic code and resurface them under the right circumstances. Others might lose this genetic blueprint and hit a dead end for further innovations.



Conservationists who monitor threatened fish species could use this insight to identify groups with higher adaptability potential. If a fish can switch tooth structures quickly, it might cope better with sudden habitat changes.



That same fish could outcompete neighbors that lack this flexibility, altering the balance in fragile ecosystems. The researchers hope this knowledge will guide targeted protection efforts for vulnerable freshwater habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ideas-for-future-research">Ideas for future research</h2>



Scientists are now curious about the specific genes that let fish move easily between different tooth designs. Pinpointing those genes could unlock new ways of understanding variation in other vertebrates.



Engineers might also get ideas from these flexible tooth structures for designing tools that adapt to different tasks. Biology has often inspired clever technological concepts, and fish teeth are no exception.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-impact-of-cichlids">Cultural impact of cichlids</h2>



In some African communities, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17925206/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lake Victoria cichlids</a> feature prominently in local diets. Their adaptability keeps them abundant in markets, satisfying tastes for nutritious, locally sourced protein.



These same fish also intrigue aquarium enthusiasts around the globe, who admire their colors and unique behavior. Their popularity reinforces the bond between people and the underwater world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-changes-drive-evolution">Small changes drive evolution</h2>



Observing how a physical feature shapes evolutionary paths prompts questions about other hidden traits. One simple switch could ripple through an entire lineage, setting off an explosion of new forms.



Cichlids stand out as a dramatic demonstration of that concept, suggesting that adaptability itself might be the real driver of rapid diversification. That concept may apply well beyond fish, shining light on a bigger story about how life branches out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-path-worth-following">A path worth following</h2>



Future work will likely take a deeper look at the ecological triggers that encourage these genetic possibilities. Many factors - from water acidity to seasonal migration of prey - might tip the balance in favor of a tooth switch.



Such findings add more dimension to our understanding of biodiversity. With each new piece of evidence, researchers gain a richer perspective on why certain groups flourish in unexpected ways.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08612-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Fish evolve rapidly by switching between simple and complex teeth

For centuries, observers have been fascinated by the diverse fish...

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) detected H5N1 bird flu in raw milk samples from several states in the U.S. Many Americans remain unaware of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-virus-preparing-for-tomorrow-despite-minimal-risk-today/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health risks</a> associated with consuming raw milk, especially for children. 



Raw milk can carry harmful bacteria, including Salmonella, E. coli, Campylobacter, Cryptosporidium, Listeria, and Brucella.



More than half of U.S. adults, about 56 percent, understand that raw milk is less safe than pasteurized milk. However, a significant portion of the population remains uncertain. 



Around twenty-five percent are unsure about the safety difference, while 12 percent believe raw milk is just as safe as pasteurized milk. Six percent think raw milk is actually safer, according to a survey by the Annenberg Public Policy Center (<a href="https://www.annenbergpublicpolicycenter.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APPC</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-children-face-greater-health-risks">Children face greater health risks</h2>



A concerning survey finding reveals that two-thirds of respondents, about 66 percent, do not know that children face higher risks from consuming raw milk. This lack of awareness can lead to serious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-outbreak-has-killed-20-million-chickens-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health consequences</a>.



“Consuming raw milk and raw milk products can make you sick and pasteurization reduces the risk of milk-borne illness,” said Patrick E. Jamieson, director of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.annenbergpublicpolicycenter.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APPC’s Annenberg Health and Risk Communication Institute</a>.



“Looking for the pasteurization label before buying or consuming milk or milk products such as cheese is good practice.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-flu-cases-linked-to-raw-milk-and-poultry">Bird flu cases linked to raw milk and poultry</h2>



As of March 10, 2025, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (<a href="https://www.cdc.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CDC</a>) confirmed 70 cases of H5 bird flu in 13 states. 



Most infections were linked to exposure to infected poultry or dairy herds. One person in Louisiana has died from the virus. There is no evidence of human-to-human transmission at this time.



Since January 2022, bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-flu-may-be-more-harmful-to-the-brain-than-covid/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flu</a> has affected nearly a thousand dairy herds in 17 states and infected over 166 million poultry and wild birds. 



Global data from the World Health Organization (<a href="https://www.who.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHO</a>) reports 954 cases of human avian flu infections between 2003 and December 2024, with 464 fatalities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-of-bird-flu-in-raw-milk">Risks of bird flu in raw milk</h2>



The majority of U.S. adults are unaware that bird flu has only been detected in raw milk. Only 17 percent correctly recognize this fact, while 68 percent remain uncertain. Some incorrectly believe bird flu has been found in pasteurized milk or both types of milk.



Scientists have found that mice can contract bird flu by drinking raw milk, raising concerns about potential human transmission. 



Although the FDA has not confirmed whether H5N1 can spread to humans through raw milk, studies suggest a possible risk. The <a href="https://www.nih.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institutes of Health</a> states that untreated milk containing the virus could infect those who consume it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-perception-of-raw-milk-safety">Public perception of raw milk safety</h2>



The APPC survey found that 22 percent of Americans believe drinking raw milk increases the risk of contracting bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/efforts-to-control-bird-flu-are-not-working-are-humans-next/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flu</a>. Another 22 percent think it has no effect, while 53 percent remain unsure.



The <a href="https://www.fda.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FDA</a> stresses that pasteurization eliminates harmful bacteria and viruses, including H5N1 if present. Yet, misinformation continues to influence public opinion on raw milk safety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-misunderstood-health-benefits">Misunderstood health benefits </h2>



Despite scientific evidence, raw milk advocates continue to make claims about its supposed health benefits. The APPC survey examined several of these beliefs and found that many Americans remain uncertain about their accuracy.



Twenty-six percent believe raw milk is as effective as pasteurized milk in preventing osteoporosis. Ten percent incorrectly believe raw milk is more effective, while 59 percent are unsure.



Forty percent recognize that raw milk does not cure lactose intolerance. Ten percent incorrectly believe it does, while 50 percent remain uncertain.



Thirty-nine percent correctly identify that raw milk does not reduce asthma symptoms, while 54 percent remain unsure. Seven percent believe it does.



Thirty percent believe raw milk does not enhance the immune system, but 23 percent think it does. Nearly half of respondents, about 47 percent, are unsure.



The FDA refutes these claims, stating that raw milk does not provide superior health benefits and poses serious risks, especially for children.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-government-regulations-and-public-opinion">Government regulations and public opinion</h2>



Since 1987, the FDA has banned the interstate sale of raw milk. However, 30 states permit some form of legal sale. Public opinion on regulation remains divided.



Nearly 24 percent of survey respondents support allowing raw <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/raw-milk-could-carry-deadly-flu-viruses-for-days/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milk</a> sales across state lines, while 28 percent oppose it. A significant portion remains uncertain.



In-state raw milk sales also generate divided opinions. About 24 percent favor unrestricted sales, while 25 percent support limiting sales to farm owners selling from their own land. Fourteen percent believe raw milk sales should be completely banned in their states.



Federal regulations on raw milk spark debate. About 32 percent believe these rules represent unnecessary government intrusion. Another 34 percent disagree, while 33 percent neither agree nor disagree.



A quarter of respondents believe state laws prohibiting raw milk sales violate the constitutional rights of sellers. A slightly larger group, about 34 percent, disagrees. Over 40 percent remain uncertain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-and-warning-labels">Testing and warning labels</h2>



More than half of Americans, about 56 percent, do not believe that state laws requiring warning labels on raw milk containers violate sellers’ constitutional rights. Fourteen percent think they do, while 30 percent are unsure.



Many Americans remain unaware of the extent of bird flu testing in raw milk. When asked how many states participate in USDA testing, 74 percent of survey respondents said they were unsure.



As of January 8, 2025, the USDA reports that its National Milk Testing Strategy includes 28 states. These states account for nearly 65 percent of the nation's milk production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pasteurized-milk-is-the-safest-choice">Pasteurized milk is the safest choice</h2>



Raw milk carries significant health risks, including exposure to harmful bacteria and potential bird flu transmission. Many Americans remain uninformed or misinformed about these dangers. 



Scientific research consistently supports pasteurization as the best method to ensure milk safety. 



Public health organizations continue to emphasize the importance of choosing pasteurized milk to protect consumers, especially vulnerable populations like children.



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Most Americans don't know the dangers of raw milk and bird flu

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) detected H5N1 bird flu...

Preventing diseases like malaria often relies on individual choices, but a new study shows that social connections play a more significant role than previously thought. 



Health campaigns typically focus on educating individuals about prevention methods, assuming people will make rational decisions based on available information. However, researchers have found that the behaviors of friends, family, and community members strongly influence whether someone adopts protective measures.



This research highlights the importance of social ties in shaping health behaviors. People are more likely to use bed nets, insect repellents, and protective clothing if they see others around them doing the same. 



While personal awareness and expert advice matter, the study suggests that social influences outweigh these factors. Understanding how behaviors spread within communities could help improve public health efforts, making disease prevention more effective and sustainable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-ties-shape-malaria-prevention">Social ties shape malaria prevention</h2>



Researchers conducted a study in ten rural villages in India, focusing on malaria prevention behaviors. Their goal was to determine what influences people’s decisions to adopt preventative measures. 



The study examined whether factors like education, personal health awareness, and professional medical advice played a key role or if social networks had a stronger impact.



The findings revealed that social exposure is the most significant factor in determining whether individuals take action against malaria. 



The study also emphasized the role of households as primary spaces where health-related discussions take place. Instead of making independent decisions, people tend to follow the behavior of those closest to them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-networks-and-disease-prevention">Social networks and disease prevention </h2>



The research was conducted by experts from the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a>, the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a>, the <a href="https://iiphshillong.edu.in/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Indian Institute of Public Health Shillong</a>, <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York University</a>, and the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. 



The team introduced a new framework for analyzing the impact of social networks on disease prevention.



“Social networks can either help or hinder disease prevention efforts that rely on a combination of behaviours. For example, if your friends and family use insect repellents, you are much more likely to use them yourself,” noted Dr. András Vörös from the University of Birmingham.



This suggests that health interventions should not only provide information but also encourage communities to adopt healthier behaviors collectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-households-in-health-behaviors">Role of households in health behaviors</h2>



One of the most striking findings of the study was the influence of households on health behaviors. People tend to discuss health matters with family members more than with outsiders. 



These discussions shape their choices regarding disease prevention. If health information is introduced within a household, there is a higher chance that multiple members will adopt preventative measures.



In contrast, expert advice and personal factors like age, gender, and education had a much smaller impact on prevention behaviors. Even when individuals were aware of health risks, they were less likely to take action unless their social circles reinforced those behaviors.



This insight highlights the need for public health initiatives that target entire families rather than individuals. When an entire household is engaged in prevention efforts, the likelihood of consistent and long-term adherence increases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-people-follow-social-trends">People follow social trends </h2>



“We found that people do not necessarily adopt prevention behaviors in bundles, but rather tend to simply adopt ones which are common among the people they talk to. Exposure to preventative behaviors within someone’s social network is the main factor influencing whether they adopt those same,” Dr. Vörös noted.



This means that people do not necessarily follow expert recommendations in full. Instead, they pick and choose based on what they see others doing. If someone in their social circle starts using insect repellent but not bed nets, they are likely to do the same.



This pattern suggests that public health interventions should focus on promoting common behaviors within social groups. If a campaign successfully encourages a few influential individuals to adopt protective measures, those behaviors are likely to spread naturally throughout the community.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-programs-and-social-influence">Public programs and social influence</h2>



Given these findings, public health campaigns need to shift from targeting individuals to engaging with groups. Instead of simply informing people about prevention measures, programs should focus on encouraging community leaders and other influential figures to promote these behaviors.



Community-based strategies could include training local leaders to educate their social circles about the importance of malaria prevention. When trusted individuals endorse certain health measures, people are more likely to follow their example.



Additionally, household-level interventions could be more effective than targeting individuals separately. When a whole family is encouraged to adopt protective measures, they reinforce these behaviors for one another, leading to longer-lasting results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-broader-perspective">A broader perspective</h2>



Although this study focused on malaria prevention in rural India, its findings apply to various diseases and locations worldwide. 



Social networks influence how people respond to health threats beyond malaria, including other infectious and non-communicable diseases.



By recognizing the power of social influence, health organizations can design more effective strategies to encourage prevention. Understanding that people follow the behaviors of those around them allows for better-targeted interventions that result in greater public health improvements.



In the fight against disease, knowledge is important, but social influence plays an even bigger role. Public health efforts that embrace this reality can lead to lasting changes and healthier communities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-85240-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Social networks have a powerful influence on disease prevention

Preventing diseases like malaria often relies on individual choices, but...

March 16 honors one of the world’s most cherished animals - the giant panda. With their playful antics and unmistakable black-and-white fur, they’ve won hearts everywhere. But their charm hides a struggle. 



Habitat loss has pushed giant pandas to the edge, and their numbers have dwindled. 



National Panda Day is not just a celebration of their charm but a call to action. It raises awareness about the challenges they face and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-pandas-taste-for-bamboo-is-literally-written-in-their-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global efforts</a> needed to protect them.



Conservationists, animal lovers, and researchers work tirelessly to ensure that pandas have a future in the wild. This day reminds us of the responsibility we share in preserving their existence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giant-pandas-in-the-wild">Giant pandas in the wild </h2>



Native to the dense bamboo forests of China, giant pandas belong to the Bear (Ursidae) family. 



Despite their bear lineage, pandas have a diet that is vastly different from other species. While they have the digestive system of a carnivore, they survive almost entirely on bamboo.



To compensate for the low nutritional value, pandas spend most of their time eating - consuming up to 40 kilograms (88 pounds) of bamboo daily.



Unlike other bears, pandas do not hibernate. Their mountainous habitat provides food throughout the year, eliminating the need for long periods of sleep. 



They are also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-panda-day-recognizing-the-beauty-and-fragility-of-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solitary creatures</a>, avoiding interactions unless it is mating season. Pandas may look friendly, but in the wild, they prefer to keep to themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-species-on-the-brink">A species on the brink</h2>



Pandas have roamed the Earth for nearly 20 million years, making them one of the oldest bear species. However, their survival has been anything but easy.



For decades, giant pandas were classified as endangered due to habitat destruction and their difficulty in reproducing. With fewer than 2,000 left in the wild, the risk of extinction loomed large.



One of the biggest threats to panda populations has been deforestation. Expanding cities, agricultural development, and climate change have forced pandas into smaller areas, making it harder for them to find food and mates. 



Conservationists feared that without immediate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intervention</a>, pandas would disappear forever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-national-panda-day-and-conservation">National Panda Day and conservation </h2>



Efforts to protect pandas gained global attention in 1961 when the World Wide Fund for Nature (<a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WWF</a>) adopted the giant panda as its official logo. This decision highlighted the species' vulnerability and sparked worldwide initiatives to protect them. It was a turning point in conservation history.



In 1984, the United States placed pandas on the Endangered Species list, further emphasizing the need for protection. 



China also took significant steps, creating more reserves and implementing breeding programs to boost panda numbers. By 2006, the number of panda reserves had tripled, greatly improving their chances of survival.



Thanks to years of dedicated conservation work, a milestone was reached in 2016. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) downgraded pandas from “endangered” to “vulnerable.” 



This marked a rare success story in wildlife conservation, proving that global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-some-giant-pandas-born-with-brown-fur/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">efforts</a> can make a difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-panda-reproduction">Challenge of panda reproduction</h2>



Despite progress, pandas still face significant challenges. One of the biggest obstacles is reproduction. 



Female pandas are only fertile for a short window - about two to three days per year. This makes successful mating rare in the wild. Even in captivity, breeding programs have struggled with low birth rates.



To address this issue, China’s Chengdu Research Base for Giant Panda Breeding has played a key role in improving reproductive success. 



Scientists have developed techniques to increase the likelihood of pregnancy, including artificial insemination and improved care for newborn cubs.



These efforts have given hope that panda populations can continue to grow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-pandas-matter-to-the-ecosystem">Why pandas matter to the ecosystem</h2>



Pandas are more than just adorable animals - they play a vital role in maintaining their habitat. 



As they move through the forests, they help spread seeds, allowing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancestors-of-giant-pandas-had-a-completely-different-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a> to grow. Their presence supports biodiversity, benefiting countless other species in the region.



Protecting pandas means protecting entire ecosystems. Their survival ensures that the forests they inhabit continue to thrive. 



By conserving pandas, we also safeguard other endangered wildlife that depends on the same environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-celebrate-national-panda-day">Celebrate National Panda Day</h2>



National Panda Day is an opportunity to learn more about these fascinating animals and support their conservation.



Visiting a zoo with a panda exhibit provides an up-close look at their behavior and daily routines. Zoos that house pandas often contribute to research and breeding programs, helping ensure their long-term survival. Observing pandas in person can deepen appreciation for the efforts needed to protect them.



For those who cannot visit a zoo, watching documentaries such as&nbsp;<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt4624970/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Born in China</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt6676350/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pandas</a>&nbsp;offers an insightful look into their lives. These films showcase the challenges pandas face and the conservation efforts working to protect them.



Supporting organizations like the WWF by adopting a panda symbolically or donating to conservation programs also makes a real difference. Every contribution helps maintain research centers, preserve habitats, and fund rescue efforts.



Wearing panda-themed clothing or purchasing eco-friendly panda merchandise can also spread awareness. Many brands donate a portion of their profits to conservation, making it a fun way to support the cause.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-future-for-pandas">A future for pandas</h2>



Although pandas are no longer classified as endangered, their survival is far from guaranteed. Habitat destruction, climate change, and human expansion continue to threaten their future. 



National Panda Day serves as a reminder that continued conservation efforts are necessary. The progress made so far proves that with dedication and global support, species on the brink of extinction can recover. 



By protecting pandas, we contribute to a larger movement of wildlife conservation. Their story is one of resilience, but it is up to us to ensure that future generations can continue to admire these incredible animals.



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National Panda Day 2025: From the brink of extinction to hope

March 16 honors one of the world’s most cherished animals...

Even though Mars is now a cold and dry world, it once hosted rivers, lakes, and possibly vast oceans. Robotic missions search for traces of this past. Some discoveries take years, while others, like unexpected mineral clues, appear suddenly.



A rover traversing the Martian surface may seem routine, but when that rover is NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-2020-perseverance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Perseverance</a> and it encounters something extraordinary, the discovery sends ripples through the scientific community.



Roger Wiens, professor of earth, atmospheric, and planetary sciences at <a href="https://www.purdue.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University</a>, witnessed one of these moments when Perseverance’s laser struck some pale rocks that turned out to be anything but ordinary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chance-encounter-with-a-good-rock">Chance encounter with a good rock</h2>



The rocks in question looked different from the rest. They were paler, and stood out against the usual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/detecting-life-on-mars-a-breakthrough-in-space-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian landscape</a>.



That alone made them interesting, but what truly surprised Wiens and his team was their composition. These rocks contained an unusually high amount of aluminum, linked with the mineral kaolinite.



This, in itself, would have been a noteworthy discovery. But kaolinite is no ordinary mineral. On Earth, it forms only under very specific conditions - ones that involve warmth, moisture, and long-term exposure to water.



Finding it on Mars meant that, at some point in its history, the planet must have been wetter, and possibly even significantly warmer than previously believed.



“On Earth, these minerals form where there is intense rainfall and a warm climate or in hydrothermal systems such as hot springs. Both environments are ideal conditions for life as we know it,” Wiens said.



If the conditions that created these minerals were present on Mars for an extended period, it raises questions about whether the planet once supported environments suitable for life. 



The discovery challenges long-standing ideas about Mars's climate history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-rover-detects-minerals">Mars rover detects minerals</h2>



Wiens’s involvement in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-mars-once-host-life-we-finally-know-where-to-look/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars exploration</a> runs deep. He has spent decades working with rovers and played a crucial role in designing SuperCam, the powerful instrument mounted atop Perseverance. 



Resembling a head and neck, this device allows the rover to analyze the Martian surface from a distance.



SuperCam’s tools allow scientists to examine the composition of Martian rocks without requiring the rover to physically touch them. 



On the first day Perseverance landed, its cameras spotted small, pale pebbles scattered across the landscape. At the time, researchers had other priorities and paid them little attention.



Later, as the rover continued exploring, it came across larger rocks with the same coloration. These rocks were not attached to the underlying bedrock but instead lay loose on the surface. 



Known as “float rocks,” they had been moved from their original location, carried by unknown forces across the Martian terrain. That alone made them intriguing. What came next changed everything.



“These rocks are very different from anything we’ve seen on Mars before,” Wiens said. “They’re enigmas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-mars-minerals">Mysterious Mars minerals</h2>



Wiens’s research team, including Candice Bedford and Clement Royer, took a closer look at these rocks. The deeper they analyzed, the more astonishing the results became.



More than 4,000 of these pale stones were scattered across the surface, all showing similar characteristics. The presence of kaolinite stood out, but that wasn’t the only surprising element.



Alongside kaolinite, the rocks also contained traces of spinel, most likely aluminum spinel. This mineral typically forms in either igneous or metamorphic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>. 



That posed an important question: Did the spinel form first, later interacting with kaolinite, or did the kaolinite somehow develop around the spinel? The answer remains unclear.



On Earth, kaolinite is often found in locations where water has flowed for ages, dissolving away all but the most resilient materials. This means the Martian rocks could be remnants of an ancient, long-lived watery environment. 



However, their current hardness differs from Earth’s kaolinite, suggesting additional geological processes have altered them over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-minerals-hold-evidence-of-water">Mars minerals hold evidence of water</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-mars-atmosphere-may-improve-weather-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars’s history</a> is written in its rocks, and each discovery adds another layer to the story. 



Water has always been at the heart of that story, raising fundamental questions about how much once existed, how long it lasted, and where it eventually disappeared.



“The big questions about Mars are about water,” Wiens said. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/mars_Perseverance-rover_Ouzinkie-rock_kaolinite-mineral-discovery_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/mars_Perseverance-rover_Ouzinkie-rock_kaolinite-mineral-discovery_NASA_1s.webp" alt="SuperCam RMI color images showing various types of textures. A Image of Ouzinkie showing the shiny luster (scam02691); B image of Chignik showing the abundant dark, dull lustered grains within a pale, light-grey matrix (scam01681); C image of Rainbow Curve highlighting a discontinuous and anastomosing tendency of the layered targets (scam01777); D image of Dolgoi Island with yellow arrows pointing to dark green candidate spinel grains ( ~ 1 mm diameter) (scam01657); E image of Unga Island highlighting vitreous, spatter-like texture intermingled with large pits up to 4 cm in diameter (scam01676); F image of Barrier Range showing the smooth, aphanitic/very fine-grained nature of the smooth targets that commonly contains small, spherical pits sometimes filled with a dark coating material (scam02554). Credit: NASA/Purdue/Nature" class="wp-image-1962411"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">SuperCam RMI color images showing various types of textures. A Image of Ouzinkie showing the shiny luster (scam02691); B image of Chignik showing the abundant dark, dull lustered grains within a pale, light-grey matrix (scam01681); C image of Rainbow Curve highlighting a discontinuous and anastomosing tendency of the layered targets (scam01777); D image of Dolgoi Island with yellow arrows pointing to dark green candidate spinel grains ( ~ 1 mm diameter) (scam01657); E image of Unga Island highlighting vitreous, spatter-like texture intermingled with large pits up to 4 cm in diameter (scam01676); F image of Barrier Range showing the smooth, aphanitic/very fine-grained nature of the smooth targets that commonly contains small, spherical pits sometimes filled with a dark coating material (scam02554). Credit: NASA/Purdue/Nature</figcaption></figure>



“How much water was there? How long was there water? Given how cold and dry Mars is now, where did all that water go? As a mineral, kaolinite has a lot of water bound up in its structure. It’s possible that a lot of the water is still there, on Mars, bound up in the minerals.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Even though the research team has not yet found these rocks in their original bedrock location, orbital satellite data confirms that Jezero Crater’s rim contains kaolinite-rich formations. 



Bedford, who co-led the study, believes that tracking the source of these float rocks could provide answers.



“Although we have not seen these rocks ‘in place’ in bedrock with the rover, and we’re not sure where these float rocks came from, from orbiting satellites we know that there are kaolinite-rich rocks in Jezero crater’s rim,” Bedford said. 



“Investigating these rocks in place will help us test our hypotheses on how the rocks formed, how they relate to the ancient Martian environment and the habitability of the planet in the past. We are keeping our eyes wide open, looking for the source of these rocks now that Perseverance is exploring the crater rim.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-signs-of-life">Searching for signs of life</h2>



Mars’ transformation from a planet with liquid water to the frozen desert we see today remains one of the biggest scientific mysteries.



The discovery of these minerals strengthens the possibility that ancient Mars was not just habitable but sustained environments capable of supporting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-collects-26th-rock-sample-on-mars-plans-to-bring-them-all-to-earth-for-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>.



Since life as we know it depends on water, uncovering the history of water on Mars is key to understanding whether life ever had a foothold there.



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This work is the result of a collaboration involving scientists from around the world. Los Alamos National Laboratory (<a href="https://www.lanl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LANL</a>) and the French Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Planétologie (<a href="https://www.irap.omp.eu/en/homepage-en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IRAP</a>), supported by <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> and the Centre National d’Études Spatiales (<a href="https://cnes.fr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNES</a>) in France.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01837-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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New Mars discovery is "different from anything ever seen before"

Even though Mars is now a cold and dry world,...

Makassar,Strait,Highlighted,On,A,Satellite,Image,Map

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by something called the "Wallace Line," had such different wildlife. They saw tigers and elephants on one side, while marsupials lived just a short boat ride away.



Dr. Penny Van Oosterzee, an ecological researcher at <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Cook University</a>, has studied these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> for years. She sees them as a reminder of how physical barriers can split habitats even when they sit close by.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wallace-line-and-species-separation">Wallace Line and species separation</h2>



The Wallace Line runs through Southeast Asia, marking where Asian species give way to Australian species. 



It crosses narrow waters between Borneo and Sulawesi, and between Bali and Lombok, which lie only about 15 miles apart.



Even though it is not an official border, it acts like one for many animals. Flocks of Asian birds thrive on one side, but groups of Australian cockatoos stay on the other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-invisible-fence">An invisible fence </h2>



A deep ocean trench, known as the Makassar Strait, is key to this puzzle. During past ice ages, many islands were connected by land bridges when sea levels dropped.



Yet that submerged gap never vanished here, so animals could not simply wander across. Highly specialized species remained where they could find food, avoid predators, and keep up their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/embryo-development-shows-how-evolution-had-many-options-to-choose-from/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival strategies</a>.



Even birds, which can fly, tend to stay within their familiar habitats because of differences in climate and food availability. The Wallace Line, in many ways, acts like an invisible fence shaped by nature’s own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolving-evolution-how-life-learns-to-adapt-better/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">design</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-makassar-strait-the-basics">Understanding the Makassar Strait - the basics</h2>



The Makassar Strait is a narrow stretch of water that runs between the islands of Borneo and Sulawesi in Indonesia. 



It connects the Celebes Sea in the north to the Java Sea in the south, making it a key passage for ships traveling between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. 



The strait isn’t just a busy maritime route - it’s also home to some incredible marine life. 



Strong ocean currents flow through, bringing nutrient-rich waters that support vibrant coral reefs, fish, and even deep-sea creatures. 



It’s a hotspot for divers and researchers alike, offering a glimpse into Indonesia’s rich underwater biodiversity.



The region is also a key focus for climate change research, as rising sea levels and shifting currents affect both marine ecosystems and coastal communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-shaped-evolution">The Wallace Line shaped evolution</h2>



This unique divide helped shape some early ideas about how species change over time. It sparked thoughts on biogeography, the study of how plants and animals are distributed across the planet.



When Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently <a href="https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-history-of-evolutionary-thought/1800s/natural-selection-charles-darwin-alfred-russel-wallace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wrote</a> about natural selection in the mid-1800s, they each pointed to real-world examples of animals adapting to local conditions. 



The stark difference between these islands stood out to Wallace.



His observations supported the idea that species do not appear randomly but evolve based on their environment. 



The Wallace Line became one of the strongest cases for how geographic barriers can drive the formation of new species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-different-perspective">A different perspective</h2>



There are debates over the geographic accuracy of the line. Researchers have <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/130/1/225/5802023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">called</a> for the boundary line to be redrawn.&nbsp;



“We suggest that Wallace’s Line be redrawn such that the landmass is placed on the Australasian side of this fundamental biogeographical boundary,” wrote Jason Ali and colleagues from the University of Hong Kong.



Shifting a line on a map may seem simple, but it shows how active science can be. As more research appears, definitions can move, and old ideas can adapt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-australasia">What is Australasia?</h2>



The region that includes Australia, New Zealand, and the islands of the surrounding Pacific is known as Australasia. 



It’s a place where you can find everything from vast deserts and lush rainforests to snowy mountains and stunning coral reefs. 



Australia dominates the region with its massive landmass, unique wildlife like kangaroos and koalas, and world-famous landmarks like the Great Barrier Reef and Uluru. 



Meanwhile, New Zealand brings its own magic with breathtaking fjords, rolling green hills, and a deep-rooted Māori culture. 



The islands of Australasia, including Papua New Guinea and parts of Indonesia, add even more diversity with rich indigenous traditions and some of the most biodiverse ecosystems on the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wallace-line-and-human-history">The Wallace Line and human history</h2>



The idea of a boundary extends to humans and not only wildlife. The racial and political effects of the line have been studied at length.&nbsp;



“The difference between these two people had already been noticed by early European travelers, together with the difference in flora and fauna,” noted Fenneke Sysling from the <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Utrecht</a> in The Netherlands.



Many decades ago, claims emerged that certain groups east of the line shared traits with Papuans, while those west of the line fit the Malay category. 



Debates around these claims have carried into modern times, highlighting how complex human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geographic-borders-and-human-evolution">Geographic borders and human evolution</h2>



Various projects track bird populations, insects, and even marsupials (kangaroo) to see how borders and evolution link together. 



Shallow seas no longer block human travel, yet animals remain bound by their own quirks.



Scientists ask whether climate changes or habitat loss might shift wildlife distributions in the future. Updates on these studies add another layer of intrigue to a line first drawn in the 19th century.



The Wallace Line demonstrates how subtle geographic forces can create stark contrasts in living things. It also reminds us that physical distance is not always the main factor - evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history</a> and chance play major roles.



With all of the debates and shifting perspectives, one thing is clear: the planet holds more surprises than any single line can capture.



-----



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-----

Earth has a natural border line that no species will cross - what is the Wallace Line?

Early explorers wondered why two neighboring islands, separated by something...

We all know someone who seems to be aging more slowly than others. They look younger, move with more energy, and seem healthier despite having the same chronological age as their peers. What makes them different?



Scientists at <a href="https://www.osaka-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osaka University</a> in Japan believe they may have found a way to measure this difference more accurately.



Instead of relying solely on chronological age, their new method assesses biological age - the true measure of how well the body has aged.



Using artificial intelligence (AI) and steroid metabolism <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pathways</a>, the model provides a deeper look into aging at a biochemical level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hormones-as-indicators-of-aging">Hormones as indicators of aging</h2>



Aging is influenced by a complex mix of genetics, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lifestyle</a>, and environmental factors. Traditional methods for estimating biological age rely on broad biomarkers such as DNA methylation or protein levels. 



However, these approaches often miss the intricate hormonal interactions that keep the body in balance.



“Our bodies rely on hormones to maintain homeostasis, so we thought, why not use these as key indicators of aging?” said Dr. Qiuyi Wang, co-first author of the study.



To explore this, the researchers focused on steroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, immune response, and stress levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-ai-model-for-biological-age">New AI model for biological age</h2>



The team developed a deep neural network (DNN) model that incorporates steroid metabolism <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pathways</a>. This AI-driven system is the first to examine how steroid hormones interact rather than just their individual levels.



“Our approach reduces the noise caused by individual steroid level differences and allows the model to focus on meaningful patterns,” explains Dr. Zi Wang, co-first author of this work.



The model was trained using blood samples from hundreds of individuals. The findings suggest that biological age differences increase as people grow older, much like a river widening as it flows downstream.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precise-health-assessment">Precise health assessment</h2>



The researchers’ method requires only five drops of blood. From this sample, they analyze 22 key steroids and their interactions to estimate biological age with greater precision. 



This advancement in technology opens doors for the early detection of age-related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-and-aging-new-study-reveals-a-surprising-connection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health</a> risks and personalized interventions to slow down aging.



One of the most significant discoveries in the study relates to cortisol, a hormone linked to stress. The team found that when cortisol levels doubled, biological age increased by approximately 1.5 times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-stress-on-biological-aging">Impact of stress on biological aging</h2>



“Stress is often discussed in general terms, but our findings provide concrete evidence that it has a measurable impact on biological aging,” said Professor Toshifumi Takao, a corresponding author and an expert in analytical chemistry and mass spectrometry.



This discovery reinforces the importance of stress management in maintaining long-term health. Chronic stress may speed up aging at a biochemical level, making it essential to prioritize mental well-being along with physical health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-applications-and-potential">Future applications and potential</h2>



Scientists believe their AI-powered biological age model could transform how people understand and manage their health. Instead of relying on general guidelines, this tool might allow doctors to give advice tailored to each person’s body and aging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-the-cellular-mortality-timer-that-dictates-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">process</a>. 



By analyzing hormone interactions, the model could help detect diseases before symptoms appear, making early treatment possible. 



The technology could also assist in designing wellness programs that fit an individual’s needs, helping people choose the best diet, exercise, and lifestyle changes to slow down aging.



In the future, this technology might make it easier to track aging speed and adjust health strategies accordingly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-research-on-biological-aging">Expanding research on biological aging</h2>



While this study represents a major step forward, the researchers acknowledge that biological aging is complex. 



“This is just the beginning,” said Dr. Wang. “By expanding our dataset and incorporating additional biological markers, we hope to refine the model further and unlock deeper insights into the mechanisms of aging.”



Advancements in AI and biomedical research continue to bring us closer to understanding the process of aging at a deeper level. The ability to assess how quickly a person is aging with a simple blood test could completely transform preventive healthcare in the years to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt2624" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



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-----

AI-powered blood test can predict your true biological age

We all know someone who seems to be aging more...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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-----

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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