In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp;



Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-the-heart-with-light">Controlling the heart with light</h2>



The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest.



The external controller detects abnormal rhythms and sends light through the body to activate the pacemaker and restore heartbeat. The study demonstrates the device’s effectiveness across animal and human donor hearts.&nbsp;



The development of the pacemaker was led by John A. Rogers, a professor of material science, biomedical engineering, and neurological surgery at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>.&nbsp;



“We have developed what is, to our knowledge, the world’s smallest pacemaker,” said Professor Rogers.



“There’s a crucial need for temporary pacemakers in the context of pediatric heart surgeries, and that’s a use case where size miniaturization is incredibly important. In terms of the device load on the body - the smaller, the better.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solution-designed-for-newborns">Solution designed for newborns</h2>



Though the light-activated pacemaker can function in patients of all sizes, its miniaturized design was motivated by the needs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infant-speech-is-driven-by-heart-rate-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>. 



Igor Efimov is a co-leader of the study and experimental cardiologist at Northwestern.&nbsp;



“About 1% of children are born with congenital heart defects. The good news is that these children only need temporary pacing after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surgery</a>. In about seven days or so, most patients’ hearts will self-repair. But those seven days are absolutely critical," said Efimov.



Traditional pacemakers require surgery and have wires sticking out of the chest to connect to an external device. When they are no longer needed, the wires are removed - risking bleeding, tissue damage, or even death.



“Wires literally protrude from the body, attached to a pacemaker outside the body,” Efimov explained. “When the pacemaker is no longer needed, a physician pulls it out. The wires can become enveloped in scar tissue. That’s actually how Neil Armstrong died.”



The new injectable pacemaker addresses these risks. All of its components are biocompatible and bioresorbable, meaning they safely dissolve in the body’s fluids without needing surgical removal. Once the device has served its purpose, it simply disappears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-the-light-activated-pacemaker">Refining the light-activated pacemaker</h2>



This innovation builds on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41587-021-00948-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier work</a> by Rogers and Efimov, who developed a quarter-sized dissolvable pacemaker in 2021. Surgeons asked for a smaller version to allow easier placement and suit the smallest patients.&nbsp;



The original device used near-field communication (NFC), but its antenna limited how small the device could be made. To overcome this, the team replaced the NFC system with a novel light-based mechanism.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1s.webp" alt="The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University" class="wp-image-1964846"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Click image to enlarge. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University</figcaption></figure>



“Instead of using the radio frequency scheme for wireless control, we developed a light-based scheme for turning the pacemaker on and delivering stimulation pulses to the surface of the heart. This is one feature that allowed us to dramatically reduce the size,” said Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powered-by-the-body-s-own-fluids">Powered by the body’s own fluids</h2>



The engineers also reimagined how to power the tiny pacemaker. Rather than requiring a battery or external power source, the device uses a simple galvanic cell - a chemical battery formed by two different metals as electrodes.&nbsp;



When the device is inside the body, surrounding biofluids act as the electrolyte, allowing electrical current to flow and stimulate the heart.



“A very tiny light-activated switch on the opposite side from the battery allows us to turn the device from its ‘off’ state to an ‘on’ state upon delivery of light that passes through the patient’s body from the skin-mounted patch,” explained Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-trauma-and-risk">Reducing trauma and risk</h2>



Using infrared light, which can safely penetrate deep into the body, the wearable controller detects when a patient’s heart rate falls too low. It then triggers a light-emitting diode (LED) to flash on and off at the desired pacing rhythm.&nbsp;



“Infrared light penetrates very well through the body,” Efimov said. “If you put a flashlight against your palm, you will see the light glow through the other side of your hand. It turns out that our bodies are great conductors of light.”



Despite its microscopic size - just 1.8 mm wide, 3.5 mm long, and 1 mm thick - the pacemaker delivers stimulation on par with traditional devices. “The heart requires a tiny amount of electrical stimulation,” Rogers said.&nbsp;



“By minimizing the size, we dramatically simplify the implantation procedures, we reduce trauma and risk to the patient, and, with the dissolvable nature of the device, we eliminate any need for secondary surgical extraction procedures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-heart-care">A new era of heart care</h2>



Because these light-activated pacemakers are so small and wireless, doctors could one day deploy multiple units on different parts of the heart to create more advanced pacing systems. 



Each device could be controlled independently using different light wavelengths, enabling personalized and precisely timed stimulation across the heart’s surface.



“We can deploy a number of such small pacemakers onto the outside of the heart and control each one,” Efimov said. “Then we can achieve improved synchronized functional care.”



Professor Rogers noted that because it’s so small, the pacemaker can be integrated with almost any kind of implantable device.



“We also demonstrated integration of collections of these devices across the frameworks that serve as transcatheter aortic valve replacements to address complications that can occur during a patient’s recovery process," said Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bioelectronic-medicine">Future of bioelectronic medicine</h2>



While this breakthrough has clear implications for pediatric heart care, the technology could pave the way for a new generation of bioelectronic medicine.&nbsp;



These tiny, dissolvable devices could one day be adapted to promote nerve and bone regeneration, manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain</a>, support wound healing, and more.



Northwestern engineers shrank the device and removed risks by making it dissolve after use. In doing so, they’ve created a tool that could reshape how doctors care for the heart - from the tiniest patients to adults.



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Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/j_0hZ8cUwgo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video interview...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08726-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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World's smallest pacemaker is set to revolutionize heart health

In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp; Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries. Controlling the heart with light The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest. The external controller detects...

Since 1990, childhood obesity has significantly increased on all continents, nearly doubling in prevalence. Although the United States currently has the highest prevalence, many other nations are not very far behind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-childhood-obesity-worldwide-nbsp">Childhood obesity worldwide&nbsp;</h2>



For instance, in Southern European countries such as Greece, Italy and Spain, 10 to 15 percent of children are obese, and, although Eastern European countries have for the moment slightly lower rates, they are experiencing a rapid surge which may soon match Southern Europe.&nbsp;



At a global level, Asia has almost half of all overweight children under five, while Africa has one-quarter of such children. Finally, in Latin America, nearly 20% of children under 20 are overweight.&nbsp;



And sadly, a great number of developing countries currently face not only the challenge of&nbsp; overweight/obesity in their children, but also malnutrition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-epidemic-levels-of-childhood-obesity-nbsp">Epidemic levels of childhood obesity&nbsp;</h2>



This obesity epidemic leads to a variety of health issues, including childhood <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-blood-pressure-drug-called-rilmenidine-dramatically-slows-aging-in-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hypertension</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-blood-pressure-drug-called-rilmenidine-dramatically-slows-aging-in-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">type 2 diabetes</a>.&nbsp;



Recently, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.fau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Atlantic University</a> (FAU) has discussed these challenges and provided possible solutions in a commentary published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10995-024-04001-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Maternal and Child Health Journal</a>.



Study lead author Charles H. Hennekens is a professor of medicine and preventive medicine at FAU.&nbsp;



“Pediatric overweight and obesity have reached epidemic levels in the U.S. and are becoming a pandemic globally. These conditions lead to high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes and lipid disorders, which contribute to metabolic syndrome,” said Hennekens.



“In adults, these issues significantly increase the risks of heart attacks, stroke, liver disease, obstructive sleep apnea, arthritis and certain cancers - many of which are now occurring at younger ages.”



Hennekens noted that through coordinated clinical and public health efforts, we can address these troubling trends and work toward a healthier future for children and families globally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-misconceptions-about-childhood-obesity-nbsp">Misconceptions about childhood obesity&nbsp;</h2>



In the United States, a preschooler is considered overweight if their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-and-bmi-do-not-accurately-reflect-a-persons-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">body mass index</a> (BMI) surpasses the 85th percentile.&nbsp;



Previous research has shown that such children are at a significantly higher risk of being overweight in their adolescence than those with a BMI at the 50th percentile. This highlights the current misconception that children can simply “outgrow” overweight problems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boosting-daily-activity-among-children-nbsp">Boosting daily activity among children&nbsp;</h2>



According to the experts, health care providers and public health practitioners face great challenges in their attempts to boost daily <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/any-type-of-physical-activity-can-help-protect-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">physical activity</a> among children, which could significantly increase metabolic rates, lower BMI, and reduce risks of coronary heart disease later in life.



“With declining physical education in schools and excessive time spent on electronic devices, many children fail to meet recommended activity guidelines,” said co-author Panagiota “Yiota” Kitsantas, the chair of FAU’s Department of Population Health and Social Medicine.&nbsp;



“This sedentary behavior contributes to overweight and obesity through poor diet, reduced sleep, and decreased physical activity. Encouraging organized, enjoyable activities rather than competitive ones can help children achieve necessary physical activity levels.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contributing-factors-to-childhood-obesity-nbsp">Contributing factors to childhood obesity&nbsp;</h2>



However, the scientists warn that while increasing the amount of physical activity among children is necessary, it is far from sufficient to have a large impact on the rates of childhood overweight and obesity. 



This is due to the fact that other major contributors are the increase of foods containing high quantities of sugars, together with the consumption of ultra-processed foods.



“Nearly 70 percent of the average U.S.-based child’s diet is made up of ultra-processed foods,” Hennekens said. “Moreover, consumption of ultra-processed foods among children under 24 months is rising worldwide, triggering not only the potential of developing obesity but also decreased immunological protection.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-ultra-processed-foods-nbsp">The role of ultra-processed foods&nbsp;</h2>



Although further research is needed to clarify which components of ultra-processed foods lead to weight gain in children, it is already clear that a diet high in such foods is connected to increasing rates of overweight and obesity.



“Evidence suggests that enhancing school lunch nutritional standards could help reduce obesity, particularly among low-income children,” Kitsantas said.&nbsp;



“We recommend adopting school food policies that remove ultra-processed foods from menus and promote healthier alternatives, alongside educational programs on healthy eating, despite the challenges posed by external influences on children.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-measures-nbsp">Public health measures&nbsp;</h2>



Some of these challenges include the use of social media and advertising, which affects children’s food choices and behaviors such as sharing unhealthy food posts.



“Despite recommendations from the World Health Organization and public health authorities to restrict food marketing aimed at children, few countries have implemented such measures,” Hennekens explained.&nbsp;



“The effectiveness of existing regulations in today’s media landscape is uncertain, creating an opportunity for health providers and public health practitioners to educate families about the impact of this advertising.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-the-public-health-crisis">Managing the public health crisis </h2>



The scientists argue that tackling the rising pediatric obesity epidemic requires a multidimensional approach. In 2023, the American Academy of Pediatrics endorsed World Health Organization’s guidelines, while releasing their own recommendations for managing this public health crisis.&nbsp;



The guidelines suggest that healthcare providers and public health professionals address the social determinants of health, utilize motivational interviewing to encourage changes in nutrition and physical activity habits, and consider options like pharmacotherapy or surgery to achieve individualized patient objectives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversing-the-troubling-trends">Reversing the troubling trends</h2>



Yet, the study authors argue that although there are approved drug therapies available, maternal and child health care providers should employ therapeutic lifestyle changes before prescribing pharmaceutical interventions.



“While the ultimate goal is prevention of pediatric overweight and obesity as well as metabolic syndrome, to paraphrase Voltaire, we should not ‘let the perfect be the enemy of the good,’” Hennekens said.



“Health care and public health professionals must collaborate across disciplines to address these issues with patients, families, communities and policymakers. United efforts can help reverse these troubling trends and ensure a healthier future for children worldwide,” Kitsantas concluded.



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Childhood obesity rates are surging worldwide

Since 1990, childhood obesity has significantly increased on all continents,...

Bacteria that reside in soil and help plant roots fix nitrogen can significantly boost the reproductive capacity of certain plants by making the flowers more attractive, according to new research.



The study focuses on Chamaecrista latistipula, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-legumes-solve-environmental-issues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">legume</a> in the Fabaceae family, which includes beans and peas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-bacteria-and-plant-flowers">Soil bacteria and plant flowers</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-bacteria-contribute-to-atmospheric-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Soil bacteria</a> enhance the attractiveness of the plant's flowers to pollinators through a type of mutualistic relationship. In mutualism, both organisms benefit - plants receive more nutrients, and microorganisms such as bacteria or fungi thrive.



Chamaecrista latistipula is a shrub native to regions of Bolivia, Brazil, and northeast Argentina, where it grows in nutrient-poor soils. It relies on a specific pollinator to reproduce successfully.&nbsp;



“Its mutualistic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria increases the supply of the nutrient to its roots in exchange for the sugar on which they feed,” explained Anselmo Nogueira, a professor at the <a href="https://www.ufabc.edu.br/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of the ABC</a> (UFABC), in São Paulo, Brazil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mutualistic-relationship-with-pollinators">Mutualistic relationship with pollinators</h2>



In addition to its relationship with bacteria, C. latistipula has a mutualistic relationship with specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-are-not-just-attracted-to-plants-by-scent-but-also-by-humidity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>. 



“The pollen stored in its flowers’ anthers is only released when they are made to vibrate, mainly by being shaken by females of some species of bumblebee in the genus Bombus,” Nogueira said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-make-the-flowers-appealing-nbsp">Bacteria make the flowers appealing&nbsp;</h2>



In a greenhouse experiment conducted at the Plant-Animal Interaction Laboratory, led by Nogueira, it was revealed that these bacteria play a significant role in making the flowers more appealing to bumblebees, especially in nutrient-poor soils.&nbsp;



Unexpectedly, the researchers also found that nutrient-rich soil did not lead to healthy plants with attractive flowers.&nbsp;



“Because the association with bacteria is very costly for the plant, we assumed that in nitrogen-rich soil the plants would simply take <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-has-too-much-and-too-little-nitrogen-at-the-same-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen</a> directly from the soil, but in our experiments, nutrient-rich soil didn’t produce healthy plants with attractive flowers,” explained Caroline Souza, the first author of the article.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research">Focus of the research</h2>



The experiment was part of a broader project examining how bacteria, ants, and bees contribute to the evolution of legumes.&nbsp;



The team monitored 60 C. latistipula plants over 16 months, from seed germination. Half were grown in nutrient-poor sandy soil, while the other half were in soil rich in organic matter, supplemented with potassium nitrate.&nbsp;



Both soil types were sterilized to remove any existing microorganisms, and the seeds were sterilized before sowing to prevent external bacterial influence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-nitrogen-fixing-bacteria-nbsp">The role of nitrogen-fixing bacteria&nbsp;</h2>



The experiment revealed that plants grown in sandy soil with added rhizobia (nitrogen-fixing bacteria) developed much better than those without bacteria or those grown in nutrient-rich soil.&nbsp;



“In the nitrogen-poor sandy soil with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, the plants were almost twice as tall and three times larger than those grown in nitrogen-rich soil with organic matter and rhizobia,” Nogueira said.&nbsp;



In contrast, plants grown without rhizobia, regardless of soil type, were smaller and less healthy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colors-that-attract-bumblebees-nbsp">Colors that attract bumblebees&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers analyzed the flowers of these plants using a surface spectrophotometer to measure how light was reflected, testing for color contrasts perceptible to bumblebees.&nbsp;



Significant differences were observed only in the plants grown in sandy soil with rhizobia, whose anthers displayed a pattern particularly attractive to bumblebees.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-showcase-smart-logical-reasoning-abilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bumblebees</a> perceive the color spectrum differently than humans, and the unique flower characteristics likely contributed to their attraction.



“The anthers contain the pollen and can be accessed only by insects capable of making them vibrate, which can’t be done by exotic species such as the European honeybee Apis mellifera,” Souza explained.&nbsp;



Pollen is a vital protein source for bee larvae, influencing their growth and development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study-nbsp">Broader implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



After the flower analysis, the researchers examined the roots of the plants and found that the plants grown in nutrient-poor sandy soil with rhizobia had the most root nodules.&nbsp;



These nodules are knob-like structures where nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in a symbiotic relationship with the plant. The bacteria help the plant produce amino acids needed for growth, while the plant supplies the bacteria with sugars for energy and reproduction.



The study suggests that the mutualistic relationship between plants and bacteria enhances the quality of the pollen, potentially increasing its protein and amino acid content, making the flowers more attractive to native bees.&nbsp;



“The heightened attractiveness of the flowers may be associated with larger amounts of high-quality resources, influenced by the roots’ high nitrogen fixation rate,” Nogueira concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajb2.16363" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Journal of Botany</a>. 



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Soil bacteria makes flowers more attractive to pollinators

Bacteria that reside in soil and help plant roots fix...

We live in a world that is slowly but steadily beginning to realize the toll of climate change. The ticking clock of global warming no longer falls on deaf ears, especially in the realm of aviation, where the carbon footprint of jet fuels is anything but minuscule. 



Researchers at Washington State University (WSU) have potentially found a way to transform agricultural waste into jet fuel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-green-revolution-in-aviation-fuel">Green revolution in aviation fuel</h2>



The findings, published in the journal Fuel Processing Technology, reveal the remarkable possibility of of turning plant cell components - more specifically, lignin polymers - into sustainable jet fuel.



It's like hitting two birds with one stone - addressing waste disposal and creating an eco-friendly fuel source simultaneously.



The research team was led by Bin Yang, a renowned professor in WSU's <a href="https://bsyse.wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Biological Systems Engineering</a>.



“Our achievement takes this technology one step closer to real-world use by providing data that lets us better gauge its feasibility for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flying-has-never-been-safer-and-continues-to-improve/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">commercial aviation</a>,” said Yang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-based-jet-fuel">Plant-based jet fuel</h2>



Lignin, in simple terms, is a bunch of structural molecules that make plants sturdy and woody. 



The scientists have figured out how to obtain lignin from corn stover (what remains of the crop after harvest: stalks, leaves, cobs) and other similar agricultural waste. And they are finding very clever ways to repurpose it.



Now, you're probably thinking, how does the transformation occur? The team has developed a method they call “simultaneous depolymerization and hydrodeoxygenation." 



This method handles the task of breaking down the lignin polymer and getting rid of the oxygen element simultaneously, eventually resulting in lignin-based jet fuel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cleaner-more-sustainable-fuels">Cleaner, more sustainable fuels</h2>



The pressing question, of course, remains: why is it so crucial? In the year 2019 alone, about 100 billion gallons of aviation fuel were emitted into our skies.



Air travel is not set to slow down anytime soon, so these numbers are bound to climb higher in the coming years. 



"Jet fuel consumption has been hampered significantly in the last three years because of restricted air travel during the COVID-19 pandemic, however, demand is expected to be 32&nbsp;% higher in 2030 and more than double by 2050 of 2019 levels," noted the researchers.



Sustainable aviation fuels, like the one derived from plants, can be a game-changer in reducing our carbon emissions.



Lignin-based jet fuel could pave the way for much cleaner sustainable fuels that efficiently run <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-airplanes-are-worse-for-the-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jet engines</a>. Hydrocarbons sourced from lignin, given their density and efficiency, could stand in for fossil fuel-derived compounds known as aromatics effectively.



However, this path isn't a cakewalk. Challenges of significant scale lie ahead, particularly in standardizing lignin's composition for efficient yield and determining if it's economically viable for large-scale production. 



But the scientific community is optimistic. The researchers believe that continuous technological advancements will hammer down these hurdles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-minimizing-waste-and-energy-use">Minimizing waste and energy use</h2>



In the journey towards sustainable aviation fuel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-is-shifting-and-putting-navigation-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">commercialization</a>, the power of partnership cannot be overstated.



Sharing the limelight with university researchers are industries involved in aviation and fuel production, along with policy-makers championing clean energy. 



These strategic collaborations could lead to the development of optimized processing plants and refining methods that minimize waste and energy use.



“The aviation enterprise is looking to generate 100% renewable aviation fuel,” noted Josh Heyne, a fellow researcher and co-director of the <a href="https://wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WSU</a>-PNNL Bioproducts Institute.



The ultimate goal is to make sustainable aviation fuels fully “drop-in” capable - fit to use in all existing engines, aircraft, and infrastructure just like the conventional fossil-derived jet fuel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



This research was funded by organizations including the U.S. Department of Energy’s Bioenergy Technologies Office, the <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pacific Northwest National Laboratory</a>, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and Advanced Refining Technologies LLC. 



The scientists now aim to perfect their process, striving for better efficiency and lower costs.



So, the next time you're soaring in the skies, take a moment to appreciate the scientific progress that's working zealously to make your trip eco-friendly. After all, in the fight against climate change, every step toward sustainability matters.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378382024000997?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fuel Processing Technology</a>.



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Plant-based jet fuel could revolutionize aviation

We live in a world that is slowly but steadily...

The intricate structure of coral reefs creates a vibrant underwater ecosystem, bustling with life. Ironically, this same complexity can hinder coral recovery after disturbances, as researchers studying reefs in Moorea, French Polynesia, have discovered. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-network-of-coral-skeletons-nbsp">Network of coral skeletons&nbsp;</h2>



The experts found that the network of dead coral skeletons left behind by bleaching events disrupts critical processes, ultimately preventing the reefs from regenerating.&nbsp;



These dead structures protect seaweed from herbivores, allowing it to rapidly colonize and outcompete young coral.&nbsp;



The findings, published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/gcb.17504" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>, highlight how the aftermath of disturbances can alter a reef's recovery trajectory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-reef-disturbances">Coral reef disturbances</h2>



Coral reefs are dynamic systems that undergo constant change, and disturbances such as storms, coral predation, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/60-percent-global-coral-reefs-face-bleaching-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bleaching</a> events can significantly impact their health. 



Historically, tropical storms and cyclones have caused the most damage to Moorea’s reefs.&nbsp;



“They tend to scrape all the coral off the reef and leave behind a flat surface,” said Kai Kopecky, lead author and a former doctoral student at the <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California Santa Barbara</a>’s Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology. 



However, more recent disturbances, such as coral bleaching and predation, have become increasingly prevalent. Unlike storms that physically remove coral, bleaching events leave the reef’s skeletons intact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bleaching-and-other-stressors">Bleaching and other stressors</h2>



Bleaching occurs when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-corals-can-help-them-recover-from-heat-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a>, usually from heat, causes coral to expel the symbiotic algae that supply it with food. 



While coral can sometimes recover if favorable conditions return, more often than not, the colony dies, particularly when other stressors like pollution are present.&nbsp;



For instance, a major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cyclones-impact-coral-reefs-as-far-as-1000-kilometers-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cyclone</a> struck Moorea's reefs in 2010, clearing almost all the coral from the fore reef. “But within about five years, it recovered back to the amount of coral it had before the storm had hit,” Kopecky noted. 



However, following a bleaching event in 2019, Kopecky and his team observed a starkly different outcome.&nbsp;



The dead coral structure remained, but instead of recovering, the reef continued to decline, and seaweed (macroalgae) began to proliferate. Kopecky wanted to understand how these different disturbances affected the reef’s recovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modeling-a-reef-system">Modeling a reef system</h2>



To explore this, the researchers conducted an experiment as part of their work at the <a href="https://lternet.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Long Term Ecological Research</a> (LTER) site at Moorea Coral Reef. 



The goal was to analyze the processes that were being disrupted after the bleaching event. In 2023, the scientists developed a mathematical model of the reef system, while their field study focused on examining the underlying mechanisms.



The research team cleared small patches of the reef to create experimental areas. They cemented controlled numbers of dead coral skeletons in these patches and added young, healthy coral that could be periodically removed and measured.&nbsp;



Trays of macroalgae were also placed on the reef to compare how herbivores interacted with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-support-corals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> in the presence of dead coral skeletons versus open areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-skeletons-limits-new-growth">Coral skeletons limits new growth</h2>



“We found that dead coral skeletons prevent herbivores from being able to remove macroalgae, enabling growth and preventing new corals from being able to settle and survive on the reef,” Kopecky explained.&nbsp;



These skeletons might theoretically offer some protection to young coral recruits if they arrived shortly after a bleaching event.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, coral tends to spawn only once a year, whereas algae reproduce continuously, giving seaweed the upper hand in colonizing newly available spaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-competition-for-resources">Competition for resources</h2>



Macroalgae directly compete with coral for resources like space and light. Algae grow much faster than coral, so when herbivores are unable to control seaweed growth, the algae can quickly overrun the reef.&nbsp;



This prevents new coral from settling, and even shades out existing colonies, making recovery difficult.&nbsp;



Young coral is particularly vulnerable to this competition, and once a reef flips from coral to algae dominance, it is challenging to reverse the process.&nbsp;



The researchers' previous studies have shown how hard it can be to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restored-coral-reefs-can-bounce-back-in-just-four-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">restore</a> coral cover once this shift occurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-differences-in-reef-recovery">Dramatic differences in reef recovery</h2>



By comparing their experimental results with long-term data from Moorea, the researchers noted dramatic differences in reef recovery following different types of disturbances.&nbsp;



“Coral cover shot up on the reefs after the cyclone, while macroalgae cover went down,” Kopecky said. “After the bleaching event, it was just the opposite.”



These findings fit into the broader concept of ecological memory, which examines how past events shape an ecosystem’s response to current challenges.&nbsp;



As the nature of disturbances shifts, the way ecosystems like coral reefs respond also changes.&nbsp;



“As these disturbance regimes change, ecological memory is also changing,” Kopecky said.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-removing-coral-skeletons-nbsp">Removing coral skeletons&nbsp;</h2>



Unfortunately, the legacy of dead coral skeletons may not align with what these ecosystems are adapted to handle, which could alter long-standing relationships between coral, algae, and herbivores.



Kopecky is now considering whether removing dead skeletons could help coral recover or at least reduce the negative effects of bleaching.&nbsp;



“In coral reefs, this is a novel idea and strategy. But if you look to other ecosystems - like prescribed burns in forests to remove dead wood - people have been increasingly thinking about manipulating dead stuff in ecosystems for management purposes,” he concluded.



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Dead coral skeletons prevent reefs from recovering

The intricate structure of coral reefs creates a vibrant underwater...

Ever been on horseback, feeling the power of the creature below you and the wind in your hair? Of course, it's a bit hard on the body. But did you ever consider that horseback riding might have the power to change the shape of your skeleton?



It's a complex topic, but researchers from the University of Colorado Boulder are diving in headfirst. Their new study draws from a rich evidence - from modern medical studies of horse riders to records of human remains spanning millennia.



What they've found is that, yes, horseback riding can indeed leave traces on our skeletons, subtly changing the shape of our hip joints. But that doesn't mean you can point to a skeleton and definitively say, "Ah, a horse rider!"



We sit for long periods, we engage in various physical activities - all of which can also transform our bones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-horseback-riding">Impact of horseback riding</h2>



This bone-altering revelation comes from Lauren Hosek, an assistant professor in the Department of Anthropology at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a>, and the lead author of the study. 



"In archaeology, there are vanishingly few instances in which we can tie a particular activity unequivocally to skeletal changes," said Professor Hosek. 



So, what relevance does this hold? Well, for one, these findings might have major implications for those studying the origins of domesticated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-horse-protection-day-respecting-the-needs-and-rights-of-horses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horses</a>. 



In addition, the research is casting some serious doubt on an archaeology theory that's been standing tall for quite a while - the Kurgan hypothesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relationships-between-humans-and-horses">Relationships between humans and horses</h2>



According to study co-author William Taylor, curator of archaeology at the CU <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/resources/museum-natural-history" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Museum of Natural History</a>, this research is smack dab in the middle of one of archaeology's oldest debates.



The earliest undeniable evidence of humans using horses for transport comes from the region around Russia's Ural Mountains, where scientists have found horses, bridles, and chariots dating back to around 4,000 years ago.



But here comes the Kurgan hypothesis, saying, "Hold your horses!" This theory, originating in the early 20th century, posits that the close relationship between humans and horses started much earlier. 



It suggests that around the fourth millennium B.C., the Yamnaya people living near the Black Sea were the first to gallop on horses across Eurasia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-impacts-of-horseback-riding">Cultural impacts of horseback riding</h2>



A popular belief is that these early horse riders may have spread early versions of languages that eventually evolved into English, French, and other languages.



“For decades, there’s been this idea that the distribution of Indo-European languages is, in some way, related to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horse-miscarriages-offer-insights-into-human-pregnancy-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domestication of the horse</a>,” said Taylor.



It has also been suggested that human remains from the Yamnaya culture, dating back to about 3500 B.C., show evidence of wear and tear from horse riding - which supports the Kurgan hypothesis.



But Hosek and Taylor are here to reign in the speculation. They argue that it's not so straightforward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-skeletal-changes">Complexity of skeletal changes</h2>



Professor Hosek has spent countless hours scrutinizing human bones to glean lessons about the past. She explains that the skeleton isn't fixed in place, but can change shape throughout an individual's lifetime.



Think about it: you pull a muscle, and where that muscle attaches to the bone, a reaction can occur, making the bone more porous or forming raised ridges. But interpreting these clues is a murky business at best.



For instance, let's talk about the hip joint. When you flex your legs at the hip for long periods - like during an extended horse ride - the hip joint's ball and socket may rub together along one edge.



Over time, this rubbing can cause the hip bone's socket to become more oval. But numerous other activities can result in the same elongation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternatives-to-horseback-riding">Alternatives to horseback riding</h2>



As it happens, humans used cattle, donkeys, and even wild asses for transport in certain areas of western Asia centuries before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horses-demonstrate-an-unanticipated-level-of-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horse</a> taming began. 



These ancient people likely attached these animals to carts or even smaller two-wheeled vehicles much like a chariot.



“This repetitive, intense pressure from that kind of jostling in a flexed position could cause skeletal changes,” said Professor Hosek. She has seen similar changes in the skeletons of 20th-century Catholic nuns, who despite never riding horses, took long carriage rides across the American West.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-of-current-evidence">Limitations of current evidence</h2>



In the end, Hosek and Taylor believe that human remains alone can't provide an exact date for when people started horseback riding - not with the current scientific tools anyway.



“Human skeletons alone are not going to be enough evidence,” said Hosek. “We need to couple that data with evidence coming out of genetics and archaeology and by looking at horse remains, too.”



As for the Kurgan hypothesis, Taylor claims that from their research, "none of these lines of evidence suggest that the Yamnaya people had domestic horses.” 



So, next time you go for a horse ride, remember: you're participating in an activity that's been shaping human history - and our very bones - for millennia. And who knows what scholars will uncover next in this fascinating field?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ado9774" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Horseback riding changes human skeletons, especially the hips

Ever been on horseback, feeling the power of the creature...

In the mesmerizing world of mammal evolution, an exciting discovery has emerged from Brazil, shedding new light on our understanding of the evolution of distinct mammalian traits.



Fossils of the mammal-precursor species, Brasilodon quadrangularis and Riograndia guaibensis, provide us with intriguing insights into the formation of the mammalian jaw and middle ear.



The fossils reveal that evolutionary experiments were taking place far earlier than previously theorized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-journey-of-mammal-ancestors">Evolutionary journey of mammal ancestors</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-mystery-why-are-mammals-the-only-vertebrates-to-have-only-one-lower-jawbone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mammals</a> are unique among vertebrates, boasting a distinct jaw structure and the presence of three middle ear bones. Earlier vertebrates only had a single middle ear bone, and scientists have been eager to uncover how this transition occurred.



The labyrinth of history guides us to mammalian ancestors known as cynodonts, revealing how they gradually evolved these unique traits. For the first time, cutting-edge CT scanning technology allowed researchers to digitally reconstruct the jaw joint of these cynodonts.



It became apparent that the connection between the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skull-evolution-why-some-mammals-have-long-faces/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skull</a> and the lower jaw, a widely recognized "mammalian-style" contact, was present in Riograndia guaibensis.



Astoundingly, this species lived a good 17 million years before the previously oldest recorded example of this structure.



But the plot thickens when we turn to another species. In Brasilodon quadrangularis, a species believed to be more closely related to mammals, there was no such contact. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daring-experimentalists-of-evolution">Daring experimentalists of evolution </h2>



The fossil findings paint a picture of our mammal ancestors as the daring experimentalists of evolution.



These animals tested the waters with varying jaw functions, leading to "mammalian" traits which manifested independently in different bloodlines. Thus, the early stages of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feredocodon-chowi-fossils-yield-clues-mammal-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammalian evolution</a> were far more diverse and intricate than what was previously believed.



James Rawson, the study's lead author based in <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/earthsciences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bristol’s School of Earth Sciences</a>, emphasized the significance of this revelation.



"The acquisition of the mammalian jaw contact was a key moment in mammal evolution," said Rawson.



"What these new Brazilian fossils have shown is that different cynodont groups were experimenting with various jaw joint types, and that some features once considered uniquely mammalian evolved numerous times in other lineages as well.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-early-mammal-evolution">Understanding early mammal evolution</h2>



This astounding discovery creates a domino effect of implications for our understanding of the early stages of mammal evolution. 



It illustrates the evolution of features such as the mammalian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-habits-shaped-the-skulls-of-humans-and-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jaw joint</a> and middle ear bones in a patchwork fashion across various cynodont groups.



Dr. Agustín Martinelli, from the Museo Argentino de Ciencias Natural of Buenos Aires, remarked on the treasure trove of knowledge unveiled by these fossils.



“Over the last years, these tiny fossil species from Brazil have brought marvelous information that enriches our knowledge about the origin and evolution of mammalian features. We are just in the beginning and our multinational collaborations will bring more news soon," said Dr. Martinelli.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-south-american-fossil-record">South American fossil record</h2>



Meanwhile, the research team is thrilled to explore the South American fossil record, known for its richness and potential to enhance our understanding.



Professor Marina Soares of the Museu Nacional, Brazil, further emphasized the region's importance: “Nowhere else in the world has such a diverse array of cynodont forms, closely related to the earliest mammals.”



The team aims to integrate these new findings with existing data to explore how the early jaw joints functioned and contributed to the development of the mammalian form.



According to Rawson, the study opens new doors for paleontological research, as these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a> provide invaluable evidence of the complex and varied evolutionary experiments that ultimately gave rise to modern mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-ancient-ancestors-to-modern-mammals">From ancient ancestors to modern mammals </h2>



The discovery of these fossils opens up new avenues for exploring other fossil records worldwide, allowing scientists to re-examine previous finds with fresh insights.



The story of mammal evolution is now more complex and intricate than ever before, reminding us that evolution is not a straight path but a winding journey full of surprises.



New fossil discoveries are changing our understanding of the transition from ancient ancestors to modern mammals. With continued exploration in Brazil and beyond, the mysteries of our evolutionary past are beginning to unfold in fascinating ways.



The study is published in the journal Nature.



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Mammal evolution kicked off with daring 'experiments'

In the mesmerizing world of mammal evolution, an exciting discovery...

Have you ever sworn under your breath as your flight is delayed or you've been sitting on the runway for ages? Or maybe you have vibrated with unease just thinking about being so high up in the air in a chunk of metal, especially with the thought of a slower flight?



You are not alone, and you may not find comfort in recent research on air travel. Scientists propose that we should all sit a little longer in that seat in the skies for the sake of our planet.



The researchers suggest that aircraft should fly 15% slower to help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-hidden-carbon-footprint-of-long-distance-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">curb carbon emissions</a>. This might sound like a recipe for higher anxiety and restless leg syndrome, but, it's for the greater good.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slower-flights-longer-travel-time">Slower flights, longer travel time</h2>



Here's how it works -- flying slower could increase transatlantic flight times by 'about 50 minutes', according to the report from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>.



This reduction in speed can help planes burn about 7% less fuel, and that's a big saving when it comes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-footprints-of-the-wealthy-are-vastly-underestimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon footprint</a>. 



The idea seems to find a nice balance between our nerves, our hectic schedules, and our need to protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survey-mother-nature-is-more-likely-to-solve-climate-change-than-geoengineering/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mother Earth</a>.



This bold plan is part of a report, titled 'Five Years to Chart a New Future for Aviation'. This document lays out three 'bold efficiency measures' designed to reduce the aviation industry's fuel burn. 



Now, let's take a closer look at these three measures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bold-measures-for-a-cleaner-future">Bold measures for a cleaner future</h2>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Accelerated replacement: The report suggests increasing aircraft production to cut the average age of the fleet in half. That's one way to have a mid-life crisis.</li>
</ul>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Fly slower: As we've already discussed, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flying-has-never-been-safer-and-continues-to-improve/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reducing flight speed</a> can increase our in-flight time.</li>
</ul>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Match range: More aircraft should operate closer to their design range by introducing new types of aircraft and tweaking purchasing and operating practices.</li>
</ul>



<ol class="wp-block-list"></ol>



These aren't just hot air proposals. The report goes on to explain that conventional measures such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-airplanes-are-worse-for-the-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new aircraft and engine technologies</a> and operational efficiency can lead to up to a 22% reduction in fuel burn by 2050. 



But, several daring efficiency measures that are currently out of reach could reduce fuel burn by up to 50% by 2050. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-the-catch">What's the catch?</h2>



Well, the first bold measure involves accelerated fleet replacement, aiming to cut the aircraft retirement age from 30 to 15 years by 2050. 



According to our Cambridge experts, this change alone could <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computing-and-machine-learning-enhance-airplane-performance-and-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cut back on fuel burn</a> by around 14%.



The slower flying speed already discussed could reduce fuel burn by roughly 7%. But here is the kicker -- the scientists understand this might not be so popular among passengers.



"One drawback of reducing speed is the potential negative impact on airline productivity and passenger acceptance, especially for longer flights," they warn. 



Even the smartest minds know that passengers aren't going to be thrilled about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-caused-more-severe-turbulence-on-airplanes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">longer flights</a>, but they remind us that this change could potentially mean less time spent twiddling thumbs at the airport.



The third measure involves ensuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revolutionizing-aerodynamics-airplane-emissions-ai-deep-learning-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more aircraft</a> are flown close to their designed range, which could knock down fuel burn by another 7%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-passenger-concerns-on-slower-flights">Passenger concerns on slower flights</h2>



While the proposed strategies promise significant environmental benefits, they also invite a host of passenger concerns that must be thoughtfully navigated. 



The potential inconvenience of extended flight durations might be mitigated by enhanced in-flight experiences.



Airlines could invest in diversifying entertainment options or improving seating comfort to ensure passengers enjoy their journeys. 



Regular communication about the environmental impact of these measures could promote a sense of participation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-aircraft-batteries-pushing-the-boundaries-of-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global sustainability efforts</a> among travelers. 



Ultimately, bridging the gap between passenger expectations and sustainable aviation practices requires innovative approaches that prioritize both comfort and conscientiousness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



As the world grapples with the urgent need to address climate change, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aviations-contribution-to-climate-change-is-expected-to-intensify/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aviation industry</a> stands at a critical juncture to redefine its future. 



The bold measures outlined in the Cambridge report present a compelling case for transformative action within the sector.



However, achieving these goals requires concerted collaboration among aviation stakeholders, policymakers, and innovators. 



Investments in research and development, policy incentives, and public awareness campaigns will be crucial in overcoming technical and societal barriers.



By embracing the potential of these efficiency measures, the aviation industry can lead the way toward a cleaner, more sustainable future that aligns with global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/travelers-are-ready-for-more-affordable-eco-friendly-options/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental stewardship goals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fear-of-flying">Fear of flying</h2>



The idea of slower and longer flights might not sit well with those of us who get anxious about air travel. Known as aerophobia, this fear affects about one in 10 people.



According to <a href="https://www.anxietyuk.org.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anxiety UK</a>, the fear of flying can be linked to a fear of airplanes themselves or could be part of other psychological problems such as panic attacks, claustrophobia, or post-traumatic stress disorder.



The report is published in <a href="https://report.aiazero.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aviation Impact Accelerator</a>.



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Airline flights may be slowed down intentionally to fight climate change

Have you ever sworn under your breath as your flight...

Near the curve of Chile's shoreline, in regions of the ocean teeming with krill and anchovy, lies a world inhabited by a relatively obscure population of orcas.



Here, right under the Humboldt Current's life-giving hum, scientists are unraveling the mysteries of these magnificent beasts, starting with their gastronomic indulgences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orcas-hunting-dolphins">Orcas hunting dolphins</h2>



Dr. Ana Garcia Cegarra's team from <a href="https://www.uantof.cl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universidad de Antofagasta</a> had previously observed these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orcas-rely-only-on-one-breath-between-dives-to-conserve-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orcas</a> ingeniously exploiting fishing vessels to ensnare sea lions. The researchers have now recorded them successfully hunting dusky dolphins.



What's more, the food is shared among the pod - a testament to their social camaraderie. These fresh revelations could give us valuable insight into the relation between different orca populations in the southern hemisphere.



“Studying orcas in their natural environment is very challenging as they are marine top predators, traveling long distances and living offshore, which makes observation difficult,” said Cegarra.



“But understanding their role in the marine environment is crucial for the conservation of this poorly-known species in the Humboldt Current.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dietary-habits-of-orcas">Dietary habits of orcas</h2>



Orcas, often regarded as apex predators, boast an incredibly varied diet. However, not all orca populations share the same <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sign-of-the-times-solitary-orcas-are-hunting-great-whites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">culinary preferences</a>. They can be segmented into different ecotypes depending upon their food choices, acoustics, and genetics. 



Hence, comprehending the dietary habits of the orcas in the Humboldt Current is a crucial step toward understanding their niche within the global orca community.



Five diverse ecotypes have been identified in the southern hemisphere. While some, like Type A and Type B1 orcas, are partial towards marine mammals, others favor fish.



Figuring out where the Humboldt Current orcas fit in this intricate food web is key to understanding the broader relations between these populations and, in turn, preserving them for the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-patterns-of-orcas">Hunting patterns of orcas</h2>



In order to monitor the population and track their food choices, Dr. Garcia Cegarra and her associates utilized their own surveys as well as data collected from whale-watching trips and fishing vessels.



Orcas sightings were documented, and group compositions and locations were recorded. Pictures and video footage captured on the scene were later cross-checked with catalogues of known individuals.



This data, in combination with regular surveys and drone footage, allowed the scientists to map the presence of orcas in the area and track the pods' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-care-linked-to-the-evolution-of-longer-lifespans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavioral patterns</a> and prey preferences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-menacho-pod-of-orcas">Menacho pod of orcas</h2>



The researchers managed to record the Menacho pod of orcas hunting dusky dolphins - a feat previously unreported for orcas in the region. The images are nothing short of dramatic. They show Dakota, the matriarch, flinging a dusky dolphin into the air.



These sightings hint at the possibility of the orcas belonging to the mammal-hunting Type A ecotype. Their choice of prey and comparatively smaller pod size align well with this hypothesis, although their white eye patches are smaller than the typical Type A orcas.



Furthermore, these orcas have never been spotted in Patagonia, the typical haunt of Type A orcas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orcas-on-a-dolphin-hunt">Orcas on a dolphin hunt</h2>



Of course, all these findings only highlight the need for more research. Dr. Garcia Cegarra said that while the team wishes they could retrieve skin biopsy samples to conduct genetic analysis, the fact that these orcas are elusive and highly intelligent makes it difficult to approach them for biopsies.



What's more, the observations of the dolphin hunt revealed the Menacho pod sharing their spoils - a display of food sharing common among many orca populations. 



The Menacho orcas likely feed their kin, similar to Type A orcas who hunt sea lions through deliberate stranding. Female orcas have been observed sharing meat with group members, allowing closer relations to eat first.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Dr. Garcia Cegarra emphasized the need for more systematic study to fully understand and protect this secretive orca <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sea-lizard-khinjaria-had-teeth-like-daggers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>.



"We have observed newborn calves, which indicates that they are having offspring, but their survival rate remains unknown," she noted. 



Citizen scientists have monitored killer whales along thousands of kilometers of the Chilean coastline, but these sightings are largely opportunistic.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2024.1450624/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Orcas have hunting and eating habits that we never imagined

Near the curve of Chile's shoreline, in regions of the...

Imagine listening to your favorite song and seeing bursts of color with each note. Or think of a number that tastes like your favorite candy. For individuals with synesthesia, these experiences are not mere flights of fantasy, but their everyday reality.



They inhabit a sensory wonderland where sight meets sound, taste intertwines with touch, and their brain functions as a gifted maestro, skillfully orchestrating this magnificent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-sense-of-smell-can-change-the-colors-we-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symphony of senses</a>.



Each moment becomes an intricate tapestry woven from the threads of their heightened perceptions, allowing them to experience the world in ways that most can only dream of.



Colors resonate with sounds, flavors burst into visual patterns, and the beauty of life unfolds in a brilliant kaleidoscope of sensations that enriches their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-digital-technology-influence-our-sense-of-self/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding of existence</a> itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-size-of-synesthesia-does-not-fit-all">One size of synesthesia does not fit all</h2>



Synesthesia, unlike most conditions, is charmingly varied. Synesthesia isn’t a one-size-fits-all condition. It <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/24995-synesthesia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">comes in various forms</a>, each with its own intriguing twist:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Grapheme-Color Synesthesia: Ever noticed letters or numbers seem to carry specific colors? For instance, the letter "A" might always appear red to you. </li>



<li>Chromesthesia: This type links sounds to colors. A particular musical note or voice might evoke shades like blue or green. </li>



<li>Lexical-Gustatory Synesthesia: Words or sounds trigger taste sensations. Hearing someone’s name could make you taste chocolate. </li>



<li>Spatial Sequence Synesthesia: Numbers, dates, or sequences form visual patterns in your mind’s eye, like seeing months arranged in a circular layout around you. </li>



<li>Mirror-Touch Synesthesia: Feeling a similar sensation on your body when you see someone else being touched.</li>
</ul>



Each form offers a different lens through which synesthetes experience the world, making their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blinking-plays-crucial-role-vision-human-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensory interactions</a> uniquely personal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exactly-how-does-it-work">Exactly how does it work?</h2>



Where does this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emotions-sensory-perception-brain-fascinating-interplay/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensory magic</a> come from? After all, most of us, the 'neurotypical' majority, live in a world where the senses operate independently.



Scientists think synesthesia happens because of extra connections between different areas of the brain, showcasing its amazing plasticity and adaptability. 



These additional neural links let one type of sensory input, like sound or color, trigger another, leading to the fascinating experiences that synesthetes often talk about.



Genetics also play a big role in synesthesia, as this interesting condition tends to run in families, hinting at a hereditary aspect. 



Research shows that people with synesthesia often have family members who also experience it, suggesting that genetic factors might help shape its development.



Plus, advanced studies using brain imaging techniques have found that people with synesthesia have structural differences in various brain regions that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visual-perception-speed-varies-greatly-among-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">process sensory info</a>. 



These differences might include variations in the density of neural pathways or the size of certain brain areas, helping to explain why their brains create these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-perception-we-see-the-world-based-on-what-we-expect-to-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique sensory experiences</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synesthesia-as-a-blessing-and-a-curse">Synesthesia as a blessing and a curse</h2>



For many people with synesthesia, it’s not just a quirky condition -- it’s a fantastic source of creativity and better memory. 



Artists, musicians, and writers often find inspiration in their synesthetic experiences, using their unique perceptions to create rich and multidimensional work. 



Picture a musician who sees colors while composing tunes or a painter who hears sounds as vibrant shades. These mixed senses can lead to art that connects on multiple levels, providing a depth that others might miss.



But living with synesthesia can be a bit tricky sometimes. Some folks feel overwhelmed by their perceptions, especially in busy, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-human-nose-perceives-the-scent-that-lingers-after-rain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensory-filled environments</a>. 



Balancing these heightened experiences can be tough, affecting how synesthetes go about their daily lives. Still, many embrace their unique way of seeing the world, finding strength and inspiration in their sensory connections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-well-known-people-with-synesthesia">Well known people with synesthesia</h2>



Several beloved figures from history have worn their synesthetic experiences proudly.



Renowned author Vladimir Nabokov associated each alphabet and numeral with a unique hue that ultimately seeped into his evocative literary descriptions.



The abstract artist Wassily Kandinsky had a colorful symphony playing in his mind, which found expression in his rhythm-filled paintings.



Today, musician Pharrell Williams blends colors and sounds to create his exuberant music.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-common-is-it">How common is it?</h2>



Synesthesia affects around 4% of people, but that number could actually be higher since some experiences are pretty subtle and might go unnoticed. 



It shows up in all genders and cultures, though certain types may pop up more in specific groups.



There’s such a wide variety of synesthetic experiences that while some are famous, others are still pretty rare and not as well understood. 



This variety really highlights how complex synesthesia is and how important it is to keep researching its many aspects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-the-synesthetic-life">Living the synesthetic life</h2>



Synesthetes experience a range of reactions towards their condition, some embrace it while others grapple with it. 



For those who experience it, synesthesia shapes normal daily life in both good and bad ways. 



It boosts creativity and memory, helping synesthetes shine in art and intellectual pursuits. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aphantasia-research-results-people-who-cant-visualize-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique way of experiencing the world</a> makes learning and creating more vivid and fun.



On the flip side, having senses constantly interacting can feel a bit overwhelming, especially in busy or noisy places. 



Many synesthetes find ways to manage sensory overload, balancing their heightened experiences with everyday demands. 



This balance affects how they connect with the world, influencing everything from personal relationships to work life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-synesthesia-teaches-us">What synesthesia teaches us</h2>



To sum it all up, synesthesia and synesthetes give us a rare glimpse into the brain’s amazing ability to connect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasomnia-awake-dream-exploring-sleepwalking-deep-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different sensory inputs</a>, showing us that there is no single way to perceive reality. The synesthetic blending of senses can help us understand how our own brain interprets the world.



In addition, studying synesthesia gives us a peek into the incredible world of sensory fusion. It helps us appreciate the diversity of human perception and the nuanced neurological choreography that shapes our reality.



Irrespective of whether you are a synesthete or just fascinated by the human mind, synesthesia reminds us of the richness and complexity of our sensory experiences.



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Synesthesia: How some people taste words and see music in color

Imagine listening to your favorite song and seeing bursts of...

Imagine a gusty wind, not just any wind, but a solar wind. It's a constant flow of charged particles, primarily electrons and protons, that the Sun continuously spews into space. This wind, originating from our Sun's corona, travels in every direction, extending way past the orbit of our very own Earth.



The solar wind shapes the environment of our entire solar system as it influences the atmospheres of all planets and contributes to the formation of things like comet tails. 



It plays a crucial role in shaping the magnetic landscapes of planets and celestial bodies by carrying the Sun’s magnetic field through space.



Daniel Müller, the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Solar_Orbiter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar Orbiter</a> Project Scientist from ESA, is one of the experts on the job of studying this enigmatic solar wind. The solar wind, as you'll soon find out, has a significant impact on us here on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geomagnetic-storms-and-pretty-lights">Geomagnetic storms and pretty lights</h2>



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracing-solar-wind-directly-to-its-source-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar wind</a> interacts with the Earth's magnetic field creating geomagnetic storms that have the potential to impact satellite operations, communication systems, and even our power grids. 



These same interactions also paint the skies near the polar regions with brilliant, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/steve-phenomenon-looks-like-an-aurora-acts-like-an-aurora-but-what-is-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colorful auroras</a> which have left onlookers awestruck throughout history.



Enter high-tech space missions like NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/parker-solar-probe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Parker Solar Probe</a> and ESA’s Solar Orbiter, which collect detailed data on the speed, density, and composition of the intriguing solar wind. 



Understanding the solar wind helps scientists predict these types of space weather events, alerting the public and dampening their effects on our technology-centric lifestyle. It also gives us a glimpse into the processes driving our Sun.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-corona-acts-as-the-sun-s-crown">The corona acts as the Sun's crown</h2>



The Sun’s corona, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-the-suns-corona-hotter-than-its-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forming the outermost layer</a> of the big ball of energy's atmosphere, extends onto millions of kilometers into space. 



Compared to the Sun's surface, the photosphere with temperatures around 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit, the corona's temperatures exceed a million degrees.



This mystery of the drastic rise in temperature in this remote layer of the Sun piques the curiosity of our scientists. 



The corona, made up typically of ionized gases known as plasma, is shaped continually by the Sun's ever-changing magnetic fields. 



These magnetic structures create complex patterns, giving birth to phenomena like solar flares and coronal mass ejections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-of-the-trade">Tools of the trade</h2>



Studying the Sun's corona is made possible through specialized instruments like coronagraphs, which block out the bright light of the Sun's surface to reveal the faint corona. 



Solar eclipses also offer natural opportunities to observe the corona directly.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-powers-the-suns-supersonic-solar-wind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Data from the Solar Orbiter</a> spacecraft, equipped with the Metis coronagraph, show that small disturbances within the corona grow as they move outward, leading to turbulent flow in space. 



This turbulence, interestingly, begins in the corona, confirming long-held suspicions among scientists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turbulence-and-the-sun-s-corona">Turbulence and the Sun's corona</h2>



Turbulence in the solar wind affects how it is heated and how it travels through the solar system. It also influences how it interacts with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic fields</a> of planets and moons.



Daniel Müller describes that this new analysis provides the first-ever evidence for the onset of fully developed turbulence in the Sun’s corona. 



Solar Orbiter’s Metis coronagraph was able to detect it very close to the Sun, closer than any spacecraft could approach the Sun and make local measurements.



The Solar Orbiter mission, on October 12, 2022, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/see-the-sun-in-exquisite-detail-in-rare-solar-orbiter-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">captured detailed images</a> of the corona from about 27 million miles away -- less than a third of the distance between the Sun and Earth. 



The Metis blocked direct sunlight and observed the fainter visible and ultraviolet light from the corona, providing clear images of its structure and dynamics.



The understanding of solar wind turbulence is crucial for predicting space weather, which can affect our satellites, communication systems, and power grids. 



Turbulent solar wind can influence the strength and direction of space weather events, helping scientists better forecast their potential impacts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-data-captured-on-video">Dynamic data captured on video</h2>



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3jpfe5CoC5-3877796-12187" type="single"]</div>



In the above video captured by Metis, the Sun appears in the center with a ring of data around it showing variations in the corona’s brightness.



These variations indicate a change in the density of charged particles, demonstrating the turbulent movement of solar wind particles. 



The video, which loops three times, shows how these particles behave in a jumbled manner as they leave the Sun. It was created by the European Space Agency (<a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>).



"Metis observation of the onset of fully developed turbulence in the solar corona" by Daniele Telloni et al. was published today in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad5a8c" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



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Severe turbulence inside the Sun’s corona captured on video

Imagine a gusty wind, not just any wind, but a...

In an unprecedented achievement, experts at Kyushu University have presented an easily understandable numerical target in order to tackle marine plastic pollution around the world.&nbsp;



With ocean current maps that record the flow and fate of plastic litter, the research team quantified the needed prevention of marine ecosystems from future damage: at least a 32% reduction in plastic littering by 2035.



Marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-plastic-pollution-has-become-a-global-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic pollution</a> has attained the status of a global problem, and this situation is likely to deteriorate further in the absence of significant interventions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-ocean-plastic-pollution-nbsp">Monitoring ocean plastic pollution&nbsp;</h2>



For years, Professor Atsuhiko Isobe from Kyushu University’s <a href="https://www.riam.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/index-e.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research Institute for Applied Mechanics</a> has been monitoring and tracking plastic pollution in the ocean. 



In 2022, the team reported that an estimated 25.3 million metric tons of plastic waste had already entered the oceans, and nearly two-thirds of that amount cannot be tracked.



“My research focuses on tracking where plastic waste goes after being released into water sources such as rivers and oceans. We use computer models to track how plastics move and break down over time,” explained lead author Chisa Higuchi, a postdoctoral fellow in Isobe's lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-will-continue-to-rise">Microplastics will continue to rise</h2>



Plastic waste remains in the environment for extended periods, gradually breaking down into smaller particles.&nbsp;



While larger plastics can be collected and removed more easily, they eventually degrade into particles smaller than 5 mm, known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-are-infiltrating-the-human-body-even-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a>, which are far more challenging to retrieve. 



These microplastics are particularly concerning because they are more likely to be ingested by marine life. Even if plastic littering stopped today, the amount of microplastics in the oceans would continue to rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-halting-marine-plastic-pollution-nbsp">Halting marine plastic pollution&nbsp;</h2>



At the 2019 G20 Osaka Summit, global leaders introduced the Osaka Blue Ocean Vision, with the aim of halting the increase in marine plastic pollution by 2050. This initiative focuses on improving waste management strategies through international collaboration.



“We wanted to figure out what would be the ideal scenario for the Osaka Blue Ocean Vision to succeed. So, we utilized computational modeling along with fieldwork studies to understand where and how plastics flow into the oceans,” Higuchi explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-projecting-plastic-emission-routes">Projecting plastic emission routes</h2>



The researchers studied how long different types of plastics take to break down and collected data from plastic emission routes, including rivers and other sources that transport waste into the ocean.



“What we came up with are something akin to weather forecast maps, but instead of showing when and where it will rain, these maps show different scenarios on when and where plastics will end up,” Higuchi said.



Their projections suggest that reducing the amount of plastic entering the oceans by 32%, or around 8.1 million tons, by 2035 could lead to more than a 50% reduction in ocean plastic by 2050.&nbsp;



The impact is even more significant in heavily polluted areas such as the Yellow and East China Seas, where plastic waste could be reduced by up to 63% according to their models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stopping-new-waste-from-entering-oceans">Stopping new waste from entering oceans</h2>



“Not only does this give the Osaka Blue Ocean Vision concrete targets, but it also gives governments and businesses metric goals,” said Higuchi. “Naturally, we need to go beyond cleaning existing pollution; we must cut new plastic waste entering our oceans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-plastic-pollution-lurks-beneath-the-surface-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a>.”



According to Isobe, this target is attainable if we use strategies like improving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-highlights-desperate-need-for-electronic-waste-management/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waste management</a>, promoting reusable alternatives to single-use plastics, and enhancing public awareness.



“Many people can be pessimistic when hearing about the ongoing plastic waste problem in our lives. But I remain optimistic that we can find our way out of this predicament,” said Isobe.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-fisheries">The role of fisheries</h2>



The researchers noted that plastic emissions from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-oceans-fisheries-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fisheries</a>, which were not included in this study, are also a major concern for marine pollution. 



The experts emphasized that the 32 % reduction scenario is only based on land-based mismanaged plastics, so different reduction scenarios are needed for fisheries.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-ocean-plastic-from-rivers">Reducing ocean plastic from rivers</h2>



“Among all the concerns, plastic waste management should be prioritized. Reducing the emissions of macroplastic waste from rivers into the ocean is the most important solution that humans can manage,” the researchers concluded.&nbsp;



“We must note that ocean plastics have inertia, so microplastics will continue to increase even if we suddenly stop increasing land-based plastic emissions because of the legacy plastics accumulated on land.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.116791" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Pollution Bulletin</a>.



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Is it still possible to save the ocean from plastic pollution?

In an unprecedented achievement, experts at Kyushu University have presented...

Experts at UCLA Health have begun to uncover one of the fundamental mysteries in neuroscience - how the human brain encodes and interprets the flow of time and experiences.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-cell-activity-reflects-experiences-nbsp">Brain cell activity reflects experiences&nbsp;</h2>



The experts directly recorded the activity of individual neurons in humans and revealed that specific brain cells fire in a way that reflects the order and structure of a person’s experiences.&nbsp;



Notably, the brain retains these firing patterns after the experience has ended and can rapidly replay them during periods of rest.&nbsp;



The brain also utilizes these learned patterns to prepare for future stimuli, offering the first empirical evidence of how brain cells integrate “what” and “when” information to retain representations of experiences over <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-and-adults-perceive-time-differently/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">time</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognition-in-the-human-brain">Cognition in the human brain</h2>



Dr. Itzhak Fried, the study's senior author, noted that these findings could be pivotal in developing neuro-prosthetic devices designed to enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forgetting-things-is-a-natural-part-of-the-memory-process/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> and other cognitive functions. 



The study's results may also provide insights into artificial intelligence’s understanding of cognition in the human brain.



“Recognizing patterns from experiences over time is crucial for the human brain to form memory, predict potential future outcomes and guide behaviors,” said Fried, director of epilepsy surgery at <a href="https://www.uclahealth.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA Health</a>.



“But how this process is carried out in the brain at the cellular level has remained unknown – until now.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognitive-map-in-the-brain">Cognitive map in the brain</h2>



Previous research, including work by Fried, used brain recordings and neuroimaging to explore how the brain processes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-smell-spatial-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spatial navigation</a>.



The studies showed that two regions of the brain - the hippocampus and the entorhinal cortex - play key roles. These areas, both critical for memory, work together to create a “cognitive map.” 



Hippocampal neurons function as “place cells,” marking specific locations like an 'X' on a map, while entorhinal neurons act as “grid cells,” measuring spatial distances. Initially discovered in rodents, these cells were later found to also exist in humans.



Further studies have demonstrated that similar neural processes are involved in representing non-spatial experiences such as time, sound frequency, and object characteristics.&nbsp;



One of Fried’s seminal findings was the discovery of “concept cells” in the human hippocampus and entorhinal cortex, which respond to specific individuals, places, or distinct objects and are essential for memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-how-the-brain-processes-experiences-nbsp">Studying how the brain processes experiences&nbsp;</h2>



To study how the brain processes experiences over time, the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> team recruited 17 participants with intractable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medicinal-cannabis-reduces-epileptic-seizures-by-86-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epilepsy</a>, all of whom had depth electrodes implanted in their brains for clinical treatment.



The researchers recorded the neural activity of these participants as they performed tasks involving pattern recognition and image sequencing.&nbsp;



The experiment began with an initial screening phase where about 120 images of people, animals, objects, and landmarks were shown repeatedly over a 40-minute period.&nbsp;



Participants were instructed to complete various tasks, such as determining whether an image showed a person. The images included famous actors, musicians, and places, based partly on the participants’ preferences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modifications-in-neural-activity">Modifications in neural activity</h2>



The main experiment involved three phases, during which six images were displayed in random or structured order across a pyramid-shaped graph.&nbsp;



Participants were tasked with behavioral responses unrelated to image positioning, such as identifying whether an image showed a male or female or if the image was mirrored from previous phases.



In their analysis, Fried and his team found that hippocampal-entorhinal neurons began to modify their activity in alignment with the image sequence on the pyramid graph.&nbsp;



Remarkably, these patterns formed without any direct instruction to the participants. The neuronal patterns also reflected the likelihood of upcoming stimuli and remained encoded even after the tasks were completed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-representing-space-and-time">Representing space and time</h2>



“This study shows us for the first time how the brain uses analogous mechanisms to represent what are seemingly very different types of information: space and time,” said Fried.&nbsp;



“We have demonstrated at the neuronal level how these representations of object trajectories in time are incorporated by the human hippocampal-entorhinal system.”



These findings provide an unprecedented glimpse into how the brain processes the flow of time, potentially opening doors to new research in memory and cognition.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07973-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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How does the brain process experiences over time?

Experts at UCLA Health have begun to uncover one of...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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