Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Jake Johnson traces his veterinary research motivation to a simple concept with sweeping consequences. The idea is that animal, human, and environmental health are inseparable, and knowledge gains power when it crosses borders.



Johnson was captivated early by the <a href="https://provost.ncsu.edu/global-one-health-academy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">One Health Initiative</a>, which shows how discoveries in veterinary medicine can inform human health and ecosystem resilience. Sharing those insights can improve outcomes far beyond a single patient.



A cardiology resident at North Carolina State University’s <a href="https://cvm.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Veterinary Medicine</a>, Johnson focuses his work on translating cutting-edge cardiology into tools that clinicians can actually use.



He prioritizes education and access for veterinary students and general practitioners who may not have specialized training or high-end equipment. He also designs studies with practical take-home value.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-on-earlier-projects"><a></a>Building on earlier projects</h2>



Johnson’s current efforts build on early projects, including a case report describing an unusual form of feline <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-close-to-bars-and-pubs-increases-the-risk-of-heart-failure/">heart failure</a> and how imaging choices can change clinical decisions.



The through-line is the same: bridging the gap between advanced knowledge and the constraints of real clinics. 



He sees research as the engine that turns individual, hard-won insights into shareable methods. Others can then deploy these methods in emergencies or resource-limited settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cocaine-toxicosis-in-dogs">Cocaine toxicosis in dogs</h2>



One strand of his work tackles <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-cocaine-tricks-and-hijacks-the-brain/">cocaine</a> toxicosis in dogs. Much of the available data comes from controlled laboratory studies or from human medicine, and neither dataset perfectly reflects the chaos of a real-world veterinary emergency.



Animal exposures are often uncertain - owners may not know what a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/">dog</a> picked up, or may hesitate to say - so clinicians must act on incomplete information. 



That uncertainty is exactly why better case documentation and practical protocols matter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dog-cocaine-case">The dog cocaine case </h2>



A small dog was experiencing collapse episodes accompanied by severe bradycardia. Due to concerns about possible illicit substance ingestion, clinicians performed a urine drug screen. 



The test returned positive for cocaine and was later confirmed by an external laboratory. For Johnson, the case demonstrates the importance of pairing clinical signs with targeted toxicology testing when exposure is a possibility.



The case also highlights the need to build a literature that helps practitioners decide what to test, when, and why.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventing-exposure-before-emergencies">Preventing exposure before emergencies</h2>



Dogs are opportunistic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-followed-the-first-farmers-through-the-americas/">scavengers</a>. Owners can cut risk by keeping pets leashed, watching for attempts to pick up unfamiliar items, and - when needed - using a basket muzzle during walks.



Reliable “leave it” and “drop it” cues can be lifesaving if a dog encounters dangerous substances. 



And when exposure is suspected - or a pet is simply “not quite right” - immediate veterinary care is prudent, because minutes and hours often determine outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-case-reports-that-save-lives">Case reports that save lives</h2>



In veterinary medicine, case reports serve an essential role. They capture the unusual and the emergent - the very scenarios large trials miss. 



They also preserve the details future clinicians will look for when seconds matter. Over time, those reports seed better triage pathways, monitoring checklists, and treatment protocols.



A persistent misconception hampers care: that veterinarians will judge or report owners who admit a pet may have ingested illicit drugs.



However, according to Johnson, clinicians need accurate histories to save lives, not to assign blame. Honest, specific information - what, when, and how much - enables tailored treatment and closer monitoring for predictable complications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-priorities-to-advance-care">Research priorities to advance care</h2>



Looking ahead, Johnson’s agenda centers on access. He calls for studies that simplify imaging so it can be performed with standard equipment. 



He also advocates for cost-effective screening strategies that identify high-risk patients without expensive panels, along with pragmatic educational interventions that convert subspecialty knowledge into routine practice.



Johnson also pushes for comparative trials of lower-cost treatment protocols that achieve similar outcomes, structured training so general practitioners can perform basic specialty procedures, and wider use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/telemedicine-helps-address-the-ongoing-mental-health-crisis/">telemedicine</a> to bring specialist guidance into rural and resource-limited clinics in real time.



The goal is to ensure that a dog in a small town has access to lifesaving options just as reliably as one treated in a metropolitan referral hospital.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-open-science-in-veterinary-care">Open science in veterinary care</h2>



Information only helps if people can access it. Removing paywalls and sharing protocols lets students and clinicians learn and apply cardiology principles with the tools they have, not just the tools they wish they had.



In Johnson’s model, publishing is a starting line, not a finish line - the real success is a colleague using that knowledge to stabilize a patient they might otherwise have lost.



Across topics - from toxicosis to cardiology education - the constant is a One Health sensibility coupled with a practical streak. 



Johnson’s work aims to move advanced concepts out of the seminar room and into exam rooms, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-linked-to-a-surge-in-hospital-emergency-visits/">ERs</a>, and farmyards, where they can change outcomes today while building a stronger evidence base for tomorrow.



The case report of the dog ingesting cocaine is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/veterinary-science/articles/10.3389/fvets.2025.1622850/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Veterinary Science</a>.



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How a "my dog ate cocaine" incident is changing veterinary care

Jake Johnson traces his veterinary research motivation to a simple...

A planet that orbits a star nearby to us once seemed like a good candidate for being Earth-like. It’s rocky, similar in size to Earth, and lies in a zone where surface water could theoretically exist. But new findings suggest this exoplanet doesn’t have an atmosphere anything like ours.



The latest data comes from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope and focuses on TRAPPIST-1 d, a planet that is 40 light-years away in the TRAPPIST-1 <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanets/trappist1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">system</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruling-out-a-potential-earth-twin">Ruling out a potential Earth twin</h2>



Caroline Piaulet-Ghorayeb, lead author of the study, is a scientist at the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> and the Trottier Institute for Research on Exoplanets (IREx) at Université de Montréal.



“Ultimately, we want to know if something like the environment we enjoy on Earth can exist elsewhere, and under what conditions,” said Piaulet-Ghorayeb.



"While NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope is giving us the ability to explore this question in Earth-sized planets for the first time, at this point we can rule out TRAPPIST-1 d from a list of potential Earth twins or cousins."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-trappist-1-d-looked-promising">Why TRAPPIST-1 d looked promising</h2>



The TRAPPIST-1 system gained attention in 2017 for hosting seven Earth-sized, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocky-planets-a-new-target-in-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/">rocky planets</a>. It's the largest group of Earth-sized worlds ever found orbiting a single star. The star at the center is a red dwarf - cooler and smaller than our Sun - which shifts the "habitable zone" much closer in.



TRAPPIST-1 d is the third planet from its star and sits near the edge of this temperate zone. But “near” is relative: it orbits at just 2% of the Earth-Sun distance. A year there lasts only four Earth days.



Despite that tight orbit, its location seemed promising for having liquid water - and maybe an atmosphere. 



But when researchers used the Webb telescope’s NIRSpec instrument to scan for signs of key molecules, they found no water vapor, methane, or carbon dioxide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-a-detectable-atmosphere">Lack of a detectable atmosphere</h2>



“There are a few potential reasons why we don’t detect an atmosphere around TRAPPIST-1 d. It could have an extremely thin atmosphere that is difficult to detect, somewhat like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-glaciers-revealed-to-be-nearly-pure-ice/">Mars</a>," Piaulet-Ghorayeb said.



She explained that the planet could also have very thick, high-altitude clouds that block our detection of specific atmospheric signatures - similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venus-secret-past-may-have-implications-for-earths-future/">Venus</a>. It's also possible that TRAPPIST-1 d is a barren rock, with no atmosphere at all.



The researchers aren’t ready to draw final conclusions. But one thing is clear: TRAPPIST-1 d doesn’t have an atmosphere that looks like Earth’s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-near-a-red-dwarf">Life near a red dwarf </h2>



TRAPPIST-1, the star at the center of this system, may not be a great neighbor for planets hoping to hold onto their atmospheres. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planets-orbiting-red-dwarf-stars-may-not-be-habitable-ultraviolet-uv-radiation/">Red dwarfs</a> are known for intense, high-energy flares that can blast nearby planets with radiation.



These flares can strip atmospheres away - especially from planets orbiting close in, like TRAPPIST-1 d.



Scientific interest in these kinds of stars remains high. Red dwarfs are the most common type of star in the galaxy. If a planet can hold onto an atmosphere here, there’s a chance it could do so anywhere.



“Webb’s sensitive infrared instruments are allowing us to delve into the atmospheres of these smaller, colder planets for the first time,” explained study co-author Björn Benneke of IREx at the Université de Montréal.



“We’re really just getting started using Webb to look for atmospheres on Earth-sized planets, and to define the line between planets that can hold onto an atmosphere, and those that cannot.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eyes-on-the-outer-planets">Eyes on the outer planets</h2>



While planet d didn’t pan out as a strong Earth analog, the story isn’t over. Webb is still collecting data on the outer planets in the system - TRAPPIST-1 e, f, g, and h. 



These planets are farther from the radiation blasts of their host star, which might give them a better chance of retaining an atmosphere.



But that distance also makes it harder to detect atmospheric signatures, even with the Webb telescope’s precision.



“All hope is not lost for atmospheres around the TRAPPIST-1 planets,” Piaulet-Ghorayeb said. “While we didn’t find a big, bold atmospheric signature for planet d, there is still potential for the outer planets to be holding onto a lot of water and other atmospheric components.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-step-closer-to-the-big-question">One step closer to the big question</h2>



NASA sees this work as laying the foundation for something much bigger: understanding which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/habitable-zone-planets-support-life/">planets could support life</a>.



“As NASA leads the way in searching for life outside our solar system, one of the most important avenues we can pursue is understanding which planets retain their atmospheres, and why,” said Shawn Domagal-Goldman, acting director of the Astrophysics Division at NASA Headquarters in Washington. 



“NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope has pushed our capabilities for studying exoplanet atmospheres further than ever before, beyond extreme worlds to some rocky planets – allowing us to begin confirming theories about the kind of planets that may be potentially <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-earth-discovered-in-the-habitable-zone-of-its-star/">habitable</a>."



Domagal-Goldman noted that this important groundwork will position upcoming missions, like NASA’s Habitable Worlds Observatory, to answer a universal question: Are we alone?



TRAPPIST-1 d may not be an Earth twin. But it's helping scientists understand what makes a planet capable - or incapable - of sustaining an atmosphere. And in the search for life beyond our solar system, that’s a crucial piece of the puzzle.



Information from a NASA online <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/missions/webb/webb-narrows-atmospheric-possibilities-for-earth-sized-exoplanet-trappist-1-d/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">press release</a>.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, Joseph Olmsted (STScI)



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Can red dwarf planets support life? Webb investigates TRAPPIST-1

A planet that orbits a star nearby to us once...

For decades, the search for extraterrestrial life has relied on complex missions, new instruments, and billion-dollar budgets. 



But now, a Ph.D. student and his supervisor at <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a> have shown that a device already sitting on Mars could answer one of humanity’s biggest questions: Is anything alive out there, right now?



The breakthrough comes from Solomon Hirsch and Professor Mark Sephton of Imperial’s Department of Earth Science &amp; Engineering. 



The gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) is an instrument that is already installed on the Curiosity rover and planned for use on the ExoMars Rosalind Franklin rover. The team realized that this common piece of equipment can be used in an entirely new way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-instruments-new-tricks"><a></a>Old instruments, new tricks</h2>



“Space agencies such as <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> and ESA don't know their instruments can already do this,” Sephton said. “Here we have developed an elegant method that rapidly and reliably identifies a chemical bond that shows the presence of viable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/detecting-life-on-mars-a-breakthrough-in-space-research/">life</a>."



"The Curiosity rover just turned 13 on Mars, but who says you can't teach an old dog new tricks.”



The GC-MS has a long pedigree in planetary science, with earlier versions flying on the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/viking/">Viking missions</a> of the 1970s. Traditionally, scientists have used it to analyze gases released from rocks and soils.



But Hirsch and Sephton discovered it could also detect fragile molecular bonds inside the membranes of living cells - a marker of life that is present only while an organism is alive or has very recently died.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unmistakable-signals-of-living-cells">Unmistakable signals of living cells</h2>



The technique focuses on intact polar lipids (IPLs), the molecules that make up the external membranes of bacteria and more complex cells. 



These molecules degrade within hours of death, making them a reliable sign of living organisms. When fed into the GC-MS, IPLs leave behind a sharp, unmistakable spike on the instrument’s readout.



Researchers unexpectedly found a clear biosignature in polar lipids using GC-MS, with equipment already deployed on space missions. If scientists ever detect such a spike on Mars or another world, it will provide direct evidence of active life rather than long-extinct biology.



“If we find signs of life beyond Earth, the first question will be: Is it living right now?” Hirsch said. “It's thrilling to think that the technique we developed here could be used to help answer that question.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-life-in-mars-extremes">Searching for life in Mars’ extremes</h2>



Mars is not a welcoming place for life. Its thin atmosphere, freezing surface temperatures, and constant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/3d-printed-hydrogels-developed-to-protect-astronauts-from-space-radiation/">radiation</a> from space make survival difficult. 



Hirsch admits that expectations of finding organisms on the planet’s surface are low. But he points out that life is resourceful. “Life finds amazing ways to survive in extreme circumstances,” he noted.



Future missions will also dig deeper into Mars’ crust, where conditions may be more favorable. The Rosalind Franklin rover, part of the delayed ExoMars mission, will drill several feet beneath the surface, where microbes could remain shielded from radiation and potentially active.



Beyond Mars, icy moons like Europa and Enceladus are even more promising. They are known to host subsurface oceans and erupt plumes of water vapor into space. 



Sephton envisions the method being applied there too. “Our active life detection method could be deployed on Mars and the plumes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uranus-and-its-icy-moons-broadening-the-search-for-alien-life/">icy moons</a> in the outer solar system, or in samples returned to Earth from potential alien biospheres,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mars-science-helps-on-earth">How Mars science helps on Earth</h2>



The method could also help right here at home. Teams preparing to analyze samples returned from Mars are planning multimillion-dollar facilities to screen for possible life. 



A quick and simple GC-MS test would make the task more efficient, flagging which samples deserve deeper analysis.



Sephton sees the technique as both cost-effective and versatile. Instead of designing entirely new instruments for each mission, scientists could repurpose existing ones to do more than originally intended. 



It’s an approach that may accelerate discoveries without requiring decades of waiting for the next mission to launch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-mars-and-beyond">The future of Mars and beyond</h2>



Whether or not life is discovered, the technique itself represents a leap forward. It shows that sometimes the tools for transformative science are already in our hands - it just takes a new perspective to see them differently.



The search for extraterrestrial life is often portrayed as a grand adventure, requiring futuristic technology and vast budgets. 



Hirsch and Sephton’s work offers a humbler but no less profound possibility: the answer to one of humanity’s oldest questions may already be riding around the Martian surface, waiting to be asked the right question in the right way.



As Hirsch put it, the possibility remains remote but real: “Our expectation of finding things alive on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clues-beneath-mars-surface-reveal-possible-habitats-for-ancient-life/">Martian surface</a> is low due to the hostile temperature and radiation conditions. Still, we aren't ruling out the possibility.” 



And if life does exist, this new approach may be the simplest way to prove it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44453-025-00006-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Space Exploration</a>.



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Searching for life on Mars just got a whole lot easier

For decades, the search for extraterrestrial life has relied on...

Poplar trees don’t just grow wood - they retool its chemistry as climates shift. That built-in flexibility changes how readily their biomass can be converted into renewable fuels and materials.



A team led by the <a href="https://missouri.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Missouri</a>, with collaborators at <a href="https://www.ornl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a> and the University of Georgia, traced how the environment reshapes lignin, the tough polymer that stiffens plants.



The work highlights a path to better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biofuels-may-eliminate-90-of-black-smoke-emissions-from-cars/">biofuels</a> and bioplastics by matching tree genetics withy growing conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-lignin-matters"><a></a>Why lignin matters</h2>



Lignin is everywhere stems, roots, and leaves are. It fortifies, channels water, and shields tissues from stress.



“Lignin acts as both a glue and an armor - it holds everything together while also protecting the plant from outside stressors,” said Jaime Barros-Rios, an assistant professor of plant molecular biology.



“Understanding how plants make lignin could help us improve its conversion into high-value biomaterials and increase the competitiveness of U.S. biorefineries.”



That conversion challenge is huge. Make lignin easier to process, and the numbers pencil out for greener fuels and materials. Make it harder, and energy and chemical inputs soar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-poplar-trees-across-climates">Poplar trees across climates</h2>



Poplars are already a workhorse for pulp and paper. They are also prime <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bioenergy-can-slow-climate-change-but-the-window-is-closing/">bioenergy</a> candidates. Researchers have mapped their genome, they grow quickly, and plantations cover a broad climate range.



The team leveraged that range by sampling 430 trees of Populus trichocarpa from northern California to British Columbia. Warmer sites produced wood with a higher syringyl-to-guaiacyl ratio, known as S/G. Cooler sites trended lower.



“This S/G ratio represents the proportion between the two most abundant monomers in lignin,” said lead author Weiwei Zhu, a postdoctoral researcher in the Barros-Rios lab.



“These monomers have slightly different chemical structures, impacting the properties of the wood and directly influencing how easily lignin can be broken down and processed - making it easier to create biofuels and a wide variety of everyday products.”



In practical terms, tuning S/G shifts how stubborn lignin is during pulping, pretreatment, or catalytic breakdown. More syringyl units often mean cleaner cuts and fewer side reactions. That can lower cost and carbon from biorefineries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-that-protects-poplar-trees">Protein that protects poplar trees</h2>



Field patterns only go so far without a mechanism. To dig deeper, the team combined genetics with 3D protein modeling.



“We identified a mutation in an important cell wall enzyme in poplar trees called laccase, which was found to control the S/G ratio in this natural population,” said Rachel Weber, a senior biochemistry student at Mizzou who built the model.



“So, I was able to utilize a protein structural modeling software called ColabFold to pinpoint the exact location of this mutation within the laccase protein.”



The surprise was where that amino acid change sits. Not in the catalytic pocket, and not where enzymes usually do their cutting and pasting. That placement hints at upstream signals and cellular traffic shaping lignin assembly in the wild, beyond textbook biochemistry.



“This points to a more complex regulation than we initially thought and gives us new clues about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-get-a-boost-from-diverse-neighbors-especially-in-wet-forests/">trees</a> adapt and protect themselves,” said Weber. “This knowledge will help us develop additional hypotheses about how this protein functions and interacts with the plant’s surrounding environment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-lignin-in-poplar-trees">A rare lignin in poplar trees</h2>



Another curveball emerged from the analyses. The researchers detected small amounts of C-lignin in poplar. Until now, scientists had found that simple, uniform lignin type mainly in certain seeds, such as vanilla and cacti. Its clean structure is a chemist’s dream: fewer linkages, less mess, easier conversion.



Because C-lignin is simpler and more uniform than regular lignin, it’s easier to break down and process into usable plant material for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-inspired-solutions-new-bioplastic-dissolves-rapidly-in-water/">bioplastics</a>, biofuels, and other renewable products.



“This type of lignin could help us turn plant biomass into valuable commodity chemicals more efficiently,” Barros-Rios said.



Even trace levels matter. They signal that the pathway exists in tissues where it was not expected. With the right genetic switches, engineers may be able to dial it up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-designing-greener-plants">Designing greener plants</h2>



The immediate takeaway is clear. Climate and genetics co-author lignin’s script. Warmer, wetter sites nudge S/G higher. Specific laccase variants tweak the balance further. Rare flavors of lignin appear where no one looked before. Each lever can be used to design better feedstocks.



The long game is even more ambitious. The Missouri team is already working to boost C-lignin in poplar and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-soybean-plants-have-a-memory-scientists-think-so/">soybean</a>. 



The aim is straightforward: build plants whose biomass cracks cleanly into the molecules that tomorrow’s refineries need. That would cut energy use, reduce waste, and speed the shift from petroleum to plants.



None of this changes what lignin does for a living tree. It still braces, seals, and shields. But by learning how trees tailor that armor to latitude and stress, researchers can tailor it for people, too. 



The result could be faster progress toward fuels and materials that start in forests and fields - and a bioeconomy that leans more on biology and less on barrels.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2503491122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Poplar trees changed their chemistry to survive

Poplar trees don’t just grow wood - they retool its...

Mixed,Diatoms,From,A,Small,Creek.,This,Image,Has,Been

Phytoplankton in the waters around Antarctica are changing - and the shift could have big consequences for the climate and the entire Southern Ocean ecosystem.



Over the past 25 years, scientists have used satellite data to track changes in the makeup of these microscopic organisms. 



Their findings point to a long-term, climate-driven transformation in the region’s marine environment - one that could weaken the ocean’s ability to capture and store carbon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-shifts-in-phytoplankton">Detecting shifts in phytoplankton</h2>



The study was focused on data from the European Space Agency’s Climate Change Initiative (<a href="https://climate.esa.int/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA’s CCI</a>) and more than 14,000 samples collected between 1997 and 2023. The goal was to analyze changes in phytoplankton populations.



Alexander Hayward, Earth System Scientist at the <a href="https://www.dmi.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Danish Meteorological Institute</a> and lead-author on the paper, explained how the research team used ESA’s CCI data in the study.



“We built machine-learning models using in-situ samples, which we then combined with data from the European Space Agency, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-are-substantially-changing-the-seasons-of-the-ocean/">sea surface temperature</a>, ocean color and sea ice concentration, to track changes in different phytoplankton groups over time," Hayward explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-in-diatoms">Decline in diatoms</h2>



The team identified key changes in the balance of phytoplankton types across the Southern Ocean.



“We observed major reductions in diatom populations between 1997-2016 - a period where sea ice increased,” noted Hayward. 



“From 2016 onwards, the satellite record revealed a slight rebound in Antarctic diatom populations, and a related group of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-algae-genes-chlorophyll-boost-crop-yields-land-plants/">marine algae</a> - cryptophytes - rapidly proliferated.”



The researchers found that diatoms - large, carbon-absorbing phytoplankton - fell sharply during the first two decades of the study. 



After sea ice retreated in 2017, diatom numbers began to recover in some regions, while smaller phytoplankton such as cryptophytes and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-plankton-algae-could-change-the-fate-of-the-arctic-food-web/">haptophytes</a> continued to grow. 



In West Antarctica, however, diatom populations have continued to decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-phytoplankton-are-equal">Not all phytoplankton are equal</h2>



Phytoplankton are the foundation of the Antarctic marine food web. Diatoms, haptophytes, and cryptophytes make up the bulk of the microscopic life in these waters. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-plankton-play-a-big-role-in-the-global-carbon-cycle/">Diatoms</a> alone account for nearly half of the phytoplankton here, with haptophytes close behind.



But these organisms don’t all play the same role. Diatoms are heavy hitters when it comes to carbon. 



Their hard silica shells trap carbon dioxide, and when diatoms die and sink, they carry that carbon to the ocean floor. They also feed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-krill-are-natures-unexpected-carbon-warriors/">krill</a> - the tiny crustaceans that feed whales, penguins, and seals.



The smaller types, like haptophytes and cryptophytes, don’t store carbon as effectively. So a long-term shift away from diatoms could weaken one of the ocean’s most important carbon storage systems.



“If we observe a decrease in the number of diatoms, it is likely that the biological carbon pump will weaken, resulting in less carbon dioxide being transported to the deep sea,” said Hayward.



“Now more than ever, we need more research and observation to monitor the changes in this sensitive ecosystem. What’s happening at the microscopic level could impact the climate itself and needs our attention.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellites-track-phytoplankton-nbsp-shifts">Satellites track phytoplankton&nbsp;shifts</h2>



You might wonder how a satellite flying 815 kilometers above Earth can tell anything about microscopic plankton. It doesn’t see the organisms directly. Instead, satellites like Copernicus Sentinel-3 measure the light reflected off the ocean’s surface. 



Changes in that light - especially in the green and blue parts of the spectrum - signal the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shifting-ocean-color-is-pushing-marine-life-toward-the-poles/">chlorophyll</a> and other pigments used in photosynthesis.



Different phytoplankton groups have distinct pigment profiles. When combined with data from water samples, these color signals help scientists map where different phytoplankton are and how their populations are changing over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-carbon-and-the-ocean">Climate, carbon, and the ocean</h2>



Phytoplankton extract carbon from the air, fuel entire ecosystems, and are closely connected to climate change. But long-term records of how these creatures function exist in short supply.



That is why ESA is creating a new project known as Phyto-CCI. It will utilize advanced satellite methods for tracking phytoplankton changes from space, and make it possible for scientists to comprehend their contribution to ocean health and the global climate.



As this research illustrates, the Southern Ocean is already in transition due to climate pressures. What will follow depends not only on ice and temperature - but also on these invisible microorganisms that underpin the entire food chain.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02379-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory 



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Phytoplankton changes found in Antarctic waters could impact food webs and carbon storage

Phytoplankton in the waters around Antarctica are changing - and...

Young,Friends,Having,Barbecue,Picnic,In,The,Nature,,Playing,Guitar,

People who lead more varied social lives tend to perceive their days as a sequence of distinct moments, whereas more isolated people experience time as a single, undifferentiated stretch. 



The new findings suggest that richer social routines are linked to finer “event segmentation,” a basic process the brain uses to turn the stream of life into manageable chunks.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.royalholloway.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Holloway, University of London</a>, tested this idea with a movie-watching experiment and linked the results to measures of everyday variety. 



The study asked 157 young adults to press a button whenever one meaningful moment ended and another began while viewing Alfred Hitchcock’s suspenseful short, Bang! You’re Dead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaking-life-into-moments">Breaking life into moments</h2>



Participants who reported greater experiential diversity - especially in their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survival-of-the-friendliest-social-animals-live-longer/">social lives</a> - marked more boundaries, indicating a finer-grained parsing of experience. The association held even after accounting for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/practicing-mindfulness-can-quiet-the-noise-of-anxiety/">anxiety</a>, loneliness, and socioeconomic factors.



As our senses take in continuous information, the brain creates “events” so we can remember, plan, and navigate. Event boundaries typically arrive when something important changes: a goal, a place, a character, or an emotion.



People differ in how finely they set those boundaries. The new study shows those differences track with the variety of life outside the lab - and most strongly with social variety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-hitchcock-for-science">Watching Hitchcock for science</h2>



Volunteers watched an eight-minute cut of the Hitchcock film and tapped an on-screen button whenever a meaningful unit ended and a new one began. That simple number - how many boundaries each person perceived - was the key measure.



Separately, participants reported the diversity of their recent social interactions (who they met and how they met them) and the complexity of their recent spatial routines (rooms and places visited, local exploration).



Only the social side consistently predicted finer segmentation. In statistical terms, total experiential diversity correlated with boundary frequency. Social diversity - not spatial diversity - accounted for unique variance when both were considered together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-life-make-the-difference">Social life make the difference</h2>



The study found that people who had more assorted experiences identified more event boundaries, and their brains were able to consume this and know when one event started and ended.



“This suggests that living a fuller and more varied social life trains our brains to pick up more information around us, and helps to collate the information in a quicker, more digestible way," said lead author Carl Hodgetts from the Department of Psychology at Royal Holloway.



“It’s not just about traveling to different places, or taking a different route to work each day, but connecting with a wide range of people, which helps us to understand what is happening in our world.”



This pattern fits a broader picture. Social contexts are complex and fast-changing, so frequent engagement may tune the<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-the-human-brain-create-retrieve-memories-engram-cells-connections/"> brain</a> to notice meaningful shifts. 



These shifts include who’s present, what they intend, and how they feel - and the brain may catch them more quickly and more often.



The team also found that the link between social variety and segmentation was stronger in participants with higher trait anxiety. This suggests that heightened sensitivity to social-emotional cues can amplify the effect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-memory-to-well-being">From memory to well-being</h2>



Event segmentation is not just a lab curiosity. It supports how we form <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-use-storage-trick-to-keep-your-memories-in-sequential-order/">episodic memories</a>, plan actions, and move through spaces and social situations.



Finer segmentation has been tied to better recall and navigation in past work, and the new results imply that broader, more varied lives could sharpen those abilities by training the brain’s internal “film editor.”



Crucially, the association remained when the researchers controlled for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loneliness-causes-people-to-have-more-nightmares/">loneliness</a> and anxiety, indicating that the objective diversity of one’s experiences - not simply how one feels - relates to how the brain parses ongoing activity.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/social-life_experiential-diversity_life-interpretation_anxiety-levels_credit-iScience_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/social-life_experiential-diversity_life-interpretation_anxiety-levels_credit-iScience_1s.webp" alt="&quot;Individual differences in experiential diversity shape event segmentation granularity,&quot; published in iScience, investigated whether this can be partly explained by the diversity of our everyday experiences." class="wp-image-1982426"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">"Individual differences in experiential diversity shape event segmentation granularity," published in iScience, investigated whether this can be partly explained by the diversity of our everyday experiences.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-cues-under-the-microscope">Social cues under the microscope</h2>



The study relied on self-reports of recent experience and on boundary counts during a single film. It cannot prove causation. Still, the results provide a baseline and a direction for future work.



The team plans to use MRI to test whether brain activity at event boundaries differs depending on the variety of people’s social life. 



They also aim to drill down into which cues - social, spatial, or emotional - most strongly trigger boundaries.



The timing is also relevant. The work took place as UK <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/identifying-new-targets-to-prevent-severe-covid-19/">COVID-19</a> restrictions eased. 



This unusual mix of lingering limits and sudden rebounds in daily variety may have sharpened contrasts across participants. Replication across broader contexts will help establish how general the effect is.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-practical-takeaway"><a></a>A practical takeaway</h2>



You can’t watch Hitchcock all day, but you can widen your social world. The study points to a simple idea with broad appeal. 



More assorted social experiences may help your brain detect the meaningful beats of life as they happen, making the stream of experience easier to digest and remember.



And that may matter as much for everyday functioning as for the science of how minds make sense of busy days.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)01395-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Having an active social life helps the brain make better sense of the world

People who lead more varied social lives tend to perceive...

High in the rainforests of Borneo and Sumatra, flashes of orange hair move between the trees. Orangutans spend most of their lives in the canopy - navigating branches, building nests, and raising young in one of the most complex ecosystems on Earth. 



Watching them is like catching a reflection of ourselves - their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutan-mothers-have-unique-parenting-styles-like-humans/">intelligence</a>, habits, and even their struggles often resemble our own. Yet, despite these connections, orangutans are slipping toward extinction.



World Orangutan Day on August 19 highlights this urgent reality. The day serves as a reminder that saving orangutans goes hand in hand with protecting their forests - and safeguarding the climate we all rely on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-orangutans-and-forests">Protecting orangutans and forests</h2>



Orangutans live in the forests of Borneo and Sumatra. They act as gardeners of the jungle. By eating fruit and scattering seeds, they help forests regenerate. 



Without them, many plant species would vanish, and the ecosystems tied to them would weaken.



Healthy forests do more than shelter wildlife. They absorb carbon, regulate climate, and provide clean water. Protecting orangutans means protecting the same systems that humans depend on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-communication-than-expected">Smarter communication than expected</h2>



Orangutans continue to surprise scientists. Just when we think we understand them, new research proves otherwise. A recent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutans-use-complex-vocal-patterns-found-in-human-language/">study</a> from <a href="https://warwick.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Warwick</a> revealed that Sumatran orangutans use recursive vocal patterns when sounding alarm calls. 



Recursion is a language tool that allows ideas to be nested within other ideas, creating layered meaning. Humans rely on it constantly in speech and writing, but until recently, scientists assumed it was uniquely human. 



The discovery that orangutans use recursion forces us to rethink how we define language and how it is used throughout the animal kingdom.



Another study used machine learning to analyze the calls of Bornean orangutans. Researchers discovered three distinct pulse types hidden in their long calls. Each pulse seems to serve a different role, giving their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-unlock-the-mysteries-of-orangutan-communication/">communication</a> more depth than expected.



For years, people described orangutan calls as simple. This evidence shows otherwise. Their vocal world is structured, varied, and much more sophisticated than we realized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-conservation-emergency">The conservation emergency</h2>



Orangutans mirror human behavior in unexpected ways. One study describes how they recover from poor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutans-manage-sleep-much-like-humans-do/">sleep</a> by napping during the day. They even build quick daytime nests for rest. This pattern looks remarkably similar to how humans catch up on lost sleep.



Despite their intelligence and adaptability, orangutans face steep decline. Populations have fallen by more than half in the past century. 



Palm oil plantations replace diverse forests with monoculture crops. Illegal logging cuts deep into jungles. Poachers kill mothers to steal infants for the pet trade.



As their habitats shrink, orangutans crowd into smaller areas. This increases stress, reduces food, and creates conflict with humans. Without intervention, they could disappear in a matter of decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-actions-to-protect-orangutans">Actions to protect orangutans</h2>



There are many ways individuals can help protect orangutans. Opting for products made with certified sustainable palm oil is one approach. Supporting rescue centers through donations is another. 



You can even virtually <a href="https://www.theorangutanproject.org/donate/?referrer_source=GADUS_GENERIC&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=13240991473&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjwwZDFBhCpARIsAB95qO3vTJ075IBt6pMnMSn9C_e0WVyfcGdiW25dHR7bmkwMgaqtFtLPMqMaAmINEALw_wcB" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adopt</a> an orangutan to help cover their food and medical care.



Responsible tourism can make a difference. Visiting orangutan habitats can help support local communities and demonstrates that intact forests are far more valuable than cleared land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-progress-worth-noting">Progress worth noting</h2>



There are signs of hope. Rehabilitation centers in Borneo and Sumatra rescue orphaned orangutans and teach them survival skills. Some of these animals are now living free in the wild again.



Governments and conservation groups are also creating protected areas and linking them with wildlife corridors. These corridors let orangutans move safely between forest patches. 



Meanwhile, local communities are exploring sustainable crops that do not destroy rainforests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-purpose-of-world-orangutan-day">Purpose of World Orangutan Day </h2>



Orangutans cannot fight for themselves. They cannot confront corporations or push for laws. That responsibility falls on us. 



Protecting these animals is not just about saving one species. It is about defending the rainforests that regulate climate and sustain life across the globe.



The science is clear, and the threats are well known. What matters now is commitment. Governments need to enforce environmental protections. Businesses must clean up supply chains. People everywhere can support conservation and make smarter choices.



On World Orangutan Day 2025, one truth is clear: orangutans matter. The real challenge is turning that awareness into action - before it’s too late to save them and the forests they call home.



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World Orangutan Day 2025: Turning awareness into action

High in the rainforests of Borneo and Sumatra, flashes of...

Some birds hold greater influence than others when a flock decides where to go next. New research shows that the most persuasive geese in the flock are bold, not aggressive, and that the birds most likely to fall in line are the curious explorers. Together, they steer collective journeys in ways that balance safety and discovery.



The study tackles a classic puzzle in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-tool-superanimal-can-accurately-analyze-animal-behavior/">animal behavior</a>: why certain individuals end up shaping group decisions over months and years. 



Simple rules of interaction can explain how groups move in sync. But they do not say much about why some animals consistently get others to go with them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geese-personalities-in-flight">Geese personalities in flight</h2>



To find out, researchers watched a marked population of greylag geese over four years at the <a href="https://klf.univie.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Konrad Lorenz Research Station</a> in Grünau im Almtal, Austria. The flock traces back to birds introduced by Nobel laureate Konrad Lorenz in the 1970s, which makes it unusually well-documented.



Field teams logged hundreds of collective departures. They noted who gave a departure call, who launched first, who followed, and the size of each departing party. In parallel, they measured personality with standardized tests.



Flight initiation distance - a measure of how close an approacher can get before a bird takes off - indexed boldness. A mirror test probed aggressiveness. Interaction with a novel object indexed exploration, or curiosity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-traits-shape-geese-social-life">Stable traits shape geese social life</h2>



The first finding is simple and important. Individual geese showed stable personality differences - boldness, aggressiveness, and exploration - that persisted across years. Those traits mapped onto daily social roles.



The flock typically moved in subgroups to forage or roost at different sites in the valley. Within those subgroups, bold individuals tended to initiate and be followed. Explorers tended to follow, especially when the leader was bold rather than aggressive.



In other words, a goose’s temperament predicted its influence in real decisions with real stakes. Bolder initiators were more likely to be heeded when they called and took flight. 



Followers with a taste for novelty were more likely to go with them, and less likely to trail aggressive or socially dominant birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leadership-as-protection-not-domination"><a></a>Leadership as protection, not domination</h2>



One result surprised the team. Aggressiveness, though linked to higher social rank, did not predict leadership in group departures. The most influential initiators were bold but not aggressive. That points to a protective leadership style rather than a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-dominance-in-primates-is-more-common-than-we-thought/">dominant</a>, coercive one.



The ecology helps explain why. Each daily move pits risk against reward. Sticking to familiar feeding grounds offers safety but limits opportunity. Striking out raises the chance of finding better food, but it also raises exposure.



Bold leaders reduce uncertainty in the moment - helping a flock launch and cross risky gaps - while exploratory followers tilt the group toward innovation and help spread new routes through social learning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-followers-matter-in-geese-decisions">Followers matter in geese decisions</h2>



The study reframes influence as a two-way negotiation. Yes, some geese initiate more. But followers are not passive. 



They choose whom to follow - and whom to ignore - based on the benefits they receive. Leadership, in this view, is not merely a trait of the few. It is a relationship built from many selective acts of following.



“This research helps to explain why individuals with specific traits consistently wield more influence,” said lead author Sonia Kleindorfer. “More importantly, it draws attention to followers - often overlooked in our human fascination with securing resources."



"What if followers actively choose whom to follow based on the benefits they receive? This shifts focus to the cognitive abilities of followers and challenges traditional ideas about which traits matter most in leaders.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flocks-transform-signals-into-action">Flocks transform signals into action</h2>



The mechanics of a departure are simple on the surface: a call, a launch, and a stream of followers. Underneath is a flow of information. Bold birds lower the cost of action and explorers raise the value of new options.



The result is a collective that can both protect itself and learn. Over time, that learning becomes tradition - routes, schedules, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/murrelets-rely-on-each-other-to-find-breeding-sites/">site preferences</a> that shape the flock’s culture.



By documenting these roles across four years and tying them to stable traits, the study moves beyond one-off observations. 



It shows that personality can structure the everyday choices that add up to a group’s way of life. It also shows that “dominance” and “leadership” are not synonyms. A bird that wins fights does not necessarily win followers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-geese-teach-other-species">What geese teach other species</h2>



The implications reach well beyond a single Austrian valley. Many social species face the same daily trade-off between the familiar and the new. In those systems, protective boldness may attract followers more reliably than brute force, and curiosity may be the glue that keeps groups open to change.



By spotlighting follower choice, the work also nudges theory toward the minds of many, not the charisma of a few. Influence depends on who wants to be influenced - and why. 



That shift has consequences for how researchers think about collective decision-making, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-availability-influences-social-learning-among-orangutans/">social learning</a>, and cultural evolution across species - including our own.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-goose-leadership-matters-now">Why goose leadership matters now</h2>



Understanding how individual differences scale up to group behavior can inform conservation, animal welfare, and even the design of autonomous swarms. 



It can help explain when groups adapt smoothly to changing conditions and when they stall. It can also help predict who will lead a move to safer ground in a warming, human-altered world.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bold-personality-traits-improve-parenting-success-in-geese/">greylag geese</a> offer a clear lesson. Boldness can protect a flock of geese without aggression. Curiosity can carry new ideas across wings. And influence, far from being the property of the loudest bird, emerges from a conversation between those who initiate - and those who decide to follow.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2589004225014312" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Geese guide the flock with boldness, not aggression

Some birds hold greater influence than others when a flock...

Most of us know music can make life feel lighter - it turns chores into something tolerable and workouts into something motivating. But what about when you hit play after an experience instead of during it? That’s where things get interesting.



A new study from scientists at <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> shows that music can shape how well we remember something - if it makes us feel the right way. This effect is not influenced by whether the song is happy, sad, or even familiar. It’s about how much emotion the music stirs in you.



“We found that whether music was negative or positive or whether it was familiar didn’t have as much of an influence on memory as the emotional response people felt while listening to it,” said study co-author Professor Stephanie Leal.



“There was an optimal level of emotional response that aided in remembering the details of an experience. Too much or too little emotional response had the opposite effect - worse memory for details, but better memory for the gist of an experience.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-memory-and-emotions">Music, memory, and emotions</h2>



The study involved volunteers who were shown pictures of everyday objects - things like oranges, laptops, and telephones. After viewing about 100 images, they listened to 10 minutes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/classical-music-orchestrates-a-mood-lifting-dance-in-the-brain/">classical music</a>. 



When their emotional arousal had returned to normal, the volunteers were tested on what they remembered.



Some images were exactly the same. Some were slightly altered versions. Some were completely new. 



Participants had to say whether they had seen the object before and if it was identical or different. They also answered questions about how the music made them feel and whether it was familiar.



The music itself didn’t boost memory across the board. But it helped some people a lot - especially when it came to spotting that an image was similar but not exactly the same.



The key factor? <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/listening-to-music-can-change-how-we-recall-memories/">Emotional arousal</a>. The participants with the best recall weren’t the ones who felt the strongest emotions. They were the ones who felt just enough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-music-shapes-memory">How music shapes memory</h2>



Memory isn’t just about capturing every detail. Most of the time, we’re remembering the big picture - what researchers call gist-based memory. It’s what helps us recall the idea of something without holding onto all the tiny facts. But sometimes, the details matter. That’s where detail-based memory comes in.



“We used a task designed to tap into the difference between gist- and detail-based memory,” said Leal. “Music helped with detail-based memory but only when the level of emotional arousal was just right for that person.”



This makes sense. If you’re overwhelmed, your brain might blur the details. If you’re bored, it might not care enough to store them. There’s a sweet spot in between where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-isnt-only-stored-in-our-brains-other-cells-can-remember-too/">memory</a> for detail gets sharper.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-in-learning-and-therapy">Music in learning and therapy</h2>



The researchers say this kind of emotional “tuning” could eventually help in real-world situations. 



For example, listening to moderately arousing music after studying might help you hold onto more precise information for a test. But music that’s too emotional might have the opposite effect.



“Music has the ability to influence a part of your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-the-human-brain-create-retrieve-memories-engram-cells-connections/">brain</a> called the hippocampus, which is essential for turning experiences into memories,” Leal said. “We think it should be possible to tap into that in a selective way to boost or impair memory depending on the therapeutic goals.”



It’s not just about learning. This could also help with memory loss in aging, or in people with early-stage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-disruptions-could-signal-the-onset-of-alzheimers/">Alzheimer’s</a>. And for people with anxiety or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meditation-can-rapidly-reduce-ptsd-without-revisiting-trauma/">PTSD</a>, music might help them remember the general idea of a tough experience - without reliving every sharp edge of it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-effects-for-everyone">Different effects for everyone</h2>



The challenge is that what works emotionally varies a lot between people. What’s “moderately arousing” for one person might not hit the same for another. That’s why this line of research is moving toward personalized therapy.



“In my lab, we’re trying to detect changes in the brain and cognition early. Music is noninvasive, low cost, and easy to personalize, and by learning more about the mechanisms that connect it to memory, we can develop treatments and interventions to prevent the disease from progressing,” Leal said. 



“If the federal government reduces funding for Alzheimer’s research, the chances that we’ll be able to develop this line of research into inexpensive yet effective treatments are very low, as developing personalized treatments requires lots of participants in research to really capture individual needs.”



In other words, music isn’t just for playlists and background noise. If we can figure out how to fine-tune its emotional effects, it could become a powerful way to shape how we remember - and how we heal.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/45/31/e0158252025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JNeurosci</a>.



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Music boosts memory - but only with the right emotional spark

Most of us know music can make life feel lighter...

Planting more trees cools the planet and can help reduce fires, but the biggest climate returns per tree come from the tropics. That is the core message of new research, which shows that where we plant matters almost as much as how much we plant.



The study, led by the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> (UCR), found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-lagging-centuries-behind-in-climate-adaptation/">forests</a> help in two ways: they pull carbon dioxide from the air; and they change local physics at the surface and in the lower atmosphere. 



Those physical effects are not uniform. In warm, wet regions they cool, while in some cooler, higher-latitude places they can nudge temperatures up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-in-the-tropics-work-harder">Trees in the tropics work harder</h2>



“Our study found more cooling from planting in warm, wet regions, where trees grow year-round," said study first author and UCR graduate student James Gomez. "Tropical trees not only pull <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-in-forests-recovering-from-logging-release-much-more-carbon-dioxide/">carbon dioxide</a> from the air, they also cool while releasing water vapor.” 



“It’s not that planting elsewhere doesn’t help – it does - but the tropics offer the strongest returns per tree.”



Trees in the tropics can “sweat” day in and day out. Roots lift water, leaving open pores to take in CO2 for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/">photosynthesis</a>. Some of that water escapes as vapor, and the evaporation absorbs heat from the air and the leaves. The process is called evapotranspiration, and it represents nature’s air conditioning.



“It’s just like the way sweating cools your body,” Gomez said. “In the tropics, there is constantly water available for trees, and that increases transpiration.”



The study also points to a second cooling pathway. As forests moisten the air, cloud cover can increase. Water vapor itself can soak up some incoming sunlight before it reaches the ground. Both effects dim the surface. Less sun at the surface means less heating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooling-depends-on-location">Cooling depends on location</h2>



The team isolated these non-CO2 physical effects in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperature-increase-2023-blew-past-all-climate-models/">climate models</a>. Globally, the average cooling from the added trees was small, about 0.01°F. But the signal becomes meaningful in the tropics. There, the mean cooling reached about 0.1°F, with some hotspots - such as parts of central Africa - approaching 0.8°F.



When the researchers added in the expected carbon drawdown from new forests, the global cooling grew by roughly another 0.15°F. 



The carbon part of the story is powerful, but the paper kept it “offline” as a first estimate. A follow-up study will simulate both the physical and carbon-cycle effects together, interactively, for tighter numbers.



“Though the non-CO2 effects are small, it is good news that they are not warming, which prior studies have indicated is likely,” Gomez said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-planting-can-backfire">Tree planting can backfire</h2>



Trees are darker than many open landscapes. In snowy or bright regions, more trees can absorb more sunlight. That can offset some of the cooling from evapotranspiration - especially where water limits tree “sweating” for part of the year.



In parts of Canada and the northeastern U.S., the models suggest new trees could slightly reduce net cooling and even raise local fire risk by drying fine fuels and trapping more heat at the surface.



“This is not an invitation to get rid of the trees growing there! They provide multiple benefits for ecosystems and diversity, reducing CO2 and cooling the surrounding areas,” Gomez said.



“What we need is a Goldilocks zone of trees in each region. Just the right amount to have the strongest and most positive climate effects.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-reduce-fires-in-tropics">Trees reduce fires in tropics</h2>



The analysis considered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-seasons-are-now-overlapping-worldwide/">wildfires</a> too. In many tropical savannas, adding trees can reduce burned area. That is because mature trees often resist fire better than grasses, and closed canopies can keep fuels cooler and wetter.



“In tropical savannas, and in other places around the world, trees are much more fire-resistant than grasses,” Gomez said.



In contrast, in some higher-latitude regions, the added absorption of sunlight and longer dry seasons can tilt conditions toward more frequent or more intense fires. The net effect depends on local fuel, moisture, and management.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-realistic-planting-map">A realistic planting map </h2>



The study did not take into consideration forests everywhere. It used a practical reforestation blueprint: plant where trees once grew, while avoiding displacing people and minimizing impacts on cropland. That approach keeps climate benefits aligned with social and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sweet-potato-dna-finally-decoded-to-boost-food-security/">food security</a> realities.



To build confidence in the results, the team drew on 12 widely used climate models rather than relying on a single tool.



That ensemble approach smooths out quirks of any one model and better reflects the range of plausible outcomes considered in international policy analysis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-trees-for-a-cooler-planet">Smarter trees for a cooler planet</h2>



Trees are vital for meeting climate goals. But they are not a magic fix, and they are not all equal in their local effects. The best strategy should be targeted. Protect existing tropical forests first, then replant in tropical and warm, wet places where trees will thrive and “sweat” most. 



Finally, restore in temperate regions with care, tuned to local albedo, water limits, and fire regimes. Everywhere, pair trees with deep emissions cuts.



The message is not to plant less outside the tropics. It is to plant smarter everywhere - and fastest where each tree does the most. In that spirit, the study offers both optimism and a map. 



The planet can be cooled by growing forests, especially in the tropics. And with a “Goldilocks” mindset - neither too few nor too many trees for local conditions - we can stack climate wins with biodiversity and fire resilience, region by region.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-025-01127-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Climate and Atmospheric Science</a>.



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Trees in the tropics cool Earth more than anywhere else

Planting more trees cools the planet and can help reduce...

The sun is ramping up right now. We're in one of its most active periods, something that happens roughly every 11 years. That means more solar storms, more polar lights, and more disruptions to satellites and electrical systems here on Earth.



But even at its wildest, our sun is relatively quiet compared to others like it. In fact, its strongest radiation outbursts are 10 to 100 times weaker than those from similar stars. That surprising calmness may be a key reason life on Earth exists at all.



Scientists at Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (<a href="https://www.hzdr.de/db/Cms?pOid=74004&amp;pNid=0&amp;pLang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HZDR</a>) in Germany believe they may have found an explanation for the sun's stability. And it might come down to something closer to home: the planets in our solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planets-shape-the-sun-s-activity">Planets shape the sun’s activity</h2>



Over the past decade, researchers at HZDR have developed a model that ties nearly all of the sun’s activity cycles to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-gravity-pulls-earth-closer-to-the-sun-warming-our-climate-scientists-say/">gravitational pull</a> of the planets. Venus, Earth, and Jupiter line up every 11 years and create a combined tidal force on the sun.



This isn’t a simple push and pull. It’s more like a steady nudge, one that keeps the sun’s magnetic engine ticking in a predictable rhythm. When combined with the sun's own motion through space, this mechanism produces overlapping cycles that match what we see in solar behavior.



"All the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/suns-next-solar-cycle-26-has-already-begun/">solar cycles</a> identified are a logical consequence of our model; its explanatory power and internal consistency are really astounding. Each time we have refined our model we have discovered additional correlations with the periods observed," said Frank Stefani, one of the lead researchers at HZDR.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cycle-that-limits-solar-activity">Cycle that limits solar activity</h2>



In their most recent study, the team focused on a specific cycle known as the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation, or QBO. This is a smaller pattern - about two years long - that shows up in various features of solar activity.



The model doesn’t just predict the QBO. It gives it an exact period and shows that the QBO actually limits the sun's overall activity. 



While the main 11-year cycle swings between high and low <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-dynamo-sun-magnetic-field-origin-generated-near-surface/">magnetic fields</a>, QBO adds a shorter pattern on top. That causes the sun to spend less time at peak magnetic strength, which means fewer extreme solar events overall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bursts-of-solar-radiation">Bursts of solar radiation</h2>



Previous solar data put the QBO somewhere between 1.5 and 1.8 years. Some earlier studies hinted at a connection between QBO and bursts of high-energy solar particles that hit Earth’s surface. These are called Ground Level Enhancement (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-solar-outburst-detected-simultaneously-at-earth-the-moon-and-mars/">GLE</a>) events, and they can cause sudden spikes in cosmic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noaa-severe-solar-storm-expected-to-reach-earth-tomorrow-october-10-2024/">radiation</a>.



"A study conducted in 2018 shows that radiation events measured close to the ground occurred more in the positive phase of an oscillation with a period of 1.73 years. Contrary to the usual assumption that these solar particle eruptions are random phenomena, this observation indicates a fundamental, cyclical process," Stefani noted.



When the team reanalyzed the timeline of these events, they found the strongest correlation at 1.724 years. That number lined up almost perfectly with the 1.723-year cycle predicted by their model.



"This value is remarkably close to the value of 1.723 years which occurs in our model as a completely natural activity cycle," said Stefani. "We assume that it is QBO."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-sun-stays-relatively-calm">Why the sun stays relatively calm</h2>



The QBO’s influence may explain why our sun doesn’t produce the kinds of violent eruptions seen from similar stars. 



In the team's model, the QBO creates a "bimodal" pattern in the sun’s magnetic field. That is, instead of peaking once and staying high, the magnetic strength sees two peaks with a dip in between. That dip lowers the sun’s average field strength over time.



"This effect is so important because the sun is most active during the highest field strengths. This is when the most intense events occur, with huge <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-geomagnetic-storm-reveals-earths-technological-vulnerabilities/">geomagnetic storms</a> like the Carrington event of 1859 when polar lights could even be seen in Rome and Havana, and high voltages damaged telegraph lines," said Stefani.



"If the sun's magnetic field remains at lower field strengths for a significantly longer period of time, however, this reduces the likelihood of very violent events," he added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-sun-s-built-in-stability">The sun’s built-in stability</h2>



The study suggests that the relatively calm nature of our sun may not be an accident. It could be the result of a finely balanced set of gravitational nudges from its surrounding planets - especially from Earth, Venus, and Jupiter.



According to the researchers, this built-in stability might be part of why Earth has been such a good home for life.



While solar physicists are still piecing together the full story, the research from Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf offers a new way to think about the sun - not just as a fiery ball of gas, but as part of a much more synchronized system than we ever imagined.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11207-025-02521-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar Physics</a>.



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Why our sun is unusually calm - and what that means for Earth

The sun is ramping up right now. We're in one...

Fifty-six million years ago, Earth warmed fast and ecosystems reshuffled. During the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), global temperatures rose by roughly five degrees Celsius and stayed elevated for well over 100,000 years.



In a new study, experts have reconstructed how flowers and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-honey-bee-day-2025-why-pollinators-matter/">pollinators</a> responded, showing a swift move toward animal pollination in Wyoming’s Bighorn Basin. The study infers pollination modes directly from the fossil record of pollen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-warming-changed-the-land">Ancient warming changed the land</h2>



The pace of the global warming event is a big part of the story.&nbsp;On land in the northern Rockies, the climate turned warmer and seasonally drier. Paleosols from the basin document transient drying that altered floodplains and soils.



Earlier palynological work in the same region already showed large, rapid floral turnover across the PETM. 



The researchers documented significant shifts in plant communities during the carbon isotope excursion (CIE) and the period that followed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-plant-pollination-changes">Evidence of plant pollination changes</h2>



The team approached the question using palynology, the study of spores and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-are-disappearing-and-its-bad-news-for-plants/">pollen</a> preserved in sediments. 



The researchers examined pollen preserved as clumps, the pollination mode of nearest living relatives (<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279614773_Nearest-Living-Relative_Method" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NLRs</a>), and the morphological variety of pollen types across the interval.



Pollen clumps matter because sticky, aggregated grains tend to reflect animal transport rather than wind. When clumps become more common in the same kind of sediments, it flags a shift toward animal pollination, not a quirk of preservation.



Nearest living relatives add a second line of evidence. If a fossil pollen type’s closest modern relatives are pollinated by insects or vertebrates, it strongly hints that the fossil plant was too.



A third line looks at angiosperm pollen disparity, the spread of shapes, apertures, and surface textures. Higher disparity often tracks animal pollination, where more specialized interactions are common.



“These suggest animal pollination became more common and wind pollination less common during the PETM,” wrote Vera A. Korasidis of the <a href="https://www.unimelb.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Melbourne</a>. The synthesis points the same direction.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animals-supported-plant-range-shifts">Animals supported plant range shifts</h2>



During the hot, dry interval, plant immigrants included subtropical lineages that still thrive in today’s warmer climates, such as palms and relatives of silk-cotton trees. 



As temperatures rose and rainfall patterns changed, species ranges expanded or contracted, reshaping the region’s flora.



Fossil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-bees-arrive-late-flowers-may-vanish/">insect</a> data from the early Eocene are scarce in North America, but amber and leaf damage records confirm that major pollinator groups like bees, beetles, and flies were already diverse. 



These insects likely played a role in moving pollen during the PETM, mirroring the shift in floral composition. Their rise aligns with evidence of increased insect herbivory on fossil leaves, suggesting larger and more complex insect communities in warming landscapes.



Small mammals also mattered. Early primates and marsupials arriving in the Bighorn Basin may have supplemented insect pollination by interacting with flowers and dispersing seeds. 



Their presence adds another layer to how animal activity supported plant range shifts and helped new plant communities establish in hotter, drier conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-plant-pollination-changes">Consequences of plant pollination changes</h2>



The rise of animal pollination during the PETM meant that food webs adjusted in ways beyond just flowers and insects. Animal-pollinated plants often produce more nectar, fruits, and fleshy seeds, creating fresh resources for vertebrates. 



This would have strengthened links between plants, pollinators, and fruit-eating animals, tying community survival more tightly to pollinator presence.



At the same time, the decline of wind-pollinated trees would have reshaped forests. Canopies became more open, floodplains dried, and the local vegetation mosaic shifted. 



These landscape changes set the stage for new combinations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-dangers-threaten-the-survival-of-bees-and-pollinators/">species</a> to co-exist, with cascading effects on the mammals and insects that relied on them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



Ancient ecosystems changed dramatically, yet many interactions endured. That speed gap matters when thinking about pollinators. 



Reviews of the PETM emphasize that while climate and carbon cycles shifted strongly, only a few groups suffered major extinctions, and rate of change is a key reason.



The pollen evidence from the Bighorn Basin reminds us that interactions can reorganize quickly when climates flip to hotter and drier. It also shows that plants and pollinators can track each other across the map when given time and space.



The practical takeaway is simple. If today’s changes outrun the ability of species to move and adapt, the partnerships that make seeds, fruits, and ecosystems may not keep up.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology/article/evidence-for-increased-animal-pollination-during-the-paleoceneeocene-thermal-maximum/149BE1218DC87646479C23976B0A1E62" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paleobiology</a>.



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Flowers turned to animals for pollination during ancient warming

Fifty-six million years ago, Earth warmed fast and ecosystems reshuffled....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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