Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Ancient societies had all sorts of attitudes toward altered states of mind. Some favored fermented drinks, while others explored psychoactive plants with potent effects. 



Either way, there is a growing body of evidence that many of our ancestors used mind-altering substances in ceremonial settings, personal rituals, and possibly even on the battlefield. 



From what we know about ancient cultures in Mesopotamia, the Mediterranean, and beyond, it seems people were curious about the boundaries of consciousness from the very beginning.



In a new paper in Praehistorische Zeitschrift, researchers discuss the possibility that certain Germanic fighters experimented with psychoactive substances to gain an edge in warfare.



The study was led by archaeologist <a href="https://akokowski.academia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prof. Andrzej Kokowski</a> alongside biologists from <a href="https://study.gov.pl/university/maria-curie-sklodowska-university" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maria Curie-Skłodowska University</a> in Lublin, Poland, and it taps into a fascinating area of debate about what these ancient communities might have consumed before they clashed with soldiers of the mighty Roman Empire.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-humans-and-psychoactive-plants">Ancient humans and psychoactive plants</h2>



Ancient civilizations in the Middle East left us clues that they understood the power of certain psychoactive plants or plant extracts. 



Evidence from Mesopotamia <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/arcm.12806" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suggests</a> that the Sumerians recognized the potential of poppy cultivation over 5,000 years ago.



Meanwhile, the Egyptians produced beer as early as <a href="https://academic.oup.com/book/51721/chapter-abstract/419816733?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">8,000 years ago</a>, and some <a href="https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/43c3119d-743e-4c7b-a028-ca29b1ab3fc6/content" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> believe that they later discovered ways to harness the poppy’s narcotic components for medical and religious ceremonies.&nbsp;



Across the Mediterranean, the Greeks refined methods of harvesting poppy sap to make opium, which became a prized substance in certain circles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-tools-in-germanic-contexts">Hidden tools in Germanic contexts</h2>



The new study highlights how small artifacts, possibly too tiny to hold food, may have delivered stimulating powders or tinctures to those who wielded swords and shields. 



Although a direct chemical analysis of these artifacts would be the gold standard of proof, the researchers rely on indirect clues from burial and settlement sites. 



The authors remark that certain items fit into the category of “dispensers,” indicating they might have delivered a measured dose of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-potency-linked-to-dramatic-rise-in-psychiatric-disorders/">potent substance</a> in the heat of conflict.



The team also introduce a thought-provoking line in their paper: “The ‘war on drugs’ seems to be the aberration.” 



This statement by the study's authors implies that, in ancient times, the notion of banning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-potency-linked-to-dramatic-rise-in-psychiatric-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">these substances</a> may not have been front and center. 



Instead, societies either tolerated or ritualized them, weaving them into social gatherings, medical treatments, and possibly warfare traditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-misconceptions-and-roman-views">Cultural misconceptions and Roman views</h2>



One of the more intriguing angles is how the Romans regarded their northern adversaries. Romans often portrayed the so-called “barbarians” as unsophisticated, suggesting that refined substances like opium were beyond their reach. 



Yet material findings seem to contradict that assumption. Scholars argue that people living outside Roman borders had their own knowledge networks, which may have included information on creative uses of plants and fungi.



Other historical studies support the idea that ancient communities across Europe and Asia <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-real-impact-of-burning-magic-herbs-in-spiritual-rituals/">experimented with an array of herbs</a>. 



A range of species, including henbane and belladonna, was accessible through trade routes and local foraging. The question is whether some of these plants could have boosted courage or dulled pain during battle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychoactive-plants-impact">Psychoactive plants impact</h2>



If these warriors had any way to harness psychoactive substances, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-drug-use-found-during-bronze-age-ceremonies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychological effects</a> might have included the numbing of fear or the triggering heightened aggression. 



In the face of enemy lines, an altered state could offer perceived protection or confidence.



Away from the battlefield, the same substances might have been used to ease injuries or find temporary relief from stress.



Researchers also point out that large-scale access to psychoactive plants or extracts would have demanded precise expertise. 



Someone in the community would have needed to cultivate and distribute these items, and would have known about their potency. 



This opens discussions about economic networks that financed these endeavors. It may also hint at the existence of supply chains stretching across large territories and bringing together resources from different regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-reflections-on-the-ancient-past">Modern reflections on the ancient past</h2>



Discussions about drug use in antiquity challenge our assumptions about humanity’s relationship with altered consciousness. Today’s laws and views on intoxicants are shaped by modern cultures and governments.&nbsp;



People often regard drug use as a specific modern problem or rebellious act. Yet, archaeological evidence suggests that it can be an age-old behavior shaped by survival, celebration, and even worship.



Some contemporary <a href="https://www.hellenic.org.au/post/ritual-religious-drug-use-in-ancient-greece" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> hold that these early experiments helped shape social cohesion, ritualistic practices, and medical traditions.&nbsp;



The further we look into prehistory, the more we see how deeply entwined these substances might have been with community life. Whether they were used to ramp up bravery in <a href="https://www.caymanchem.com/news/drugs-used-in-conflict-and-wars" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">war</a> or heal the wounded in small villages, they likely played a distinct role in shaping cultural identities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-debates-and-continuing-questions">Debates and continuing questions</h2>



Studies on ancient drug use can provoke lively debate among archaeologists and historians. 



Some specialists believe that minimal chemical residue in the artifacts makes firm conclusions elusive. Others lean on contextual clues found near skeletal remains or in areas associated with combat. 



No matter the stance, each new piece of research fuels broader conversations about how ancient societies navigated social norms, survival strategies, and the universal human drive for altered experiences.



Several puzzles still remain. Did these <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25386392/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Germanic fighters</a> incorporate psychoactive mixtures into spiritual traditions as well? Were there dedicated roles for people in the community - like herbalists or specialists - who oversaw dosing?&nbsp;



These topics carry important anthropological questions about the balance between practical needs and personal exploration. Answers may emerge as more evidence surfaces, but for now, there is enough intrigue to keep experts on their toes.



The information for this article is published in the journal <a href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/pz-2024-2017/html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Praehistorische Zeitschrift</a>. 



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Ancient warriors may have used psychoactive plants for courage in battle

Ancient societies had all sorts of attitudes toward altered states...

What if the frozen heart of Antarctica held secrets of a fiery past? A new study investigating ancient methane trapped in Antarctic ice has uncovering a shocking link between Ice Age wildfires and abrupt climate upheavals.



The findings highlight the interplay between wildfire surges, shifting rainfall patterns, and global temperature changes, and offers crucial insights into the dynamics of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-determining-ice-age-climate-trends">Determining Ice Age climate trends</h2>



Ice cores from Antarctica act like time capsules. Tiny air bubbles that were formed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thousands of years ago</a> are locked inside the ancient ice.



These bubbles contain atmospheric gases from the past that offer scientists a window into Earth’s historical climate conditions. By analyzing the air bubbles in these cores, researchers can trace changes in the planet's climate over millennia.



The study focused on a specific ice core from the Western Antarctic Ice Sheet Divide, which provides a detailed climate record spanning 67,000 years. This ice core is unique because it comes from a region with a high annual snowfall rate. 



While this limits how far back in time the record can go, when compared to other cores, the frequent snowfall ensured that more ice accumulated each year. This denser accumulation allows for a more detailed, year-by-year record of past climates.



“Because this ice is in a place where the annual snowfall rate is high, the record doesn’t go back as far in time as other ice cores, but you get more ice for each year, and you can better see the detail in those years,” explained Edward Brook, a paleoclimatologist from <a href="https://oregonstate.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, and a co-author of the study. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-spikes-wildfires-and-ice-age-climate">Methane spikes, wildfires and Ice Age climate</h2>



Previous studies have shown that methane, a potent greenhouse gas, spiked during abrupt climate changes, known as Dansgaard-Oeschger and Heinrich events, roughly 11,000 years ago. These events were marked by rapid temperature shifts and changes in tropical rainfall patterns.



“These spikes were notable because of how quickly the methane levels changed during these periods,” said lead author Ben Riddell-Young. He used a specialized system to extract air from the ice samples and analyze the isotopic composition of methane, which reveals its sources.



The findings suggest that wildfire emissions likely caused these methane surges. The study is the first to establish a direct link between abrupt climate events and wildfire activity during the Ice Age.



“This study showed that the planet experienced these short, sudden episodes of burning, and they happened at the same time as these other big climate shifts,” Brook explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cascading-effects-of-wildfire-activity">Cascading effects of wildfire activity</h2>



According to the study, abrupt climate changes triggered cascading <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-the-ice-age-can-tell-us-about-future-el-nino-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">events</a> during the Ice Age, including increased wildfire activity. 



“It probably went something like: Ocean currents slowed down or sped up rapidly, the northern hemisphere cooled or warmed rapidly, and then this caused abrupt shifts in tropical rainfall that led to increased drought and fire,” Riddell-Young explained.



These findings shed light on the potential impact of shifting climate patterns on global ecosystems, particularly during periods of rapid change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-modern-climate-challenges">Implications for modern climate challenges</h2>



The research carries important implications for understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-data-analysis-reshapes-climate-future-lowers-warming-estimates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">today’s climate dynamics</a>. Modern climate change could similarly amplify wildfire activity as temperature rises and rainfall patterns shift.



“This research shows that we may not be properly considering how wildfire activity might change as the climate warms and rainfall patterns shift,” Riddell-Young said.



Burning produces carbon dioxide, another greenhouse gas, which further contributes to climate warming. “Understanding what this burning really means for the carbon cycle is one of the places the research is headed next,” noted Brook.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



While this study opens new avenues for understanding the Ice Age and its climate history, more research is needed to assess the broader implications of ancient wildfire activity. These insights can inform strategies to mitigate and adapt to modern climate challenges.



The study was supported by the National Science Foundation (<a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NSF</a>) and involved contributions from researchers at several institutions, including the <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bern</a>, <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">British Antarctic Survey</a>, and the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado, Boulder</a>.



By analyzing ancient methane, scientists continue to uncover critical connections between past and present climate systems, emphasizing the interconnectedness of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-viruses-hold-clues-to-earth-past-future-climate-and-microbial-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global ecosystems</a> and the urgency of addressing today’s climate challenges.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08363-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Wildfire activity surged during Ice Age climate shifts

What if the frozen heart of Antarctica held secrets of...

Plants face the constant challenge of allocating energy between growth and defense. While growth ensures survival and reproduction, defense protects against harmful bacteria. 



Until now, scientists struggled to explain how plants achieve this balance. Researchers at Princeton University recently uncovered new insights into this process, revealing the surprising role of soil bacteria in managing plants' immune responses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-soil-bacteria-help-plants">How soil bacteria help plants</h2>



Published in&nbsp;the journal Cell Reports, the study explores how certain soil bacteria impact plant immunity. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-bacteria-contribute-to-atmospheric-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> produce enzymes that reduce immune activity in plants, enabling their roots to grow longer.



This discovery sheds light on how plants interact with microbiomes without triggering constant immune responses.



“This is trying to get at a really big biological question where there are not good answers - about how microbiomes interface with host immune systems,” said Jonathan Conway, the study’s senior author and an assistant professor of chemical and biological engineering.



“It’s a small step in the direction of trying to understand how microbes live on hosts - either plants or humans or other animals - all the time and don’t activate our immune responses constantly.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-health-and-growth">Balancing health and growth</h2>



The team focused on Arabidopsis, a small mustard plant often used in research. They engineered Arabidopsis seedlings with heightened sensitivity to flagellin, a bacterial protein that typically activates immune responses. 



On exposure to flagellin, these plants directed energy toward immunity, resulting in stunted root growth.



To identify bacteria that could suppress this immune response, the researchers introduced 165 bacterial species to the seedlings. 



Remarkably, 41% of these isolates suppressed the stunted growth response, allowing roots to grow longer. Among these,&nbsp;Dyella japonica&nbsp;emerged as particularly effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enzyme-regulates-immune-system-response">Enzyme regulates immune system response </h2>



The researchers discovered that&nbsp;D. japonica, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-plays-an-overlooked-role-in-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil bacterium</a>, produces an enzyme called subtilase. This enzyme breaks down flagellin, a protein that normally triggers a plant's immune response. 



By degrading flagellin, subtilase prevents the plant's immune system from activating unnecessarily, enabling the roots to grow without being stunted.



To confirm subtilase's role, the team used genetic and biochemical techniques. These methods demonstrated that subtilase directly modulates the plant's immune response, proving its critical function.



Purifying the subtilase enzyme posed significant challenges, as obtaining a pure protein is essential for detailed analysis. A breakthrough came when Todd Naumann, a <a href="https://www.usda.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USDA</a> chemist, suggested purifying the enzyme using yeast cells instead of bacteria. 



This alternative approach worked effectively, allowing the researchers to proceed with advanced studies on the enzyme's properties and functions.



“Now we can do chemistry with it, and we can actually look at this in vitro,” said co-first author Samuel Eastman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dual-role-of-soil-bacteria">Dual role of soil bacteria </h2>



The findings suggest that many soil bacteria may use similar enzymes to influence plant growth and immunity. This raises intriguing questions about the potential benefits for both plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-makes-flowers-more-attractive-to-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>. 



One theory is that the enzymes prevent pathogens from invading plant roots by disabling their flagella. Alternatively, the enzymes might help pathogens evade detection, potentially increasing the risk of disease.



“So, in that way it could be suppressing pathogens as well as the plant immune system,” Eastman noted. However, he warned of the risks in agricultural applications. 



“We don’t want to compromise the immune system, but we also want plants to save that immune response for when it matters.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-crop-growth-and-plant-health">Improving crop growth and plant health</h2>



The team’s work opens doors to harnessing beneficial bacteria for agriculture while minimizing risks. With further research, these findings could lead to innovative ways to improve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electronic-soil-boosts-crop-growth-by-over-50/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop growth</a> without compromising plant health.



For now, scientists are one step closer to understanding the delicate balance of growth and defense in plants.



The study was a team effort involving nine <a href="https://www.princeton.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton</a> researchers, including six undergraduates. Senior thesis projects played a vital role, such as that of Britley Jones from the Class of 2023.



Kaeli Ficco, another key contributor and a Princeton graduate, engineered mutant bacterial strains to confirm the genetic basis of immune suppression. 



“I really liked how discovery-based the project was,” Ficco said, reflecting on her contributions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-reports/fulltext/S2211-1247(24)01414-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Reports</a>.



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Soil bacteria help plants balance growth and immunity

Plants face the constant challenge of allocating energy between growth...

Ebola, a severe hemorrhagic disease caused by a virus endemic in parts of East-Central and West Africa, is generally known to spread through contact with bodily fluids from individuals who have the infection.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ebola-virus-on-the-skin-surface">Ebola virus on the skin surface</h2>



More recent outbreaks, such as the 2013-2016 Ebola epidemic in West Africa, have shown that infectious Ebola virus (EBOV) is also found on the surface of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-tech-will-track-emotions-through-changes-in-our-skin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin</a> of those who have succumbed to infection or at late times during infection.&nbsp;



Although this suggests that the virus can be transmitted from skin contact with someone in the later stages of the disease, researchers have not yet fully understood how the virus exits the body and appears on the skin’s surface.



In a recent study, scientists at <a href="https://uihealthcare.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Iowa Health Care</a>, working with colleagues at <a href="https://www.txbiomed.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas Biomedical Research Institute</a> and <a href="https://www.bu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Boston University</a>, have uncovered a cellular route that EBOV uses to traverse the inner and outer layers of skin and emerge onto the surface.&nbsp;



The researchers identified new cell types within the skin that are targeted by EBOV during infection and confirms that human skin tissues actively sustain EBOV infection.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-route-of-ebola-infection">Possible route of Ebola infection</h2>



The results, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adr6140" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>, suggest that the skin’s surface may be one possible route of person-to-person transmission.



“The skin is the largest organ in the human body yet is woefully understudied compared to most other organs. Interactions of EBOV with skin cells have not previously been extensively examined,” said study senior author Wendy Maury, a professor of microbiology and immunology at the University of Iowa.&nbsp;



“Our work provides evidence for one mechanistic avenue that EBOV uses to exit from the human body. A comprehensive understanding of which cells are targeted during virus infection is critical for rational development of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/willow-bark-may-contain-life-saving-antiviral-medications/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antiviral</a> approaches.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-skin-model-for-tracking-ebola">Human skin model for tracking Ebola</h2>



The research team, guided by Maury and Kelly Messingham, a research professor of dermatology at the University of Iowa, designed a new method for discovering which skin cells are infected by Ebola virus.&nbsp;



They constructed a human skin explant system using full-thickness biopsies from healthy individuals, preserving both the deeper (dermal) and surface (epidermal) layers of skin.



Next, the team placed these explants dermal side down in culture media, adding virus particles to simulate how EBOV would move from the bloodstream outward toward the skin’s exterior.&nbsp;



This setup let the researchers use specialized tracing and labeling techniques to observe how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-covid-19-virus-travels-deep-inside-our-lungs/">virus</a> progressed from one layer of skin to the next, tracking which cells became infected as time passed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skin-cells-prone-to-ebola-infection">Skin cells prone to Ebola infection</h2>



Prior clinical and animal studies indicated that skin cells could become infected with EBOV, yet they did not identify the particular cells involved.&nbsp;



In this work, the authors showed that EBOV infects several cell types in the skin explant, including macrophages, endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and keratinocytes.&nbsp;



Some of these cells are also infected by EBOV in other tissues, but keratinocytes - particular to skin - had not been previously recognized as an EBOV replication site.



Notably, the virus appeared to replicate more actively in the epidermal layer than in the dermal layer when compared on a per-gram basis. Within three days, infectious virus was detected at the epidermal surface, underscoring the virus’s ability to rapidly move through skin to the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tool-for-exploring-new-therapies">Tool for exploring new therapies </h2>



In addition to mapping how the virus travels through the skin, the scientists demonstrated that human skin explants offer a realistic, three-dimensional model for examining potential antiviral treatments against EBOV. This model could be an economical and valuable tool for exploring new therapies.



“This study explores the role of the skin as a potential route of Ebola virus infection and identifies, for the first time, several cell types in the skin that are permissive to infection,” Messingham said.&nbsp;



“In total, these findings elucidate a mechanism by which EBOV traffics to the skin’s surface and may explain person-to-person transmission via skin contact.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights-into-ebola-infection-nbsp">New insights into Ebola infection&nbsp;</h2>



Beyond its discoveries about the skin, the research also zoomed in on interactions between the Ebola virus and two particular skin cell types, fibroblasts and keratinocytes.&nbsp;



The team found specific receptors on these cells that facilitate the virus’s entry, adding further clarity on how EBOV infects skin on a molecular level.



By clarifying one route the virus may take to exit the body, these findings expand our knowledge of Ebola’s spread and highlight why skin-to-skin contact in advanced cases of infection can pose such a risk.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-public-health-concern">Ongoing public health concern</h2>



Understanding these pathways, and identifying the cell types that the virus relies on, can influence future efforts to develop effective treatments and prevention measures.



This work also sets the stage for further investigations into how EBOV might exploit other organs or tissues and suggests potential ways to block the virus’s path at the skin level.&nbsp;



With Ebola remaining an ongoing global health concern, insights like these can help scientists target the virus more effectively and better protect those at risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-infection-equips-the-body-to-fight-off-the-flu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infection</a>.



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Skin may play a hidden role in Ebola infection

Ebola, a severe hemorrhagic disease caused by a virus endemic...

The global livestock industry plays a significant role in the production of greenhouse gases, contributing to climate change in ways that are often overlooked. 



Cows, sheep, and other livestock produce methane, a potent greenhouse gas, during digestion through a process called enteric fermentation. 



In fact, methane has a much higher heat-trapping potential than carbon dioxide, making livestock farming a key driver of global warming. 



Additionally, the industry is responsible for large amounts of carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide emissions, mainly from the use of synthetic fertilizers and land-use changes like deforestation for grazing. 



Together, these emissions make the livestock sector one of the leading contributors to global greenhouse gas levels.



On top of direct emissions, the livestock industry also contributes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-crisis-how-can-we-stop-massive-forest-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a> and other forms of environmental degradation through its high demand for resources like water and land.



A substantial amount of land - counting both grazing areas for cattle, pigs, and poultry, and agricultural fields for their feed crops - is devoted to sustaining the world’s 92 billion farm animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-are-pets-involved-with-livestock">How are pets involved with livestock?</h2>



A large portion of pet food is made from animal products, including meat, which requires significant land, water, and energy to produce. 



As a result, the pet food industry indirectly contributes to the environmental problems tied to livestock farming, such as deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions.



Andrew Knight of the <a href="https://www.winchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Winchester</a>, writing for The Conversation, recently explored the potential environmental benefits of switching all pets to vegan diets. 



If this were somehow possible, how much impact would it have on the planet? Short answer - a lot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-considering-the-impacts-of-pet-diets">Considering the impacts of pet diets</h2>



Efforts to address these challenges have sparked interest in shifting human diets to plant-based alternatives. Yet, as experts increasingly argue, the environmental impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-owners-ages-and-beliefs-influence-their-pet-food-choices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pet food</a> must also be considered.&nbsp;



This focus on pet diets stems from the fact that companion animals - dogs and cats in particular - often consume meat-based products comparable to those eaten by humans, ultimately contributing to greenhouse gas emissions and land use changes. 



The question arises: should our pets join us in transitioning to plant-based diets?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-environmental-costs-of-pet-diets">The environmental costs of pet diets</h2>



Quantifying how pet food affects the environment has long been hindered by sparse data on its ingredients. However, a 2020 report providing in-depth information on over 500 components used by the U.S. pet food industry enabled researchers to estimate its ecological footprint.&nbsp;



By examining this database, scientists calculated potential benefits if the global population of dogs and cats were fed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-you-eat-can-literally-change-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-based diets</a>.



The results proved eye-opening. Transitioning all pet dogs to nutritionally sound plant-based diets could save an estimated 0.57 gigatons of CO₂ each year - more than what the United Kingdom emitted in 2023.&nbsp;



This transition would also free up land larger than Mexico’s total area, which could be reclaimed for habitat restoration, enhancing both biodiversity and carbon storage.&nbsp;



Furthermore, replacing livestock feed crops with plant-based alternatives for pets would yield enough calories to feed some 450 million people - more than the population of the European Union. Such a change could also spare as many as six billion land animals from slaughter annually.



A similar pattern emerges for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/switching-dogs-and-cats-to-vegan-diets-would-help-the-earth-tremendously/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats</a>. Switching all cats to plant-based diets could prevent 0.09 gigatons of CO₂ emissions yearly - surpassing New Zealand’s total emissions - and would liberate land exceeding the size of Germany.&nbsp;



The freed-up food energy could feed around 70 million people, comparable to the entire population of the United Kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-use-of-byproducts">Rethinking the use of byproducts</h2>



Some have assumed that pet food’s reliance on byproducts of human meat consumption reduces its environmental impact, on the grounds that these are materials otherwise considered waste.&nbsp;



However, recent research suggests the situation is more complicated. Because a relatively small portion of each animal carcass is converted into these byproducts, sustaining pet food production can, in fact, raise the demand for livestock overall.&nbsp;



More animals being raised and slaughtered translates into more land cleared for grazing or feed crops, heavier freshwater consumption, and additional greenhouse gas emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-of-vegan-pet-diets">Health implications of vegan pet diets</h2>



While dogs are naturally omnivorous and cats are considered carnivorous, modern commercial pet foods already deviate from their ancestral diets.&nbsp;



In practice, these foods commonly blend plant materials - like grains and vegetables - with various animal-sourced ingredients, then add preservatives and flavor enhancers.&nbsp;



Meeting a pet’s nutritional needs fundamentally involves supplying adequate protein, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, rather than providing specific meat sources. As researchers have found, pets can thrive on meticulously formulated plant-based diets.



Several studies completed by late 2024 suggest dogs and cats can thrive on vegan meals. In certain cases, these diets may lead to improvements in areas such as obesity control and allergic responses.&nbsp;



Furthermore, investigations into feeding behavior indicate that pets generally accept vegan meals as readily as they do meat-based ones, based on measures of excitement and enjoyment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-broader-push-for-sustainability">A broader push for sustainability</h2>



Confronting climate change and curbing biodiversity loss requires far-reaching measures, as emphasized by international bodies.&nbsp;



While shifting human diets toward plant-based options is a commonly proposed solution, it may not go far enough on its own.&nbsp;



Integrating pets into these changes expands the potential for lowering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas emissions</a> and decreasing the strain on resources. If such diets are provided by reputable manufacturers that ensure complete nutrition, it is possible to preserve the health and welfare of companion animals.



For those contemplating this shift, websites like <a href="http://sustainablepetfood.info/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SustainablePetFood.info</a> can offer guidance in sourcing products that meet pets’ nutritional requirements.&nbsp;



By rethinking how companion animals are fed, pet owners can contribute to mitigating climate change while continuing to support the well-being of dogs and cats.&nbsp;



This aspect of dietary transition underscores that addressing global environmental challenges can be an inclusive effort, embracing not only human choices but also those made on behalf of the animals in our care.



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Changing how we feed our pets will improve their health and the environment

The global livestock industry plays a significant role in the...

Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity has revolutionized our understanding of gravity and the universe. However, it leaves some unanswered questions, particularly about singularities and black holes. 



Recent studies suggest quantum mechanics could help resolve these mysteries and offer new insights into the fundamental nature of space-time and black holes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-general-relativity">General relativity</h2>



General relativity is a theory developed by Albert Einstein to explain how gravity works. 



Instead of thinking of gravity as a force that pulls objects toward each other, like Isaac Newton suggested, Einstein proposed that gravity is the result of massive objects bending the space and time around them. 



Imagine space and time as a stretchy fabric, and when something heavy, like the Earth or the Sun, sits on it, the fabric bends around it. 



This bending is what we experience as gravity. So, objects like planets and moons move in curved paths because they are following the curves in this "fabric" created by mass.



One of the most mind-blowing predictions of general relativity is that time isn't the same everywhere. 



Time actually moves slower near a strong gravitational field, like near a planet or a star, and faster in areas with weaker gravity. 



This effect is known as time dilation. It's something that satellites in space have to account for because they experience time a little differently than we do on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-singularities-the-basics">Understanding singularities - the basics</h2>



The elegant framework of general relativity encounters a critical limitation at singularities - points in space-time where matter collapses to infinite density, and the curvature of space-time becomes infinitely sharp.



These singularities arise under extreme gravitational collapse, as shown by Nobel laureate Roger Penrose. When a massive star exhausts its fuel and collapses under its gravity, the result can be a singularity.



At a singularity, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/google-record-shattering-quantum-ai-chip-accesses-parallel-universes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fundamental laws</a> of physics, as we know them, no longer work. Concepts like time, space, and the behavior of matter lose their meaning, rendering physical predictions impossible. 



This unpredictability would challenge science’s foundation, which relies on consistent, testable laws to explain the universe.



Understanding and addressing singularities is, therefore, a major challenge in modern physics. 



Researchers aim to find ways to reconcile this breakdown, often looking to quantum mechanics or other advanced theories to fill the gaps left by general relativity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-holes-and-cosmic-censorship">Black holes and cosmic censorship</h2>



Black holes, nature's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-a-simple-way-to-grasp-this-impossible-concept-carl-kocher/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enigmatic phenomena</a>, may conceal singularities. Their defining feature, the event horizon, prevents anything, including light, from escaping. 



According to Penrose's&nbsp;cosmic censorship conjecture, singularities resulting from gravitational collapse remain hidden behind these event horizons, preserving the predictability of physics elsewhere in the universe.



Despite its elegance, cosmic censorship remains unproven. Scientists have found no definitive counterexamples, making it one of the most significant open problems in mathematical physics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-mechanics-and-black-holes">Quantum mechanics and black holes</h2>



While general relativity focuses on large-scale structures, quantum mechanics governs particles and atoms. 



Combining these frameworks to understand black holes has proven complex. Recent research published in the journal Physical Review Letters suggests that Penrose's conjecture is supported by quantum mechanics.



Physicists have long speculated about "quantum black holes," where quantum effects play a significant role. These black holes raise questions about how cosmic censorship applies in the quantum realm. 



A potential answer lies in developing a theory of "quantum gravity," which integrates quantum mechanics with space-time. However, such a theory remains elusive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advances-in-quantum-cosmic-censorship">Advances in quantum cosmic censorship</h2>



Quantum mechanics introduces new complexities such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/negative-time-observed-measured-tangible-in-new-quantum-experiments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">negative energy</a>, a phenomenon allowed in quantum mechanics but absent in classical physics. 



Penrose's theorem assumes that all matter has positive energy, so the existence of negative energy introduces scenarios that the theorem does not address.



To explore these complexities, researchers use a hybrid approach called&nbsp;semi-classical gravity. In this model, the space-time structure still obeys Einstein's general relativity, but the matter within it is treated according to quantum mechanics. 



This allows scientists to study how quantum effects influence the behavior of space-time and black holes.



From this perspective, quantum mechanics might play a role in keeping singularities hidden. The concept, called&nbsp;quantum cosmic censorship, proposes that quantum effects could reinforce the "clothing" of singularities by black hole event horizons. 



This means that quantum mechanics may prevent singularities from becoming observable, thus modifying their behavior and preserving the predictability of the universe.



The idea builds on Penrose’s original cosmic censorship conjecture but extends it into the quantum realm, offering a potential bridge between classical and quantum physics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-energy-of-space-time">The energy of space-time</h2>



A key to understanding quantum cosmic censorship lies in the&nbsp;Penrose inequality. This mathematical relationship links the mass of space-time to the area of black hole horizons, assuming cosmic censorship holds. In quantum systems, a similar inequality could provide <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schrodingers-cat-survives-in-quantum-superposition-for-a-record-shattering-23-minutes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insights</a>.



In 2019, researchers proposed a quantum Penrose inequality. Building on this, the new study introduced a refined version that applies even in strong quantum effects.



The research shows that the energy of space-time relates to the combined entropy of black holes and quantum matter, which thus maintains the second law of thermodynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strengthening-theories-with-quantum-mechanics">Strengthening theories with quantum mechanics</h2>



The new quantum Penrose inequality strengthens the idea of cosmic censorship. While not a definitive proof, it shows that quantum mechanics reinforces the principles governing black holes and singularities. 



This advance bridges classical and quantum physics, and paves the way for deeper insights into the universe.



As space-time might end at singularities, quantum mechanics ensures we remain shielded from such extremes, preserving the predictability of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-instead-of-oil-or-coal-powers-a-new-kind-of-engine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.133.181501" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



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Why the universe remains predictable: Insights from "quantum black holes"

Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity has revolutionized our understanding...

If you've ever felt that modern movies seem to resonate with a chorus of ominous verbs that echo through scenes of action, drama, and suspense, you're not alone.



A recent study confirms an increase in the use of violent language and disturbing phrases in film dialogues over the past half-century, shedding light on how our cinematic landscape has shifted over time.



Remarkably, this trend is not limited to crime movies but seems to creep into all genres, and subtly infiltrates even the most unexpected narratives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increase-in-murderous-verbs">Increase in "murderous verbs" </h2>



The researchers embarked on a quest to unravel the mystery of this unsettling trend, driven by a desire to understand how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/power-of-words-how-language-framing-shapes-our-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language</a> shapes our perception of violence in cinema.



The team used a large database of more than 160,000 movie subtitles, spanning five decades from 1970 to 2020, and meticulously analyzed and quantified the incidence of chilling words like “murder” and “kill” in the dialogues. Their findings revealed a startling linguistic evolution in the film industry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-killer-words-across-all-films">"Killer words" across all films</h2>



According to study co-author Brad Bushman, the surge in these "killer words" has been unsurprisingly variable. Yet, there has been a noteworthy upward trajectory over the 50 years.



Interestingly, this trend isn't confined to crime flicks. Characters in other genres of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-watching-movies-affect-our-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movies</a> have also been upping their "kill-talk" game.



"Characters in noncrime movies are also talking more about killing and murdering today than they did 50 years ago. Not as much as characters in crime movies, and the increase hasn’t been as steep. But it is still happening. We found increases in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-finds-no-evidence-that-video-games-promote-violence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">violence</a> cross all genres," noted Bushman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-dynamic-of-violent-language">Gender dynamic of violent language</h2>



Authored by researchers at the <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> and The Ohio State University, the study was published as a research letter in the journal JAMA Pediatrics. The findings offer new insights into the evolving dynamics of film dialogue.



The study revealed that the rise in the use of violent language was not gender-specific, demonstrating a broad shift in cinematic trends.



Study lead author Babak Fotouhi highlighted an intriguing aspect of the findings. While men typically delivered more violent dialogues, women also showed a discernable increase over time, reflecting a significant shift in character portrayal across genders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steady-rise-in-violent-language">Steady rise in violent language</h2>



Using the subtitle database from opensubtitles.org, the researchers sifted through 166,534 movies, extracting references to murderous actions with painstaking precision.



The team calculated the proportion of "killer verbs" - semantics rooted in words like “kill” and “murder" which capture the darker tones of cinematic language.



The analysis painted a grim picture of evolving dialogue trends: close to 7% of the movies spewed murderous verbs over the study period, indicating a steady rise in violent language on the silver screen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-competitive-edge-of-violence-in-film">The competitive edge of violence in film</h2>



Pennsylvania-based post-doctoral researcher Amir Tohidi emphasized the team's focus on these ominous verbs to identify only the most severe forms of violence present in movie diologue, thus representing a conservative estimate. 



“We focused exclusively on murderous verbs in our analysis to establish a lower bound in our reporting,” said Tohidi. “Including less extreme forms of violence would result in a higher overall count of violence.“



The researchers noted that if they had incorporated less aggressive forms of violence in the analysis, the overall count of violent dialogue would have skyrocketed.



“We designed this to be a conservative estimate,” said Fotouhi. “It is likely there was more violence in the movies than what we calculated in terms of the dialogue.”



This research, backed by an enormous dataset, highlights the escalation in cinematic reference to violence.



"Movies are trying to compete for the audience’s attention and research shows that violence is one of the elements that most effectively hooks audiences," noted Fotouhi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-for-mindful-media-consumption">A call for mindful media consumption</h2>



Bushman weighed in with a cautionary note, suggesting that this unsettling trend may still be on an upward trajectory, with no clear peak in sight.



This observation highlights an urgent call to action: the need to promote greater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tweens-used-media-more-during-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">media</a> literacy and encourage mindful media consumption. 



By equipping audiences - especially vulnerable groups like young viewers - with critical thinking skills, we can mitigate the potential impact of violent language on impressionable minds.



So, the next time you cozy up for a movie night, take a moment to reflect - our screens are brimming with more killer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-brain-uses-a-secret-thesaurus-to-find-the-right-words/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">words</a> than ever before, subtly shaping the narratives we consume.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/article-abstract/2828322" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Pediatrics</a>.



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Movies are using more violent language including 'murderous verbs'

If you've ever felt that modern movies seem to resonate...

The Quadrantid meteor shower is the first major celestial event of the year, offering a spectacular display of fireballs streaking across the sky. 



Known for its bright fireballs and intense bursts of activity, the Quadrantid meteor shower produces as many as 120 meteors per hour under ideal conditions. 



The meteor shower is unique due to its sharp peak, which lasts for only a few hours. This means that timing crucial for catching the display. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-meteor-showers">What are meteor showers?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/january-2025-stargazing-a-parade-of-bright-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Meteor showers</a> happen when Earth moves through a trail of debris left behind by comets or asteroids during their journeys around the sun. These small particles, often no larger than grains of sand, enter Earth’s atmosphere at high speeds. 



As they collide with the atmosphere, the friction causes the particles to heat up and burn, producing glowing streaks of light called meteors. Sometimes, larger fragments burn brighter, creating what we call fireballs, which are exceptionally vivid and long-lasting meteors.



To enjoy this celestial spectacle, you don’t need telescopes or binoculars. A dark, open area away from city lights provides the perfect setting to witness the beauty of meteors streaking across the night sky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-legacy-of-an-obsolete-constellation">Legacy of an obsolete constellation</h2>



Unlike other meteor showers named after active constellations, the Quadrantids derive their name from&nbsp;Quadrans Muralis - which is now obsolete.



"The Quadrantids take their name from a constellation that doesn’t exist anymore," said <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>’s William Cooke.



Introduced by French astronomer Jérôme Lalande in 1795, Quadrans Muralis was once positioned between Boötes and Draco. Though removed from modern star maps in 1922, its legacy endures through the Quadrantids meteor shower.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-and-where-to-watch-the-quadrantids">When and where to watch the Quadrantids</h2>



The Quadrantid meteor shower will reach its peak during the early morning hours of January 3, 2025. The meteors appear to radiate from a point in the northern sky near the Big Dipper and the bright star Arcturus. 



This makes the shower ideal for observers in mid-northern latitudes, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere.



For the best viewing experience:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Time: The hours before dawn on January 3 offer the clearest view of the meteors.</li>



<li>Moon Phase: A waning crescent moon means the sky will remain dark with minimal interference.</li>



<li>Location: Choose a spot far from city lights to reduce artificial light pollution.</li>



<li>Preparation: Avoid using your phone or other bright screens. This helps your eyes adjust to the darkness and improves your ability to spot meteors.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parent-objects-of-the-quadrantids">Parent objects of the Quadrantids</h2>



The Quadrantid meteor shower has an intriguing and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-meteor-showers-delta-aquarids-alpha-capricornids-light-up-night-skies-august-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex origin</a> involving several celestial objects.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asteroid-2003-eh1">Asteroid 2003 EH1</h3>



This asteroid, discovered in 2003, is the primary source of the Quadrantid meteors. It is believed to be a dormant comet, meaning it no longer exhibits the typical activity of a comet such as a visible tail.



The asteroid completes an orbit around the sun every 5.5 years, but no longer comes close to Earth’s orbit. Despite this, debris that was ejected in the past continues to intersect with Earth’s path, creating the meteor shower.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comet-96p-machholz">Comet 96P/Machholz</h3>



This active comet is another contributor to the Quadrantids. Its material produces a less intense and broader peak in the shower. 



The comet approaches the sun very closely, with a perihelion (closest point to the sun) of just 0.12 astronomical units (AU). Each astronomical unit represents the distance between Earth and the sun.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-machholz-complex">The Machholz Complex</h3>



Astronomers theorize that a massive comet likely fragmented centuries ago, giving rise to a group of related celestial bodies called the Machholz Complex. This group includes Comet 96P/Machholz, asteroid 2003 EH1, and other smaller fragments. 



Together, these objects are responsible for multiple meteor showers, including the Quadrantids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-significance-of-the-quadrantids">Historical significance of the Quadrantids</h2>



The Quadrantid meteor shower was first observed in 1825 by Antonio Brucalassi. He described "a multitude of luminous bodies" radiating from&nbsp;Quadrans Muralis. 



Later studies linked the shower to asteroid 2003 EH1 and Comet 96P/Machholz. These discoveries highlight the intricate connections between ancient celestial objects and modern astronomical phenomena.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stunning-start-to-the-new-year">Stunning start to the new year</h2>



The Quadrantids primarily favor the Northern Hemisphere due to their radiant's high northern position. However, some Southern Hemisphere observers occasionally report sightings of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meteor-showers-help-scientists-discover-where-comets-came-from/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meteors</a>.



The Quadrantid meteor shower provides a stunning start to the new year, with its narrow peak and dazzling fireballs. Whether you're an avid stargazer or a casual observer, this celestial event is worth braving the cold January morning.



The fleeting beauty of the Quadrantids serves as a reminder of the vast and dynamic universe we call home.



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Quadrantid meteor shower peaks tonight, kicking off the new year

The Quadrantid meteor shower is the first major celestial event...

In the captivating world of archaeology, where discoveries often turn the tide of understanding, sea level changes have emerged as a powerful force that may have shaped human history.



A recent revelation reveals an intriguing connection between fluctuations in the Atlantic Ocean's sea levels and the rise and fall of early societies in southern Brazil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-mystery-of-sambaquis">Unraveling the mystery of "sambaquis"</h2>



One could liken the work of an archaeologist to that of a detective, piecing together a puzzle from an array of diverse clues. 



This time, the evidence came from gigantic, prehistoric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indigenous-people-harvested-oysters-sustainably-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mounds of shells</a> known as sambaquis. 



Sambaquis were produced by pre-colonial people along a 3,000 km (1,800 mile) stretch of the Brazilian coastline, and contain the remains of shellfish and fish, along with plants, artefacts and charcoal.



When the scientists noticed a sudden decline in the size and frequency of these mounds around 2,500 years ago, they hypothesized that the coastal communities present in the region at the time had vanished or become reduced in number.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinguishing-the-pottery-paradox">Distinguishing the pottery paradox</h2>



Some experts believed the reduction in sambaquis resulted from the advent of ceramics and crop farming, which would have reduced the region's reliance on fishing and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mollusks-evolution-shishania-aculeata-spiny-armor-no-shells-500-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mollusk</a> consumption.



However, a study published in December 2021 demonstrated that the decline in sambaqui-building and use commenced before pottery became prevalent in the society.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reading-the-tides-of-change">Reading the tides of change</h2>



Observations made by examining human and animal remains from Babitonga Bay, the largest repository of sambaquis in Brazil, opened doors to a fresh perspective. 



A timeline, based on over 400 radiocarbon dates, established the arrival of ceramics at around 1,200 years ago. The decline in sambaqui activity began significantly earlier, about 2,500 years ago, and culminated in a "dramatic abandonment" around 2,200 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-level-retreat-and-early-societies">Sea level retreat and early societies</h2>



During the Late <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/welcome-to-humanitys-new-era-the-anthropocene/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Holocene era</a>, as icy cold fronts increased in southern Brazil, sea levels began to fall. 



The ocean receded by 1.6 meters (5 feet) between 7,000 and 1,000 years ago, resulting in the expansion of drylands and mangrove systems.



The scarcity of mollusks, fishing areas, and edible plants under these conditions would have pushed the shellfish-dependent societies to confront fierce competition for dwindling resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-the-past-insights-for-the-present">Lessons from the past, insights for the present</h2>



The authors suggested that the changing landscape forced communities to reorganize into more dispersed, independent social units. 



Warning bells should be sounding for us as well. With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-that-climate-change-is-caused-by-human-activities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anthropogenic climate change</a> predicted to increase sea levels by about 0.3 meters (12 inches) by the turn of this century, we stand to lose roughly half of the world's sandy beaches and rocky coasts.



The repercussions could be disastrous for global communities relying heavily on oceanic, coastal, and marine resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ever-changing-sea-levels-a-force-of-transformation">Ever-changing sea levels: A force of transformation</h2>



Sea levels have long acted as both creators and destroyers of human civilizations, shaping landscapes and the societies that inhabit them. 



In the case of Brazil's Sambaqui societies, fluctuating sea levels during the Late Holocene were a driving force behind dramatic societal changes.



As the ocean decreased in vertical height by 1.6 meters over millennia, shellfish-dependent communities faced dwindling resources, with mollusks and fish becoming scarce and food insecurity taking hold.



This transformation was not merely about the physical loss of coastline but also reflects a profound reshaping of the environment itself.



The retreating seas exposed new drylands and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangrove-forest-reveals-ancient-climate-change-effects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mangrove</a> systems, forcing communities to rethink their reliance on coastal ecosystems. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-societies-changing-with-sea-levels">Societies changing with sea levels</h2>



These changes triggered a reorganization of society, with dispersed settlements replacing the centralized shell mound communities that had thrived for thousands of years. Such historical events highlight the lasting impact of sea level changes on human history. 



Today, the world faces a parallel challenge: rising sea levels driven by anthropogenic climate change. 



Unlike the gradual retreat that impacted the sambaqui builders, the current rate of sea level rise is accelerating, posing an even greater threat to modern coastal populations. 



Entire cities could be inundated, and vital ecosystems may collapse, leading to mass displacement and economic turmoil.



The sambaqui story serves as a stark reminder of the delicate balance between humans and their environment. It highlights the urgency of understanding and mitigating sea level changes - not just to protect infrastructure - but to safeguard cultural and ecological heritage for future generations.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-02888-7#Sec7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Sea levels linked to the rise and fall of early human societies

In the captivating world of archaeology, where discoveries often turn...

NSF NOIRLab has begun the New Year by unveiling a remarkable deep-space image of the Antlia Cluster. The image was captured with the Dark Energy Camera (DECam), which is mounted on the Víctor M. Blanco 4-meter Telescope at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile.&nbsp;&nbsp;



This ultra-detailed view reveals hundreds of galaxies in the cluster, each belonging to a larger cosmic structure that continues to fascinate astronomers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-clusters-and-cosmic-evolution">Galaxy clusters and cosmic evolution</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/titanic-galaxy-cluster-collision-defies-all-current-understanding-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Galaxy clusters</a> rank among the biggest assemblies of matter in the universe. They come into being when dark matter gravitationally pulls galaxies together, typically forming groups of dozens.&nbsp;



Over time, these groups coalesce into clusters containing hundreds or even thousands of galaxies.&nbsp;



Researchers can learn a great deal about cosmic evolution by studying these superstructures, as their formation and organization shed light on how dark matter operates on vast scales.



Located around 130 million light-years away in the direction of the constellation Antlia (the Air Pump), the Antlia Cluster is one such assembly.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-features-of-the-antlia-cluster-nbsp">Exploring the features of the Antlia Cluster&nbsp;</h2>



Over the last two decades, scientists have turned to multiple <a href="https://noirlab.edu/public/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOIRLab</a> programs to explore the cluster’s features.&nbsp;



Researchers in Chile employed the Blanco telescope using an earlier camera, known as MOSAIC II, as well as the Gemini South telescope, which is part of the International Gemini Observatory under NOIRLab’s purview.&nbsp;



More recently, data from both ground-based and space-based observatories have expanded knowledge of Antlia’s makeup, revealing a lively variety of galaxy types.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="EjWijtOA3g-4180568-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-of-the-antlia-cluster">Observations of the Antlia Cluster</h2>



Astronomers discovered that the Antlia Cluster is dominated by two large elliptical galaxies, NGC 3268 and NGC 3258. Around these giants, numerous faint <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-happened-when-a-dwarf-galaxy-clashed-with-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dwarf galaxies</a> circle, adding to the cluster’s complexity.&nbsp;



There is also evidence that these two massive galaxies may be in the process of merging, based on X-ray studies that found a line of globular clusters in the region of peak luminosity between them.&nbsp;



Some experts propose that what is currently labeled as the Antlia Cluster might actually be two smaller clusters on the path to merging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-diverse-range-of-galaxies">A diverse range of galaxies</h2>



Looking more broadly, the cluster includes a range of additional galaxy types, such as lenticular galaxies with little gas or dust for star formation, irregular galaxies, and many lower-luminosity systems like ultra-compact dwarfs, compact ellipticals, and blue compact dwarfs.&nbsp;



Researchers think the cluster could also hold dwarf spheroidal galaxies and ultra-diffuse galaxies, though these remain to be confirmed with further observations.&nbsp;



The ability to detect these small and often dim objects has only emerged in the last few decades, thanks to continual improvements in telescope instrumentation and data analysis approaches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-evolution-of-the-antlia-cluster-nbsp">The evolution of the Antlia Cluster&nbsp;</h2>



The assorted galaxies in Antlia are more than just visually striking; they also provide a window into how galaxies take shape, evolve, and possibly fade.&nbsp;



Some galaxy varieties found in the cluster are associated with higher levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/existence-of-dark-matter-confirmed-by-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a>, giving researchers further clues about how dark matter influences galactic development.&nbsp;



As scientists trace the origins and transformations of these objects, they gain a richer understanding of the cluster’s evolutionary history, as well as the universe’s larger-scale dynamics.



An additional benefit of more advanced instruments, such as DECam, is that astronomers can now detect faint intracluster light - the hazy glow of stars that have been gravitationally pulled out of their original galaxies during interactions and collisions.&nbsp;



This faint glow sometimes overlaps with residual light from regional features, such as the Antlia Supernova Remnant discovered in 2002, which adds yet another dimension to the overall cosmic picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-light-of-galaxy-clusters">Studying the light of galaxy clusters </h2>



As scientists delve more deeply into clusters like Antlia, they look to upcoming projects and observatories to unlock even greater insights. The NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory’s Legacy Survey of Space and Time, set to commence in the near future, will mark a major leap forward.&nbsp;



For the first time, astronomers will have the data to examine intracluster light in thousands of galaxy clusters, shedding more light on how dark matter is distributed and how these structures have evolved across cosmic epochs.



By comparing results from a wide range of clusters, astronomers can piece together the events and processes that shaped today’s vast galactic formations.&nbsp;



This level of detail supports or challenges existing theories and refines the overall model of how galaxies gather and transform over billions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-large-scale-structures-in-astronomy">Importance of large-scale structures in astronomy</h2>



The Antlia Cluster, as portrayed in the new image, stands out for its remarkable diversity of galaxies and ongoing processes. From the central elliptical giants that may be merging, to the smaller dwarf galaxies circling on the fringes, the cluster captures the drama of cosmic evolution.&nbsp;



Advances in observing technology and data analysis have made it possible to study these objects in greater depth than ever before, setting the stage for even more detailed research in the years to come.



Ultimately, these efforts underscore the broader importance of large-scale structures in astronomy. By examining the architecture and composition of galaxy clusters, researchers glean essential clues about the mechanics of dark matter, the fate of stripped stars, and the origins of galaxy populations.&nbsp;



Images like the one provided by DECam not only captivate astronomers and the public alike, but they also fuel the quest to understand the forces and processes that shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shapes-of-one-million-galaxies-hint-at-the-universes-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>.



Image Credit: Dark Energy Survey/ DOE/ FNAL/ DECam/ CTIO/NOIRLab/ NSF/ AURA.Dark Energy



Video Credit: NSF NOIRLab



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Hundreds of glittering galaxies captured in the Antlia Cluster

NSF NOIRLab has begun the New Year by unveiling a...

A new study from Tel Aviv University has uncovered how bacterial defense mechanisms can be neutralized, facilitating more efficient genetic material transfer between bacteria.&nbsp;



Researchers believe this discovery could significantly aid in combating antibiotic resistance and advancing genetic engineering for medical, industrial, and environmental applications.



The study was conducted by PhD student Bruria Samuel, under the guidance of professor David Burstein at the Shmunis School of Biomedicine and Cancer Research at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a>'s Wise Faculty of Life Sciences.&nbsp;



The study also involved contributions from Dr. Karin Mittelman, Shirly Croitoru, and Maya Ben-Haim - all members of Burstein's lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-dna-transfer-in-bacteria-survival">The role of DNA transfer in bacteria survival</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genetic diversity</a> is critical for organisms to adapt and survive in changing environments. While humans and many other species achieve this through sexual reproduction, bacteria rely on alternative mechanisms.&nbsp;



One key method is the direct transfer of DNA between cells, a process that enables rapid genetic exchange and adaptation. This mechanism is exemplified by the swift spread of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-could-cause-a-health-crisis-globally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic resistance</a> among bacterial populations.



Despite its prevalence, the process of DNA transfer has remained somewhat mysterious. Bacteria possess sophisticated defense systems designed to destroy foreign DNA, raising the question: How do plasmids, the carriers of genetic material, evade these defenses?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-conjugation-and-plasmid-behavior">Investigating conjugation and plasmid behavior</h2>



The study focused on conjugation, a primary mechanism for DNA transfer in bacteria. During this process, a bacterium connects to another via a microscopic tube, through which genetic material called plasmids is passed.&nbsp;



“Plasmids are small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecules classified as 'mobile genetic elements.' Like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-create-viruses-to-combat-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a>, plasmids move from one cell to another, but unlike viruses, they do not need to kill the host bacterium to complete the transfer,” explained Burstein.



Since plasmids are technically foreign DNA, they must find ways to evade bacterial defenses to survive and replicate within cells.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-associated-with-anti-defense-systems">Genes associated with anti-defense systems</h2>



Samuel began her research by analyzing 33,000 plasmids, identifying genes associated with anti-defense systems that allow plasmids to bypass bacterial defenses. The location of these genes proved to be a crucial discovery.



“The genes for the anti-defense systems that I identified were found to be concentrated near that cutting point, and organized in such a manner that they would be the first genes to enter the new cell,” noted Samuel.&nbsp;



“This strategic positioning allows the genes to be activated immediately upon transfer, giving the plasmid the advantage needed to neutralize the recipient bacteria's defense systems.”



When Samuel first presented her findings, Burstein admitted that he found it “hard to believe that such a phenomenon had not been identified before.” After an extensive review of the scientific literature, they confirmed that no prior studies had observed this pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plasmids-evading-defense-systems">Plasmids evading defense systems</h2>



To test the computational findings, the team conducted laboratory experiments. They introduced antibiotic-resistant plasmids into bacteria equipped with CRISPR, a well-known bacterial defense system.&nbsp;



This setup allowed the researchers to observe whether the plasmids could evade CRISPR and confer antibiotic resistance to the recipient bacteria.



Samuel's experiments demonstrated that plasmids with anti-defense genes positioned near the DNA entry point successfully overcame the CRISPR system, enabling the bacteria to develop resistance.&nbsp;



Conversely, plasmids with anti-defense genes located elsewhere were destroyed, and the bacteria succumbed to antibiotics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-antibiotic-resistance-nbsp">Implications for antibiotic resistance&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding the strategic positioning of anti-defense genes could lead to the discovery of new anti-defense systems, a topic of active research. 



The findings may also enhance the design of plasmids for genetic manipulation in industrial and research settings.



“Our study can contribute to designing more efficient plasmids for genetic manipulation of bacteria in industrial processes," said Burstein.



"While plasmids are already widely used for these purposes, the efficiency of plasmid-based genetic transfer in lab conditions is significantly lower than that of natural plasmids."



Potential applications include designing plasmids to block antibiotic resistance genes in hospitals, enabling bacteria in soil and water to degrade pollutants, or improving human health by modifying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-have-very-clever-ways-of-supporting-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut bacteria</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-major-breakthrough-in-biotechnology-nbsp">Major breakthrough in biotechnology&nbsp;</h2>



The study has been described as a major breakthrough in biotechnology. Dr. Ronen Kreizman, CEO of Ramot, Tel Aviv University's technology transfer company, highlighted its potential.&nbsp;



“The new research opens revolutionary possibilities in areas such as developing drugs against resistant bacteria, synthetic biology, agritech, and foodtech,” said Dr. Kreizman.



“The ability to control and fine-tune genetic material transfer between bacteria could become a powerful tool for addressing environmental, agricultural, and medical challenges.”



By unveiling the mechanisms that allow plasmids to overcome bacterial defenses, this research sets the stage for innovative solutions to pressing global challenges, including antibiotic resistance and environmental sustainability.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07994-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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How bacteria share genes and defy defenses

A new study from Tel Aviv University has uncovered how...

From a distance, it might seem like just another part of your eye, but the pupil is a gateway to understanding how and when the brain forms long-lasting memories.



Experts at Cornell University have discovered a key to understanding memory formation and retention: pupil size.



By analyzing pupil dynamics during sleep, the researchers identified a sophisticated mechanism in the brain that prevents "catastrophic forgetting," a phenomenon where forming new memories disrupts older ones.



The study, led by assistant professors Azahara Oliva and Antonio Fernandez-Ruiz, reveals that memory consolidation occurs during specific moments of non-REM sleep. These findings offer insights into human memory enhancement and artificial intelligence training techniques.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-of-sleep-and-memory">Science of sleep and memory</h2>



Sleep plays a critical role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-isnt-only-stored-in-our-brains-other-cells-can-remember-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consolidating memories</a> and organizing information in the brain. Non-REM sleep is particularly essential for strengthening new memories and integrating them with existing knowledge.



During this stage, neural activity reactivates learned information, transferring it from temporary storage to long-term memory networks. REM sleep, on the other hand, contributes to emotional processing and creativity. 



This study highlights how the brain alternates between consolidating new memories and revisiting old ones, using brief micro-structures within non-REM sleep. 



By understanding these processes, scientists gain insights into how the brain preserves knowledge and prevents interference between different types of memories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-pupils-and-neural-activity">Tracking pupils and neural activity</h2>



The researchers conducted their study on a group of mice, teaching them various tasks over the course of a month. These tasks included navigating a maze to earn rewards like water or treats. 



During this period, the mice were fitted with special equipment: brain electrodes to monitor neural activity and tiny cameras positioned near their eyes to track changes in pupil size.



After the mice learned a new task, they were allowed to sleep. While they slept, the researchers recorded their brain activity and observed how their pupils changed during different sleep stages. This data on pupil dynamics provided insights into how the brain consolidates memories.



“Non-REM sleep is when the actual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forgetting-things-is-a-natural-part-of-the-memory-process/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> consolidation happens, and these moments are very, very short periods of time undetectable by humans, like 100 milliseconds,” explained Professor Oliva.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pupil-dynamics-and-memory-consolidation">Pupil dynamics and memory consolidation</h2>



The researchers discovered that during a specific substage of non-REM sleep, when a mouse's pupil contracts, the brain focuses on replaying and strengthening newly learned memories. 



This process consolidates recent experiences, making them more stable and long-lasting.



In contrast, when the pupil dilates during another substage of the same sleep phase, the brain revisits <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-our-brains-neurons-make-and-retrieve-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">older memories</a>, integrating them into the broader knowledge base. 



This alternating pattern of pupil contraction and dilation represents a previously unknown micro-structure of sleep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-pupils-for-retaining-memory">Significance of pupils for retaining memory </h2>



This mechanism is crucial because it keeps new and old <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathing-rhythms-help-strengthen-memories-during-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memories</a> separate, preventing them from interfering with one another. 



By alternating between consolidating new information and revisiting old knowledge, the brain avoids "catastrophic forgetting," ensuring both types of memories are preserved and well-organized.



“It’s like new learning, old knowledge, new learning, old knowledge, and that is fluctuating slowly throughout the sleep,” said Professor Oliva.



“We are proposing that the brain has this intermediate timescale that separates the new learning from the old knowledge.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-memory-and-ai">Implications for memory and AI</h2>



The study's findings have significant implications for improving memory in humans. 



By understanding how the brain consolidates memories during specific moments of non-REM sleep, researchers could develop techniques to target and enhance these critical processes.



For example, therapies or interventions might help strengthen memory consolidation by focusing on these brief but vital phases of sleep.



Additionally, the discoveries could influence the development of artificial intelligence. Neural networks, which mimic how the brain processes information, often struggle with "forgetting" older data when learning new information. 



By applying the brain's method of alternating between processing new and old memories, AI systems could become more efficient at retaining prior knowledge while integrating new data, making them more reliable and robust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-critical-function-of-sleep">A critical function of sleep</h2>



The research was supported by multiple organizations, including the National Institutes of Health (<a href="https://www.nih.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIH</a>), the <a href="https://sloan.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sloan Foundation</a>, and the <a href="https://www.whitehall.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Whitehall Foundation</a>.



The discovery of this intricate sleep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-pinpoint-the-exact-timing-of-memory-formation-during-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mechanism</a> and pupil dynamics redefines our understanding of memory consolidation. 



By identifying the brain's ability to alternate between processing new and old memories, researchers have illuminated a critical function of sleep.



The study not only bridges gaps in neuroscience but also opens doors to innovations in technology and human cognitive enhancement.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08340-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Pupil size during sleep decides if new or old memories are replayed

From a distance, it might seem like just another part...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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