Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Marine protected areas are proving to be a game-changer in boosting "catch-per-unit-of-fishing-effort" without harming marine ecosystems.



Large-scale marine protected areas (LSMPAs), such as Revillagigedo in Mexico, are leading the way.



These vast conservation zones, many of which have been established recently, could hold the key to safeguarding migratory species while potentially enhancing fisheries' success rates beyond their borders.



This promising development was recently highlighted in a scientific study published in the journal Science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-age-of-conservation-a-win-win-for-all">The age of conservation: A win-win for all</h2>



The study presented several real-world instances where LSMPAs dramatically increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-hidden-consequences-of-catch-and-release-sport-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">catch rates</a> outside of their boundaries.



The research findings showed an average jump of 12 to 18 percent in the fishing productivity of waters near protected areas. These "spillover benefits" seemed to be consistent across various tuna species.



The spillover effect ranged from 2 to 11 percent, and it was particularly beneficial for bigeye tuna.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spillover-benefits-get-stronger-over-time">Spillover benefits get stronger over time</h2>



Nations prioritizing conservation efforts are reportedly reaping the highest economic benefits.



For instance, nearly all of the spillover benefits derived from the Revillagigedo protected area in Mexican waters were directed towards Mexican <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-fleets-hidden-industrial-fishing-activity-exposed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> vessels.



Study co-author Juan Carlos Villaseñor-Derbez is an assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.earth.miami.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Science. He also serves as a core faculty member at the Frost Institute for Data Science and Computing.



"We found that the spillover benefits, measured as the change in catch rates, are strongest just outside the boundaries of these MPAs and get stronger over time. The effects were strongest for the MPAs that were heavily fished prior to protection and are now well-enforced,” explained Villaseñor-Derbez.



The findings highlight the growing importance of well-managed marine protected areas in balancing conservation and economic interests. These areas can offer a promising blueprint for sustainable fisheries worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-protected-areas-and-tuna-stocks">Marine protected areas and tuna stocks</h2>



Understanding the links between LSMPAs, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bluefin-tuna-a-sushi-delicacy-will-likely-be-extinct-within-50-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tuna</a> stocks, and fisheries becomes crucial when we consider global targets such as protecting 30 percent of the world’s ocean area by 2030.



The study is also relevant in the context of the United Nations' Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction Agreement, which aims to safeguard biodiversity in international waters.



The researchers evaluated data from 9 LSMPAs across the Pacific and Indian oceans.



An intriguing feature of this study was the creation of a global tuna catch database that was developed solely from publicly available data. This hasn't been feasible during earlier investigations into large-scale MPA impacts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expansion-of-large-scale-marine-protected-areas">Expansion of large-scale marine protected areas</h2>



In 2004, the world had a single large-scale MPA - the Galápagos Marine Reserve in Ecuador.



Fast forward two decades, and we now have over 20 such <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-marine-protected-areas-boost-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protected spaces</a>, including the Papahānaumokuākea in the Northwest Hawaiian Islands. Most of these conservation zones coexist with tuna fisheries.



This proliferation of LSMPAs enables us to test their impact on the populations of important tuna species like ahi and skipjack that underpin a global industry valued at over $40 billion.



One striking revelation from the study was a 10% increase in bigeye tuna catch rates near the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, the world’s largest no-fishing zone.



Ultimately, large-scale marine protected areas seem to be ushering in an era of sustainable fishing, where conservation and higher catch rates go hand in hand.



This serves as a reflection of the power of balanced coexistence - a perfect example of the harmony we can achieve when we respect nature's boundaries while fulfilling our needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-future-prospects">Challenges and future prospects </h2>



While large-scale marine protected areas (LSMPAs) offer promising solutions for balancing conservation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bleaching-effect-coral-loss-threatens-fisheries-and-livelihoods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fisheries</a>, their long-term success hinges on several critical factors. 



Effective enforcement, adequate funding, and international cooperation are essential to ensure these protected zones achieve their intended goals. 



Without proper surveillance and compliance, illegal fishing activities could undermine the progress made in enhancing tuna stocks and preserving biodiversity.



Another challenge lies in balancing the needs of local communities that rely on fishing for their livelihoods. 



Although spillover benefits from LSMPAs have shown positive trends, the transition period before these benefits materialize can be challenging for communities that depend on immediate access to fishing grounds. 



Policies are needed to support sustainable fishing practices while providing economic alternatives during the adjustment period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-ocean-management">Sustainable ocean management </h2>



Looking ahead, expanding LSMPAs to meet global conservation targets will require strategic planning and collaboration. 



Advances in satellite monitoring and data-driven fisheries management could enhance the effectiveness of these protected areas, ensuring both ecological and economic gains. 



If implemented effectively, LSMPAs could serve as a cornerstone of sustainable ocean management, enhancing resilience in marine ecosystems amid climate change and increasing human pressures.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn1146" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Marine protected areas have 'spillover benefits' protecting life well beyond their boundaries

Marine protected areas are proving to be a game-changer in...

On a crisp autumn night, far from city lights, you can witness one of the most awe-inspiring sights in the sky - the Andromeda Galaxy.



Just northeast of the Great Square of Pegasus, this celestial wonder appears as a faint, elongated smudge, easily visible to the naked eye. 



Despite its dim glow, this galaxy is the largest and closest spiral galaxy to the Milky Way, spanning an astonishing 220,000 light-years across.



The light reaching your eyes tonight&nbsp;left Andromeda 2.5 million years ago. At that time, early human ancestors,&nbsp;Homo habilis, had just begun making stone tools on Earth.



That means when you look at Andromeda, you are gazing into the distant past - at a galaxy whose light began its journey long before modern humans even existed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-edwin-hubble-and-the-andromeda-galaxy">Edwin Hubble and the Andromeda Galaxy </h2>



For centuries, astronomers debated the nature of Andromeda. Was it merely a nearby&nbsp;"spiral nebula," a swirling cloud of gas and dust within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-galaxy-shows-us-what-the-early-milky-way-looked-like/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>? Or was it something more? The answer arrived in the early&nbsp;20th century, thanks to the work of&nbsp;Edwin Hubble.



Using the&nbsp;Hooker Telescope&nbsp;at <a href="https://www.mtwilson.edu/100-telescope-observing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mount Wilson Observatory</a>, Hubble identified&nbsp;Cepheid variable stars&nbsp;in Andromeda - special stars whose brightness fluctuates predictably, allowing astronomers to calculate their distance.



Hubble’s calculations revealed something astonishing:&nbsp;Andromeda was far beyond the Milky Way, proving it was a separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiral-galaxy-with-quasar-jet-surprises-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> altogether. This revelation shattered the belief that the Milky Way encompassed the entire universe.



In the years that followed, our understanding of the cosmos expanded from a single galaxy to a vast universe teeming with billions of them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-space-telescope-and-andromeda">Hubble Space Telescope and Andromeda</h2>



A century after Edwin Hubble’s remarkable discovery, the space telescope bearing his name set out to photograph Andromeda in&nbsp;unprecedented detail. 



The&nbsp;Hubble Space Telescope (<a href="https://hubblesite.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HST</a>), one of the most powerful astronomical tools ever built, spent over&nbsp;a decade capturing a high-resolution photomosaic of the Andromeda Galaxy.



This monumental survey required&nbsp;over 600 individual exposures, resulting in a final image containing&nbsp;2.5 billion pixels. The mosaic spans the full width of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a>, covering an area&nbsp;six times larger than the full Moon&nbsp;in the night sky. 



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="FTThfGq0yb-4239179-12187" type="single"]</div>



Because Hubble is designed for pinpoint accuracy rather than wide-field imaging, assembling a complete portrait of Andromeda was an immense challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-millions-of-stars">Mapping millions of stars</h2>



The first phase of this project, known as the Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury (PHAT), focused on Andromeda’s northern half. 



Using Hubble’s Advanced Camera for Surveys and Wide Field Camera 3, astronomers captured Andromeda’s stars at ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared wavelengths.



A decade later, this work was expanded with the&nbsp;Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Southern Treasury (PHAST), a follow-up study led by&nbsp;Zhuo Chen&nbsp;at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>. 



This program mapped an additional&nbsp;100 million stars&nbsp;in the&nbsp;southern half&nbsp;of Andromeda - an area particularly valuable for studying the galaxy’s&nbsp;merger history.



The combined PHAT and PHAST mosaics now encompass the entire disk of Andromeda, revealing stunning details of its structure and stellar population. 



Hubble’s high-resolution imaging allows astronomers to study individual stars in Andromeda just as easily as those within our own Milky Way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-andromeda-s-violent-history">Andromeda’s violent history</h2>



While Andromeda and the Milky Way likely formed around the same time, their evolutionary paths have been strikingly different. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-thin-disk-is-billions-of-years-older-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> has experienced relatively stable growth, while Andromeda appears to have undergone a much more chaotic past, marked by violent interactions and mergers.



"Andromeda’s a train wreck," said&nbsp;Daniel Weisz&nbsp;of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>. "It looks like it has been through some kind of event that caused it to form a lot of stars and then just shut down."



A key clue to this turbulent history lies in the presence of&nbsp;coherent streams of stars - trails of ancient stellar material likely left behind by smaller galaxies that Andromeda absorbed over time.



One possible culprit is the compact satellite galaxy&nbsp;Messier 32, which astronomers suspect may be the stripped-down core of a once-larger spiral galaxy that was devoured by Andromeda in the distant past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-the-andromeda-galaxy">What's next for the Andromeda galaxy</h2>



<a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Hubble_traces_hidden_history_of_the_Andromeda_Galaxy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The detailed stellar census provided by Hubble</a> helps astronomers reconstruct Andromeda’s merger history and predict its future evolution. 



The findings suggest that Andromeda is gradually transitioning from a star-forming spiral to a more elliptical structure, where star formation is winding down.



"Andromeda looks like a transitional type of galaxy that’s between a star-forming spiral and a sort of elliptical galaxy dominated by aging red stars," said&nbsp;Weisz.



However, Andromeda’s journey is far from over. In about&nbsp;4.5 billion years, it will&nbsp;collide with the Milky Way, triggering an immense cosmic event that will reshape both galaxies into a single, massive elliptical galaxy. 



This future merger - already set in motion by their mutual gravitational pull - will not be a destructive explosion but rather a slow gravitational dance that will mix and redistribute billions of stars over millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-next-chapter-beyond-hubble">The next chapter: Beyond Hubble</h2>



Although the Hubble Space Telescope has provided humanity with an unprecedented view of Andromeda, its work is only the beginning. 



Future telescopes, such as&nbsp;NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a>&nbsp;and the upcoming&nbsp;Nancy Grace <a href="https://roman.gsfc.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roman Space Telescope</a>, will take this research even further.



James Webb’s&nbsp;infrared vision&nbsp;will allow astronomers to peer through Andromeda’s&nbsp;dusty regions, uncovering details about star formation, planetary systems, and the galaxy’s hidden structure. 



Meanwhile, the Roman Space Telescope, often described as a&nbsp;"wide-angle version of Hubble," will capture panoramic views of Andromeda with&nbsp;100 times the field of view of Hubble. This will provide an even broader perspective of its vast stellar population.



The Andromeda Galaxy stands as one of the most important astronomical objects in human history. 



From ancient civilizations who saw it as a mysterious celestial cloud to the Hubble Space Telescope’s&nbsp;2.5-billion-pixel portrait - Andromeda has continuously reshaped our understanding of the cosmos.



With each new observation, we learn more about our&nbsp;neighboring galaxy’s past, present, and future. 



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad7e2b" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>. 



Video Credit: NASA, ESA, Greg Bacon (STScI)



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Hubble's new masterpiece took 10 years and captured 200 million stars in Andromeda

On a crisp autumn night, far from city lights, you...

Fast radio bursts are sudden flashes of radio waves, often lasting mere milliseconds. The first appeared on astronomers' radar in 2007, and for the most part, still remain a complete mystery. 



Scientists have since recorded thousands of them across the sky, each leaving behind questions about what kind of cosmic drama can generate such concentrated energy in so little time. 



The bursts usually come from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-space-radio-signal-reaches-earth-after-8-billion-years-frb-20220610a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">far beyond our own galaxy</a>, making them challenging to trace back to a specific source.



Last summer, one set of repeated bursts caught special attention. Intense radio signals in the northern constellation Ursa Minor suggested something unusual. Initial data pointed to a source lying well outside our galactic neighborhood. 



Researchers worked to narrow down its origin with a newly commissioned radio telescope that could combine signals from multiple arrays. 



They hoped to piece together a more precise map of these flashes to get clues about how and where they formed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-frb-source">Unexpected FRB source</h2>



<a href="https://leungcalvin.github.io/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomer Calvin Leung</a>, a Miller Postdoctoral Fellowship recipient at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, helped develop the computer code that made it possible to pinpoint the fast radio bursts with high accuracy. 



When he and his team plotted the signals, they found that the source sat in the distant outskirts of an ancient elliptical galaxy about 2 billion light years from Earth. 



This galaxy is around 11.3 billion years old, leading experts to believe it should not contain the kind of young, magnetized neutron star that might create these flashes. 



Leung posits, "now the question was: How are you going to explain the presence of a magnetar inside this old, dead galaxy?"



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aiming-telescopes-at-this-radio-burst">Aiming telescopes at this radio burst</h2>



Once the spot was identified, colleagues turned optical telescopes to that region. What they saw <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-radio-bursts-traced-to-chaotic-magnetospheres-of-neutron-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">did not match expectations</a>.



Telescopes revealed a long-dead galaxy, lacking the active star factories known to give birth to the supermassive stars that collapse into magnetars. 



A graduate researcher at <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> in Montreal, Canada, named Vishwangi Shah refined the calculations used to confirm the bursts’ location. 



"This is not only the first FRB to be found outside a dead galaxy, but compared to all other FRBs, it’s also the farthest from the galaxy it’s associated with," Shah explained. 



"The FRB’s location is surprising and raises questions about how such energetic events can occur in regions where no new stars are forming."



Shah’s paper on this unusual fast radio burst, designated FRB 20240209A, was published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad9ddc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrophysical Journal Letters</a> on Tuesday, Jan. 21.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pinpointing-fast-radio-burst-locations">Pinpointing fast radio burst locations</h2>



Further progress in Leung's FRB mapping mission came from the Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment (<a href="https://chime-experiment.ca/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CHIME</a>), which has detected a large share of these bursts. 



Its main array in British Columbia recently gained partner stations called outriggers, designed to sharpen its imaging abilities. 



"When paired with the three outriggers, we should be able to accurately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farthest-known-fast-radio-burst-traced-to-rare-cluster-of-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pinpoint one FRB</a> a day to its galaxy, which is substantial. That's 20 times better than CHIME, with two outrigger arrays," Leung explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-both-optical-and-infrared-telescopes">Using both optical and infrared telescopes</h2>



A new site at <a href="https://www.seti.org/hcro" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hat Creek Observatory</a> in Northern California is also online this week, raising hopes that astronomers can identify many more locations of similar bursts.



With these improvements, researchers can steer optical and infrared telescopes to the same spot in the sky. They can then figure out whether these bursts come from star clusters or distinct structures within a galaxy.



After Shah's paper on FRB 20240209A was submitted, observers at the <a href="https://greenbankobservatory.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Green Bank Observatory</a> in West Virginia, led by MIT’s Shion Andrew, used a second outrigger to verify the position of that newly discovered signal.



<a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad9de2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A related study</a> by scientists at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> in Illinois, led by Einstein Postdoctoral Fellow <a href="https://www.tarraneheftekhari.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tarraneh Eftekhari</a>, was also published that day. 



Eftekhari said, "It's clear that there's still a lot of exciting discovery space when it comes to FRBs and that their environments could hold the key to unlocking their secrets,"



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/fast-radio-burst_frb_dead-galaxy_credit-gemini-observatory_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/fast-radio-burst_frb_dead-galaxy_credit-gemini-observatory_1s.webp" alt="The location of the fast radio burst, indicated by the oval outlines, is on the outskirts of a massive elliptical galaxy, the yellow oval at right. Credit: Gemini Observatory" class="wp-image-1957540"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The location of the fast radio burst, indicated by the oval outlines, is on the outskirts of a massive elliptical galaxy, the yellow oval at right. Credit: Gemini Observatory</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explaining-this-radio-burst">Explaining this radio burst</h2>



The presence of such a powerful burst in the outskirts of a silent elliptical galaxy hints at a new chapter in FRB studies. 



"This result challenges existing theories that tie FRB origins to phenomena in star-forming galaxies," Shah noted.



Because active star-forming regions are known breeding grounds for magnetars, this development opens the door to alternative ideas about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glitching-star-explains-cosmic-radio-bursts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how these bursts arise</a>. 



"The source could be in a globular cluster, a dense region of old, dead stars outside the galaxy. If confirmed, it would make FRB 20240209A only the second FRB linked to a globular cluster," Shah concluded.



This galaxy stopped forming new stars long ago, yet the data point to a burst generated by something akin to a magnetar. If that scenario is correct, it might mean these exotic objects can emerge in places once deemed unlikely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Researchers want to learn more about how an old galaxy could host events usually tied to younger environments. Leung sees huge promise in better pinpointing tools. 



"CHIME and its outrigger telescopes will let us do astrometry at a level unmatched by the Hubble Space Telescope or the James Webb Space Telescope. It'll be up to them to drill down to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-alien-radio-signals-may-be-caused-by-starquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">find the source</a>. It's an amazing radio telescope," Leung enthusiastically concluded.



To sum it all up, what we learned is that astronomers still have a lot to learn about fast radio bursts. What causes them? Where do they come from? 



As with most things in the universe, FRB answers are elusive, but that won't keep us from continuing to ask the questions and doing the the work that it takes to find the answers, because that's what science is all about.



The full study was published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad9ddc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



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Deep space radio burst is detected from a 'dead galaxy,' baffling scientists

Fast radio bursts are sudden flashes of radio waves, often...

Less than six months after beginning its science operations, the Webb Telescope (JWST) unveiled numerous red objects in the sky that puzzled scientists. These objects, initially dubbed "little red dots" (LRDs), appeared small but were abundant across the cosmos.



However, their exact nature, the reasons for their striking color, and their significance in understanding the early universe have left astronomers intrigued.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-little-red-dots-and-black-holes">Little red dots and black holes</h2>



In a recent study, experts have compiled one of the largest samples of LRDs to date. Nearly all of these objects existed during the first 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang.



The findings are intriguing: a large fraction of these dots appear to harbor growing supermassive black holes.



"We’re confounded by this new population of objects that Webb has found. We don’t see analogs of them at lower redshifts, which is why we haven’t seen them prior to Webb," said Dale Kocevski, lead author of the study and an astronomer at <a href="https://www.colby.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colby College</a> in Waterville, Maine. 



"There’s a substantial amount of work being done to try to determine the nature of these little red dots and whether their light is dominated by accreting black holes."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-the-little-red-dots">Discovery of the little red dots</h2>



The team of astronomers sifted through Webb’s data, compiled from multiple surveys, to analyze these peculiar objects. 



The Cosmic Evolution Early Release Science (<a href="https://ceers.github.io" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CEERS</a>) survey, along with other major surveys like the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (<a href="https://jades-survey.github.io" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JADES</a>) and Next Generation Deep Extragalactic Exploratory Public (NGDEEP), provided a wealth of information. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/little-red-dots_webb-telescope_discovery_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/little-red-dots_webb-telescope_discovery_NASA_1s.webp" alt="From their sample, they found that these mysterious red objects that appear small on the sky emerge in large numbers around 600 million years after the big bang and undergo a rapid decline in quantity around 1.5 billion years after the big bang. Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, Dale Kocevski (Colby College)" class="wp-image-1956670"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">From their sample, they found that these mysterious red objects that appear small on the sky emerge in large numbers around 600 million years after the big bang and undergo a rapid decline in quantity around 1.5 billion years after the big bang. Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, Dale Kocevski (Colby College)</figcaption></figure>



Their work revealed that LRDs first emerged in large numbers around 600 million years after the Big Bang. Then, they underwent a rapid decline around 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang.



The images, such as the six Webb images in the CEERS survey, show these mysterious dots surrounded by fuzzy red halos, each containing a yellow-white core. The survey data provides a deeper understanding of the LRDs' distribution and their link to cosmic history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-black-hole-growth">Early black hole growth</h2>



A significant discovery was the presence of rapidly orbiting gas, moving at speeds of up to 2 million miles per hour (1,000 km/s), around about 70% of the LRDs in the sample. 



This is a sign of an accretion disk around a supermassive black hole. These findings suggest that many of the LRDs are in fact active galactic nuclei (AGN), where black holes are actively accreting matter.



“The most exciting thing for me is the redshift distributions. These really red, high-redshift sources basically stop existing at a certain point after the big bang,” explained Steven Finkelstein, a co-author of the study from the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a>. 



“If they are growing black holes, and we think at least 70 percent of them are, this hints at an era of obscured black hole growth in the early universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-universe-isn-t-broken-just-evolving">The universe isn't broken, just evolving</h2>



When the little red dots were first discovered, some suggested that cosmology might be "broken" due to the unexpected size and rapid growth of these objects. 



If the light from these dots came entirely from stars, it would imply that some galaxies had formed too quickly for existing models to explain. The team’s research, however, counters this.



The study supports the idea that much of the light from these objects comes from accreting black holes rather than stars. With fewer stars involved, the galaxies are likely smaller and more consistent with current cosmological theories.



"This is how you solve the universe-breaking problem," said study co-author Anthony Taylor from the University of Texas at Austin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-questions-arise">New questions arise</h2>



Despite these breakthroughs, the nature of LRDs still raises many questions. One of the most pressing is why LRDs do not appear at lower redshifts. One possible explanation could be the process of inside-out growth. 



As star formation spreads outward from the center of a galaxy, the gas feeding the accreting black hole may diminish, leading to less obscuration of the black hole. This process could cause the black hole to become bluer and lose its "red dot" status.



Another mystery is that LRDs do not emit much X-ray light, unlike most black holes at lower redshifts. This has led scientists to speculate that LRDs might be heavily obscured black holes, with X-ray photons trapped in dense gas regions.



“There’s always two or more potential ways to explain the confounding properties of little red dots. It’s a continuous exchange between models and observations, finding a balance between what aligns well between the two and what conflicts,” explained Kocevski.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pushing-the-boundaries-of-space-science">Pushing the boundaries of space science</h2>



The team’s work has sparked a wave of new questions and possibilities, and further investigations are underway. Deep spectroscopic observations and mid-infrared property analysis of these objects will provide more clarity in the coming years.



These findings were presented at the 245th meeting of the American Astronomical Society and have been submitted for publication.



The James Webb Space Telescope continues to push the boundaries of space science, unveiling the mysteries of the universe. With its exceptional capabilities, Webb is helping to answer fundamental questions about the origins of the universe, the formation of galaxies, and the nature of black holes.



As the puzzle pieces slowly fall into place, the universe keeps revealing its secrets - one "little red dot" at a time.



The study is published in <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2404.03576" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



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Webb finds strange objects called "little red dots" in the early universe that no one can explain

Less than six months after beginning its science operations, the...

Preterm birth remains a significant concern for expectant parents because it means that babies are born immature - before completing 37 weeks of gestation.



While human pregnancy typically lasts around 40 weeks, any parent can confirm that this figure is vague at best. 



The timeline of birth is highly unpredictable. Babies arrive anytime between 38 and 42 weeks, with 10% of all births occurring preterm. Premature birth puts the newborns at risk of various complications.



A team of researchers at <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC San Francisco</a> has stumbled upon a significant finding: a molecular timekeeper in mice that possibly regulates the time of birth.



Intriguingly, this clock starts ticking right at the onset of pregnancy and operates within the uterus. 



This discovery could hold immense potential for human pregnancies as it paves the way for diagnostic tests to pinpoint women who are at higher risk of preterm labor and who would benefit from interventions to prolong <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pregnancy-may-speed-up-aging-in-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pregnancy</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preterm-birth-a-global-issue">Preterm birth: A global issue</h2>



Preterm birth is a prevalent issue worldwide, yet its underlying mechanism has puzzled experts for years.



“We hope our work can start to shed light on the underlying mechanism,” noted Dr. Adrian Erlebacher, a professor of laboratory medicine at UCSF who led the research.



“The new findings raise the possibility that preterm birth is triggered by things that happen much earlier in pregnancy than we expected.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dna-packaging-influences-pregnancy">How DNA packaging influences pregnancy</h2>



Pregnancy triggers significant biological transformations in the female body, which result in the fluctuation of hundreds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/selfish-dna-transposons-control-early-human-development-not-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> within the uterus.



The researchers were particularly interested in studying KDM6B, a protein that assumes a regulatory role over gene activity and possibly over the genes responsible for the shift to labor.



This protein orchestrates gene expression by removing methyl chemical groups from histones - structures that organize and package <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-damage-can-persist-for-years-increasing-cancer-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> within cells.



Upon interaction with KDM6B, DNA becomes more receptive to other factors, thus accelerating the action of nearby genes.



Through their work, the team observed that blocking KDM6B resulted in prolonged mice pregnancies and delayed birth timings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quiet-role-of-fibroblasts">The quiet role of fibroblasts</h2>



While the initial suspicion was that KDM6B activates genes in the uterus's epithelial cells late in pregnancy, detailed analyses revealed otherwise. 



It was found that the protein’s effects on pregnancy length were instead linked to fibroblasts, the structural cells not typically considered in labor regulation. 



Surprisingly, the regulation of these cells by KDM6B took place during the early days of pregnancy.



“This wasn’t something we anticipated, and it completely reshaped our understanding of the cell types and processes driving labor onset,” said Tara McIntyre, UCSF graduate student and lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-countdown-to-labor-molecular-timer-in-action">Countdown to labor: Molecular timer in action</h2>



In-depth experiments showed that, soon after <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/calcium-zinc-are-keys-to-healthier-pregnancy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conception</a>, methyl groups increase around certain genes in the uterine fibroblasts, which keeps these genes inactive and enables the uterus to support pregnancy.



As pregnancy progresses, the methylation levels on these histones gradually decrease, eventually activating the nearby genes related to events like labor. This progressive reduction functions as a timer.



“When histone methylation erodes enough, nearby genes flip on," explained Erlebacher.



When the team blocked KDM6B, histones near a selection of genes accumulated excess methylation early in pregnancy. 



This lead to delayed labor as the genes associated with birth were not activated in time despite methylation erosion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-preterm-birth-a-connection-unearthed">Decoding preterm birth: A connection unearthed</h2>



Although the researchers did not directly analyze preterm births, the newly discovered molecular timer could potentially determine the length of pregnancy in humans.



“The big question from here is whether these same processes are relevant in humans,” said Erlebacher. “If they are, then can we use them to predict or control pregnancy length?”



If these molecular signals are disrupted in humans, they could be linked to preterm <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-increased-premature-birth-risk-by-60/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birth risk</a>. 



For instance, women commencing pregnancy with lower than usual levels of histone methylation could prematurely activate labor-related genes due to the swift erosion of methylation.



Erlebacher noted that previous studies on preterm birth have primarily focused on the period immediately before labor. However, these new findings suggest an emphasis on the early stages of pregnancy, opening up new avenues of research.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/abstract/S0092-8674(24)01432-6?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0092867424014326%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Cell</a>.



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Molecular timer may hold the key to preventing preterm birth

Preterm birth remains a significant concern for expectant parents because...

West Greenland is renowned for its blue lakes that supply drinking water and help sequester atmospheric carbon.&nbsp;



However, following two months of record heat and heavy rainfall in fall 2022, researchers discovered that an estimated 7,500 of these lakes turned brown, began emitting carbon, and suffered a decline in water quality.&nbsp;



This dramatic change, reported in a study published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2413855122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (PNAS), underscores how extreme climate events can push <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-lakes-produce-less-methane-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic lakes</a> past critical tipping points.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-changes-in-a-short-time">Unprecedented changes in a short time</h2>



Led by Fulbright Distinguished Arctic Scholar Jasmine Saros of the <a href="https://climatechange.umaine.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maine Climate Change Institute</a>, an international team investigated the rapid transformation of these lakes. 



By July 2023, less than a year after the extreme fall weather, the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the lakes had undergone widespread alterations - changes that would normally unfold over centuries.



“The magnitude of this and the rate of change were unprecedented,” said Saros, who also serves as a professor of paleolimnology and lake ecology at UMaine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-climate-extremes-affected-greenland-lakes">How climate extremes affected Greenland lakes</h2>



Greenland typically sees snowfall in the fall, but record temperatures turned precipitation into rain. This shift, combined with the heat, caused <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-is-no-longer-permanent-arctic-communities-in-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">permafrost</a> - frozen soil rich in organic carbon and minerals - to thaw. 



As rainwater washed through the thawing ground, it carried an abundance of carbon, iron, magnesium, and other elements into the lakes, turning their waters brown.



The influx of dissolved organic carbon and nutrients fueled bacterial growth, affecting the lakes’ taste, odor, and color. Increased metals in the water raised health concerns as well.



“The increased dissolved organic material can interact with drinking water treatment processes to produce chlorination byproducts called trihalomethanes, which may be carcinogenic,” Saros explained.



Such changes not only impact water quality but also have broader implications for local communities relying on these lakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupted-ecosystems-and-the-carbon-cycle">Disrupted ecosystems and the carbon cycle</h2>



As the lakes turned brown, water transparency declined, reducing light penetration and altering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-at-risk-global-warming-threatens-the-oceans-lifeline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plankton</a> dynamics. Reduced light hindered phytoplankton that normally absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, while organisms that break down organic matter increased. 



This shift transformed the lakes from carbon sinks into significant sources of carbon dioxide, with emissions rising by 350%.



“Because the lakes turned so brown, it reduced the light coming into the system, which tends to favor organisms that use organic carbon pathways instead of photosynthesis,” Saros said.



This change in plankton behavior and carbon cycling has major ramifications for the Arctic carbon budget and local biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-atmospheric-rivers">The role of atmospheric rivers</h2>



The researchers pinpointed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atmospheric-rivers-will-become-more-intense-as-temperatures-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric rivers</a> - long, narrow streams of water vapor - as the likely cause of the extreme weather. These phenomena brought record-breaking heat and rainfall to the region. 



The <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA) predicts that atmospheric rivers will become much more frequent in Greenland and other parts of the world by the end of the century, potentially leading to more events like those of fall 2022.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-will-the-lakes-of-greenland-recover">Will the lakes of Greenland recover?</h2>



The abrupt transformation raises pressing questions about recovery: Will the lakes return to their former blue state, or will changes persist?&nbsp;



“It was such an overwhelming climate force that drove all the lakes to respond in the same way. When it comes to recovery, will it be the same across lakes or different?” Saros pondered.



Ongoing monitoring and additional research are crucial. The team’s work relied on long-term observations, including annual water sampling and year-round remote sensors, which allowed them to capture the rapid changes caused by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-in-2024-what-have-we-learned/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme climate event</a>.



“Our study demonstrates the power of long-term observation. I’ve been working in this area since 2013, and have worked on many projects here. But in the background, my colleagues and I have been trying to maintain a consistent data set of observations,” Saros said.&nbsp;



“That’s how we were able to capture and quantify the effects of this extreme climate event.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-greenland-lakes">Future research on Greenland lakes</h2>



The study was made possible through extensive collaboration among researchers from UMaine, NOAA, and various international institutions, as well as contributions from numerous PhD students.&nbsp;



This collective effort has provided valuable insights into how extreme weather events can drastically alter lake ecosystems and carbon dynamics.



As atmospheric rivers become more frequent, understanding their impact on Arctic lakes like those in West Greenland is essential.&nbsp;



Further research into how these lakes recover and how similar events affect other regions will help scientists develop strategies to mitigate and adapt to the impacts of climate change.



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Thousands of lakes in Greenland have crossed a tipping point from which they can't recover

West Greenland is renowned for its blue lakes that supply...

For over a decade, complexity scientist Peter Turchin and his collaborators have worked to compile an unparalleled database of human history - the Seshat Global History Databank. Recently, Turchin and computer scientist Maria del Rio-Chanona turned their attention to artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots, questioning whether these advanced models could aid historians and archaeologists in interpreting the past. 



The study, which is the first of its kind, evaluates the historical knowledge of leading <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-ai-models-pose-an-existential-threat-to-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI models</a> such as ChatGPT-4, Llama, and Gemini.



The results, presented at the <a href="https://neurips.cc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NeurIPS conference</a>, reveal both potential and significant limitations in AI’s ability to grasp historical knowledge, especially at the nuanced, expert level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-historical-competence-in-ai">Limited historical competence in AI</h2>



“Large language models (LLMs), such as ChatGPT, have been enormously successful in some fields - for example, they have largely succeeded by replacing paralegals," said Turchin, who leads the <a href="https://csh.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Complexity Science Hub</a>’s (CSH) research group on social complexity and collapse.



"But when it comes to making judgments about the characteristics of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-levels-linked-to-the-rise-and-fall-of-early-human-societies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">past societies</a>, especially those located outside North America and Western Europe, their ability to do so is much more limited.” 



The study’s findings highlight that AI’s capabilities are domain-specific. While LLMs excel in some applications, they struggle with expert-level historical analysis. GPT-4 Turbo, the best-performing model, achieved a balanced accuracy of just 46% on a four-choice question test. 



This result, though an improvement over random guessing (25%), underscores the substantial gaps in AI’s understanding of global history.



“I thought the AI chatbots would do a lot better,” said del Rio-Chanona, corresponding author of the study and assistant professor at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London.</a> “History is often viewed as facts, but sometimes interpretation is necessary to make sense of it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-does-ai-understand-expert-level-history">Does AI understand expert-level history?</h2>



The study leveraged the <a href="https://seshat-db.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Seshat Global History Databank</a>, a comprehensive resource documenting historical data from 600 societies worldwide, encompassing over 36,000 data points and 2,700 scholarly references. Using Seshat as a benchmark, researchers tested LLMs on questions requiring graduate or expert-level knowledge.



“We wanted to set a benchmark for assessing the ability of these LLMs to handle expert-level history knowledge,” explained first author Jakob Hauser, a resident scientist at CSH.&nbsp;



“A key component of our benchmark is that we not only test whether these LLMs can identify correct facts, but also explicitly ask whether a fact can be proven or inferred from indirect evidence.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regional-and-temporal-disparities">Regional and temporal disparities</h2>



The study revealed that AI performance varied significantly across time periods and geographic regions. LLMs demonstrated greater accuracy when addressing questions about ancient history, particularly between 8,000 BCE and 3,000 BCE, but struggled with more recent events, especially from 1,500 CE to the present.



Geographically, OpenAI models like GPT-4 performed better for regions such as Latin America and the Caribbean, while Llama models excelled in Northern America. However, both systems underperformed in Sub-Saharan Africa, with Llama also showing weaker results for Oceania.&nbsp;



These disparities highlight potential biases in training data, which may prioritize certain historical narratives while neglecting others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-depth-in-ai-models">Lack of depth in AI models</h2>



LLMs performed best on questions related to legal systems and social complexity, but they struggled significantly with topics such as discrimination and social mobility.



“The main takeaway from this study is that LLMs, while impressive, still lack the depth of understanding required for advanced history,” said del Rio-Chanona. “They're great for basic facts, but when it comes to more nuanced, PhD-level historical inquiry, they're not yet up to the task.”



Among the tested models, GPT-4 Turbo ranked highest with 46% accuracy, while Llama-3.1-8B scored the lowest at 33.6%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-dataset-and-reducing-bias">Expanding the dataset and reducing bias</h2>



The researchers aim to address the shortcomings revealed in this study by expanding the dataset and refining the benchmark. Hauser emphasized plans to incorporate more data from underrepresented regions, especially in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-green-spaces-are-urgently-needed-across-the-global-south/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global South</a>, and to include more complex historical questions.



“We also look forward to testing more recent LLM models, such as o3, to see if they can bridge the gaps identified in this study,” Hauser said.



The team believes the findings are valuable not only for AI developers but also for historians and archaeologists.&nbsp;



For academics, understanding AI’s limitations can guide its use in research, while for developers, the study highlights areas for improvement, such as addressing regional biases and enhancing models’ capacity for handling nuanced historical evidence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-ai-s-understanding-of-history">Improving AI’s understanding of history</h2>



The study highlights both the potential and the current limitations of AI in historical research. While LLMs have proven valuable for generating basic historical facts, they fall short when tasked with interpreting complex and nuanced historical contexts.&nbsp;



For researchers and developers alike, these findings offer a roadmap for improving AI’s understanding of global history, paving the way for tools that better support scholarly inquiry into the past.



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AI struggles to understand human history and fails miserably when tested

For over a decade, complexity scientist Peter Turchin and his...

A study led by Tel Aviv University has revealed alarming insights into how microplastic particles are transformed within marine ecosystems, posing new challenges to the health of the ocean’s food web.&nbsp;



The research highlights how filter-feeding marine organisms alter the behavior and composition of microplastics, creating unforeseen risks for marine environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-microplastic-pollution">Investigating microplastic pollution</h2>



While previous research has documented the dangers of marine animals ingesting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-are-steadily-increasing-in-freshwater-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a>, this study goes a step further, exploring how these particles change after passing through the digestive systems of filter feeders.&nbsp;



Conducted by PhD student Eden Harel, Professor Noa Shenkar, and Professor Ines Zucker from <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a>, the study focused on ascidians - marine animals that efficiently filter tiny particles from water.&nbsp;



The findings reveal how the interaction between filter feeders and microplastics contributes to the spread and transformation of these particles.



“We aimed to examine whether and how plastic changes after passing through the digestive system of a marine organism and how this process affects the presence of plastic and its availability to other organisms,” Shenkar explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-filter-feeders-transform-microplastics">How filter feeders transform microplastics</h2>



Using a controlled laboratory experiment, the researchers simulated seawater environments containing ascidians and introduced two types of microplastic particles.



These particles included polystyrene (PS), a common conventional plastic, and polylactic acid (PLA), a biodegradable bioplastic marketed as environmentally friendly. The team monitored the filtration, digestion, and excretion processes over 48 hours.



The results showed stark differences between the two types of plastic. Ascidians removed 90% of polystyrene particles from the water within two hours, but these particles were reintroduced to the water after 48 hours following digestion.



Polylactic acid particles, on the other hand, decreased significantly in concentration and remained at low levels. Larger PLA particles appeared to break down during digestion - likely returning to the water as smaller, undetectable nanoparticles.



These findings reveal that while some microplastics persist in their original form, others may fragment into smaller particles, potentially amplifying their environmental impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-disguised-as-organic-matter">Plastic disguised as organic matter</h2>



To understand the changes microplastics undergo during digestion, the team used Raman spectroscopy to analyze particles excreted by the ascidians.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed a surprising transformation: the plastic particles were no longer identifiable as plastics. Instead, they appeared to be organic matter due to a fecal coating acquired in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-humans-have-shockingly-different-digestive-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digestive system</a>.



“Our findings revealed that microplastic particles are excreted from the ascidian’s digestive system coated with a fecal layer, and it is likely that the marine environment also identifies these particles as this organic material,” Harel said.



This transformation increases the likelihood of these particles being ingested by other marine animals that feed on feces, further embedding microplastics into the food web.&nbsp;



The fecal coating also facilitates bacterial colonization and the adhesion of pollutants like heavy metals and residual organic compounds, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-could-cause-a-health-crisis-globally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotics</a>, making these particles even more hazardous.



According to Zucker, plastic particles undergo many transformations in the environment, from weathering to digestive processes, turning them into carriers of pollutants and diseases within the food web.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-microplastics-on-feces">Impacts of microplastics on feces</h2>



In addition to examining how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-jawless-fish-rhinopteraspis-dunensis-filter-feeders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">filter feeders</a> transform microplastics, the study explored how these particles affect the physical properties of feces - a vital nutrient source for many marine organisms. Feces containing microplastics displayed significant changes in behavior.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-sinking">Rapid sinking</h3>



Unlike normal feces, which sink slowly and provide sustenance to organisms along their descent, feces containing microplastics sank rapidly to the seafloor. This deprives marine organisms in the water column of a crucial food source.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-localized-accumulation">Localized accumulation</h3>



The faster sinking caused feces and microplastics to accumulate on the seafloor near the filter feeders, instead of dispersing evenly. 



This buildup can lead to increased carbon and nitrogen levels, fostering algal blooms that disrupt marine ecosystems.



“This accumulation can increase carbon and nitrogen levels on the seafloor and trigger algal blooms, representing another critical impact of microplastics on the balance of the marine food web,” Harel explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-microplastic-pollution-nbsp">Complexity of microplastic pollution&nbsp;</h2>



The study highlights the complexity of microplastic pollution, showing that the problem goes far beyond the particles themselves. 



Their transformation through biological processes and environmental exposure creates unexpected and far-reaching consequences.



“The most alarming conclusion is that the microplastic problem is far more complex than initially thought,” said the researchers.&nbsp;



“Plastic pollution in the marine environment has many unexpected dimensions, and its complexities continue to grow. Sometimes, neither we nor the environment can even recognize it as plastic.”



The findings emphasize the urgent need for better technologies and strategies to mitigate the spread and impact of microplastics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-microplastics-crisis">Addressing the microplastics crisis</h2>



As microplastic pollution continues to infiltrate marine ecosystems in unpredictable ways, this study reveals just how urgent the issue has become. 



With microplastics transforming into carriers of pollutants, altering the balance of marine food webs, and contributing to environmental degradation, addressing this crisis is essential.



“As time goes on, plastic continues to harm more and more marine ecosystems,” the researchers concluded. “It is our duty to develop new technologies to mitigate this dangerous phenomenon.”



This research provides a crucial step toward understanding the hidden dimensions of microplastic pollution and calls for global action to protect marine life and the delicate ecosystems that sustain it.



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These creatures eat, excrete, and transform microplastics into a much bigger threat

A study led by Tel Aviv University has revealed alarming...

Astronomers have uncovered a remarkable&nbsp;wind phenomenon&nbsp;on WASP-127b, a&nbsp;gas giant planet&nbsp;that is more than&nbsp;500 light-years&nbsp;from Earth.



Using the European Southern Observatory’s Very Large Telescope (ESO’s VLT) in Chile, scientists have detected&nbsp;supersonic jetstream winds&nbsp;hurtling around the planet’s equator at astonishing speeds of&nbsp;33,000 km/h (20,500 mph). 



This discovery marks the fastest jetstream ever measured on any known planet and sheds new light on the complex and extreme weather patterns of exoplanets beyond our Solar System.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giant-puffy-planet-with-extreme-weather">Giant "puffy" planet with extreme weather</h2>



WASP-127b has fascinated scientists since its discovery in 2016. The planet is slightly larger than Jupiter but has a much lower mass, making it a "puffy" <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/potential-signs-of-life-found-on-nearby-exoplanet-wasp-107b/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gas giant</a>. Its low density suggests that its atmosphere is vastly extended, allowing astronomers to study its composition and climate with relative ease.



Unlike Earth, where storms and winds are driven by temperature differences and planetary rotation, the weather on WASP-127b is governed by far more extreme forces. 



The planet is expected to be&nbsp;tidally locked&nbsp;to its host star, meaning one side permanently faces the star while the other remains in perpetual darkness. 



This setup leads to dramatic atmospheric conditions, including&nbsp;intense winds that redistribute heat around the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/morning-evening-atmosphere-detected-exoplanet-wasp-39b-for-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a>. However, the sheer velocity of these winds came as a complete surprise to researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fastest-winds-on-a-distant-planet">Fastest winds on a distant planet</h2>



“Part of the atmosphere of this planet is moving towards us at a high velocity while another part is moving away from us at the same speed. This signal shows us that there is a very fast, supersonic, jet wind around the planet’s equator,” noted Lisa Nortmann, a scientist at the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Göttingen</a> in Germany and lead author of the study.



The winds reach a staggering speed of&nbsp;9 kilometers per second, which is nearly&nbsp;six times faster than the expected rotation speed of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-weather-exoplanet-wasp-121-b-has-a-dynamic-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a>. 



In comparison, the fastest wind speed recorded in the Solar System was observed on Neptune, where atmospheric winds reach "only"&nbsp;1,800 km/h (1,118 mph).



WASP-127b’s winds far surpass this, moving at speeds so extreme that they rival the velocity of some of the fastest meteoroids in our Solar System.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-an-alien-atmosphere">Mapping an alien atmosphere</h2>



To measure these winds, the research team used the&nbsp;CRIRES+ instrument&nbsp;on ESO’s VLT. This advanced tool allows scientists to analyze the atmosphere of distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-glory-lights-effect-seen-exoplanet-wasp-76b-baffling-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> by studying how starlight filters through the gases surrounding them. 



By measuring the specific wavelengths of light absorbed and emitted by molecules in the planet’s upper atmosphere, the team was able to identify&nbsp;water vapor and carbon monoxide molecules&nbsp;in WASP-127b’s air.



But it was the motion of these molecules that provided the most shocking revelation. When the researchers analyzed their speed, they noticed something unexpected - a&nbsp;double peak in the data, showing that one side of the planet’s atmosphere was moving toward Earth while the other was moving away.



This indicated that high-speed jet-stream winds were racing&nbsp;around the equator, rather than simply moving from the day side to the night side as previously expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-weather-system">Complex weather system</h2>



Beyond detecting the equatorial jetstream, the research team also found intriguing variations in the planet’s temperature. The poles appear&nbsp;cooler than the rest of the planet, suggesting that heat distribution is not uniform. 



There is also a noticeable temperature difference between the planet’s&nbsp;morning and evening sides, which hints at&nbsp;complex atmospheric dynamics similar to those found on Earth and other planets in our Solar System.



“This shows that the planet has complex weather patterns just like Earth and other planets of our own system,” noted Fei Yan, a professor at the <a href="https://en.ustc.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Science and Technology of China</a> and co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancing-the-exoplanet-weather-research">Advancing the exoplanet weather research </h2>



Until recently, studying the atmospheres of exoplanets was an&nbsp;impossible challenge. For years, astronomers could only determine a planet’s&nbsp;mass and radius, which gave them little information about its climate or atmospheric composition.



However, thanks to powerful ground-based telescopes like&nbsp;ESO’s <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/vlt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VLT</a>, researchers can now&nbsp;map weather systems&nbsp;on distant planets and study their&nbsp;wind patterns, temperature gradients, and even cloud formations.



“Understanding the dynamics of these exoplanets helps us explore mechanisms such as heat redistribution and chemical processes, improving our understanding of planet formation and potentially shedding light on the origins of our own Solar System,” noted David Cont, a co-author of the paper from the <a href="https://www.lmu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich</a>.



Surprisingly, this level of precision is only possible with ground-based telescopes. Current&nbsp;space telescopes, including the James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://webbtelescope.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>), do not yet have the required&nbsp;velocity precision&nbsp;to detect wind speeds like those observed on WASP-127b. 



This means that facilities on Earth remain essential for&nbsp;pushing the boundaries of exoplanet research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wind-patterns-on-planets">Wind patterns on planets </h2>



With the discovery of supersonic winds on WASP-127b, astronomers are now looking forward to even&nbsp;more detailed investigations&nbsp;into the atmospheres of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interior-core-cotton-candy-exoplanet-wasp-107-b-revealed-webb-telescope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distant worlds</a>. The upcoming&nbsp;ESO Extremely Large Telescope (<a href="https://elt.eso.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ELT</a>), currently under construction in Chile, will play a crucial role in these studies. 



Equipped with the&nbsp;ANDES instrument, the ELT will allow scientists to&nbsp;detect even finer details&nbsp;in the wind patterns of exoplanets and&nbsp;expand this research to smaller, rocky planets.



“This means that we can likely resolve even finer details of the wind patterns and expand this research to smaller, rocky planets,” Nortmann concluded.



The discovery of&nbsp;supersonic jetstream winds on WASP-127b&nbsp;is a milestone in exoplanetary science. As telescopes become more advanced, scientists may soon be able to&nbsp;track storm systems, measure rainfall, and even identify weather cycles on distant worlds. 



Each new finding brings us one step closer to&nbsp;understanding the diverse and dynamic nature of planets beyond our own Solar System.



The study was published in <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2025/01/aa50438-24/aa50438-24.html">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>.



Image Credit: ESO/L. Calçada



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Supersonic winds on a nearby exoplanet break all speed records

Astronomers have uncovered a remarkable&nbsp;wind phenomenon&nbsp;on WASP-127b, a&nbsp;gas giant planet&nbsp;that...

Cells in the human body have distinct roles - some remain stationary, while others move to perform critical functions. Migratory cells rely delicate, finger-like protrusions called filopodia that extend from the cell membrane and allow the cell to sense and navigate its environment.



In healthy cells, filopodia play a vital role in processes like the immune response, where they help immune cells reach infection sites swiftly.



However, filopodia also contribute to disease, particularly in cancer. Metastatic cancer cells exploit these structures to invade new tissues, facilitating the spread of cancer throughout the body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cracking-the-filopodia-code">Cracking the filopodia code</h2>



A long-standing question in cell biology has been how filopodia’s protein bundles form and function. For over forty years, researchers have sought to understand the structural mechanics behind these cellular extensions. 



Now, scientists at <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rockefeller University</a>’s Laboratory of Structural Biophysics and Mechanobiology have made a recent discovery that may help solve a major piece of this puzzle.



The study, published in&nbsp;Nature Structural &amp; Molecular Biology, sheds light on how the protein scaffolding in filopodia is assembled at the atomic level. These findings could play a crucial role in refining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-activated-molecules-kill-cancer-cells-with-precision/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer treatments</a> that are designed to halt metastasis.



"Understanding the structure of filopodia and the changes they undergo may help to refine these therapies or inspire new ones,"&nbsp;said Rui Gong, the study's first author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-filopodia-in-cancer">Complexity of filopodia in cancer</h2>



Filopodia rely on hexagonal bundles of actin filaments, strengthened and reinforced by a crucial protein called fascin. 



Actin, a fundamental component of the cytoskeleton, is responsible for maintaining a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ketogenic-diet-may-help-the-body-kill-cancer-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cell</a>’s shape and enabling movement. However, actin alone is weak and ineffective. A single actin filament cannot support a structure or drive movement.



"It’s like a floppy noodle,"&nbsp;explained Gregory M. Alushin, head of the Rockefeller Lab.&nbsp;"It’s not very strong, and it can’t do anything. Actin filaments have to be gathered into higher-order assemblies such as bundles to carry out any useful job."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascin-key-to-filopodia-s-strength">Fascin: Key to filopodia’s strength</h2>



Fascin plays a critical role in stabilizing these actin bundles, bridging the filaments together and forming the strong yet flexible structures required for filopodia to function. 



These bundles must strike a delicate balance: they need enough strength to protrude from the cell membrane, yet they must also remain flexible enough to move and respond to environmental stimuli.



"They hit a sweet spot between strength and flexibility,"&nbsp;explained Alushin.



Despite the known importance of fascin, the precise mechanics of how it assembles actin bundles into filopodia have remained elusive for decades. The challenge has been in visualizing this process at a molecular level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-in-understanding-fascin">Challenge in understanding fascin</h2>



For years, scientists struggled to understand how fascin assembles filopodia’s hexagonal bundles. Early experiments in the 1970s attempted to model this process using wooden dowels to represent actin filaments, and small wooden pieces as fascin-like bridges.



However, researchers found it impossible to create stable bundles without distorting the fascin structures.



In recent years, advances in imaging technologies such as cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and tomography provided the first glimpses of filopodia’s internal architecture. 



However, these images were blurry and lacked sufficient resolution to reveal the intricate details of how fascin interacts with actin filaments.



Now, the Rockefeller team has made a significant breakthrough. Using an advanced computational image analysis technique, the researchers achieved the first&nbsp;clear, atomic-level images&nbsp;of fascin proteins bridging actin filaments. 



This represents a major leap forward in understanding how the scaffolding of filopodia is constructed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-filopodia-assembly-and-cancer-cells">Filopodia assembly and cancer cells</h2>



By refining their computational image analysis method, first developed in 2022, the researchers were able to remove noise from their images and reveal an unprecedented level of structural detail.



"We saw real bundles composed of thousands of fascin molecules and hundreds of actin filaments, and we were able to map their spatial positioning,"&nbsp;Gong explained.&nbsp;"We saw how the structure of fascin gives rise to its function as an actin bundler and figured out the detailed chemistry of its actin binding sites."



One of the most surprising findings was the discovery of fascin’s&nbsp;high degree of flexibility and adaptability. Unlike other proteins that follow rigid assembly patterns, fascin is remarkably improvisational. 



Instead of adhering to a single binding strategy, it can adjust its position and shape depending on the arrangement of the actin filaments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-versatility-of-fascin-molecules">Fascinating versatility of fascin molecules</h2>



Fascin appears to have evolved this versatility as a way to accommodate actin filaments, which are naturally&nbsp;twisted and uneven. Since actin filaments are not ideal building materials for creating firm, uniform structures, fascin overcomes this challenge by acting as a molecular hinge.



"A fascin protein can accommodate all kinds of imperfections. It acts like a molecular hinge that can hold a number of intermediary positions between open and closed. It can also rotate its position for a better fit,"&nbsp;said Alushin.



Despite being a relatively small and simple protein, fascin exhibits highly complex physical behaviors. Its ability to shift and adapt its binding positions allows it to form the strong yet flexible hexagonal bundles necessary for filopodia to function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-filopodia-fascin-and-metastatic-cancer">Filopodia, fascin, and metastatic cancer</h2>



Fascin plays a crucial role in cancer’s ability to spread in the body. In migratory cells, an&nbsp;overabundance of fascin leads to an uncontrolled filopodia-building process, which accelerates metastasis.



In stationary cells, such as epithelial cells, excessive fascin expression can give them an abnormal ability to move - causing them to&nbsp;break away from their normal environment and invade other tissues.



"When this over-expression happens in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-coffee-reduces-the-risk-of-certain-cancers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> that should be locked into place, such as epithelial cells, they can build filopodia, which they’re not supposed to have,"&nbsp;Alushin explained.&nbsp;"Then they can crawl away from their neighbors and in the process abandon their regular cellular functions."



Because of its role in cancer progression, fascin has become a key target for cancer therapies. Several fascin inhibitors are currently in clinical trials, with the aim to prevent cancer cells from forming filopodia and migrating.



The Rockefeller team’s findings could improve the design of these inhibitors. Previously, researchers believed that these drugs worked by&nbsp;blocking fascin’s actin binding sites. 



However, the new study suggests a different mechanism: these inhibitors prevent fascin from undergoing the&nbsp;shape changes required to fit into its binding location.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-cancer-therapies">Future cancer therapies</h2>



This new understanding of fascin’s structural behavior may lead to more effective cancer treatments. By preventing fascin from adapting and forming stable filopodia bundles, scientists may be able to&nbsp;halt metastatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/molecular-fingerprints-could-be-key-to-early-cancer-detection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer cells</a> in their tracks.



"We’ve been able to detail essential design principles for the bundles, which could be really helpful information for finding new ways to interfere with their construction," noted Alushin.



Beyond cancer, this research opens the door for further exploration of other cellular processes that rely on actin bundling. 



The ability to&nbsp;visualize complex protein networks at an atomic level&nbsp;represents a major technological leap, providing new tools for scientists studying cell movement, immune responses, and even neurological functions.



With this newfound clarity, researchers can now&nbsp;develop more precise strategies&nbsp;for targeting fascin and preventing the metastasis of cancer cells.



By continuing to investigate the forces that drive cellular movement, scientists may unlock new ways to stop cancer from spreading, which would bring hope for more effective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-the-next-frontier-in-cancer-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">treatments</a> in the future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41594-024-01477-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Structural &amp; Molecular Biology</a>.



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Breakthrough discovery about cell migration may finally help us defeat cancer

Cells in the human body have distinct roles - some...

Truffles have long captivated the senses, with their tantalizing aroma and elusive nature keeping the culinary world on its toes. To the gastronome, they are an exotic culinary delight; to the mycologist, they present an intriguing species subject of study.



Now, this enigmatic world has become even more fascinating with the discovery of two new truffle species, which add another layer of intrigue to the legacy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-found-by-truffle-dogs">Species found by truffle dogs</h2>



The discovery was led by two enthusiastic truffle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trained-dogs-can-sniff-out-invasive-pests-in-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>, Luca and Monza.



The find? A hitherto unknown pair of truffles, christened as Tuber canirevelatum and Tuber cumberlandense.



The former, aptly named the "dog-found" truffle, pays homage to the canine detectives and their tireless work. The latter derives its name from the Cumberland Plateau, where it was found.



Guiding the canine sleuths were citizen scientists Lois Martin and Margaret Townsend. After the initial discovery, and eager to unveil the mystery of their find, they reached out to the experts.



Michigan State University (<a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MSU</a>) and the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a> became the primary research hubs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-truffle-mystery">Unraveling the truffle mystery</h2>



At MSU, the Department of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences took the baton from the truffle dogs. 



The team, led by associate professor Gregory Bonito and undergraduate student Alassane Sow, used DNA analyses to identify the specimens and position them on the tree of life.



”Receiving these samples was very exciting, especially because they looked very similar to the well-known edible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-truffle-industry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European truffles</a> Tuber macrosporum and Tuber aestivum,” said Sow.



“We hope that by describing both of these species there will be increased interest in cultivating North American truffles. Our analyses show that each has aromatic compounds found in some of the most valuable truffle species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-truffles-a-culinary-goldmine">Truffles: A culinary goldmine</h2>



The world of fine dining celebrates truffles for their rarity and enticing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-environment-impacts-the-aroma-of-beer-and-hops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aroma</a>. And the discovery of these new species may have just expanded the potential for gastronomic innovation. 



These species could hold tremendous economic potential due to their aromatic compounds.



Now, imagine a plate of gourmet truffle-infused pasta, accompanied by a glass of whiskey - a fine blend of the robust, earthy flavours of truffles and oaky whiskey. 



That's just what Maker’s Mark, a distiller from Kentucky, hopes to provide. 



They are exploring the cultivation of the native T. cumberlandense, and aim to introduce a uniquely infused whiskey to the market soon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aromatic-appeal-of-truffle-species">Aromatic appeal of truffle species</h2>



The culinary appeal of truffles mainly lies in the unique aroma they produce. Each species emits a distinct fragrance, which contributes to its culinary potential and, therefore, its value.



MSU’s professor Randy Beaudry from the Department of Horticulture worked with Bonito and Sow to identify these aroma-producing compounds. 



Using gas chromatography, they discovered that T. canirevelatum was rich in compounds that give it a savory garlic aroma.



On the other hand, T. cumberlandense contained compounds found in the revered Périgord black truffle and the Piedmont white truffle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-truffle-dogs">Significance of the "truffle dogs"</h2>



This significant discovery highlights the importance of trained truffle dogs in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crops-of-the-future-potatoes-that-thrive-in-heatwaves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tuber</a> research and farming. 



"We suspect many native tuber species remain to be discovered and described. This task will be enhanced through the continued collaboration between mycologists (scientists who study fungi), the public and trained truffle dogs,” concluded Bonito.



As the quest for novel species continues, it is clear that the world of truffles holds more delectable secrets yet to be unearthed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-truffle-cultivation-and-species-conservation">Truffle cultivation and species conservation</h2>



As truffle discoveries continue to emerge, the focus is shifting toward sustainable cultivation and conservation efforts. 



Truffles, often associated with European fine dining, have long been harvested from wild forests, making them susceptible to environmental changes and overharvesting. 



The discovery of native species like Tuber cumberlandense opens up new possibilities for domestic cultivation, thus reducing reliance on imported varieties and supporting local economies.



These newfound species also offer exciting opportunities for cultivation under controlled conditions, potentially ensuring their long-term availability and contributing to ecosystem health.



This includes studying optimal soil compositions, climate conditions, and symbiotic relationships with host trees. 



Cultivating these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-all-fungi-matter-not-just-mushrooms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a> not only presents an economic opportunity but also has ecological benefits, as they contribute to soil health and biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-truffle-discovery">Sustainable truffle discovery</h2>



Furthermore, the role of citizen scientists and trained truffle dogs continues to be vital in locating and documenting species in diverse environments. 



As research efforts expand, collaborations between mycologists, farmers, and culinary experts could pave the way for a sustainable truffle industry where these culinary treasures are both abundant and are grown in an environmentally responsible manner.



The discovery of the new species is detailed in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00275514.2024.2407755#:~:text=Tuber%20canaliculatum%20is%20sometimes%20wild,Berch%202020%3B%20Fortier%20et%20al.&amp;text=2022).,-Members%20of%20the">Mycologia</a>.



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Two new truffle species discovered with the help of special 'truffle dogs'

Truffles have long captivated the senses, with their tantalizing aroma...

Who knew that bathroom habits could reveal something profound about primate behavior? A recent study published in the journal Current Biology&nbsp;has uncovered an intriguing social phenomenon among chimpanzees - one that links social dynamics to urination.



The study has revealed a peculiar behavior among chimpanzees that researchers are now calling “contagious urination.”



The study, which was focused on 20 captive chimpanzees at the Kumamoto Sanctuary in Japan, revealed that when one chimp pees, others nearby are more likely to do the same.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contagious-urination-in-chimpanzees">Contagious urination in chimpanzees</h2>



“In humans, urinating together can be seen as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-feel-the-pressure-to-perform-with-an-audience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social</a> phenomenon,” noted Ena Onishi of <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto University</a>.



“An Italian proverb states, ‘Whoever doesn’t pee in company is either a thief or a spy’ (Chi non piscia in compagnia o è un ladro o è una spia), while in Japanese, the act of urinating with others is referred to as ‘Tsureshon’ (連れション)," she remarked.



“This behavior is represented in art across centuries and cultures and continues to appear in modern social contexts. Our research suggests that this phenomenon may have deep evolutionary roots. We found that chimpanzees, our closest relatives, tend to urinate in response to the urination of nearby individuals,” added Onishi.



This unexpected discovery highlights the social nature of what is usually considered a purely physiological behavior. 



The researchers became curious about the possibility of synchronized urination after noticing that the chimpanzees often relieved themselves at the same time. They wondered whether this could be comparable to contagious yawning, a well-documented phenomenon in both humans and animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synchronized-urination-in-chimpanzees">Synchronized urination in chimpanzees</h2>



To test their theory, researchers meticulously observed the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-pass-tool-use-skills-across-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a> for over 600 hours, documenting 1,328 urination events. 



Their analysis confirmed that urination was significantly more synchronized than would be expected by chance. The likelihood of a chimpanzee urinating increased if they were in close physical proximity to another chimp who had just started peeing.



One of the most surprising findings was the role of social hierarchy in this behavior. Lower-ranking individuals were more likely to urinate after others, suggesting that peeing patterns are influenced by dominance structures within the group.



“We were surprised to discover that the contagion pattern was influenced by social rank,” Onishi explained.



“Since there were no prior studies on contagious urination in any species, we drew parallels to contagious yawning, another semi-voluntary physiological behavior. Based on this, we initially expected that any social influences might resemble those seen in yawning - such as stronger contagion between socially close pairs.



“However, our results showed no evidence of effects related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzee-cultures-are-more-complex-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social</a> closeness. Instead, we observed a clear influence of social rank, with lower-ranking individuals being more likely to follow the urination of others.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-this-happen">Why does this happen?</h2>



The underlying reasons for contagious urination remain unclear, but researchers believe it could serve important social functions.



“This was an unexpected and fascinating result, as it opens up multiple possibilities for interpretation,” commented Shinya Yamamoto of Kyoto University.



“For instance, it could reflect hidden leadership in synchronizing group activities, the reinforcement of social bonds, or attention bias among lower-ranking individuals. These findings raise intriguing questions about the social functions of this behavior.”



If urination serves a social purpose in chimpanzees, it could play a role in maintaining group cohesion, facilitating coordination, or reinforcing social bonds - similar to how synchronized behaviors like grooming or yawning contribute to social structure in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-and-bees-are-capable-of-complex-social-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-other-animals-do-this">Do other animals do this?</h2>



This discovery opens the door for further research into contagious urination in species other than chimpanzees. Could similar patterns be found in other primates or even non-primate animals? 



Understanding the social dynamics behind this behavior could shed new light on the evolution of group coordination and hierarchy in social animals.



For now, the study highlights that even the most mundane aspects of life - like peeing - can have surprising social significance. As research continues, we may find that synchronized bathroom breaks are not just a human quirk but a deeply rooted evolutionary behavior.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)01594-X?" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Urination, like sneezing, is 'contagious' in primates, including humans

Who knew that bathroom habits could reveal something profound about...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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