Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

An interesting new study has generated some unexpected results relating to how alcohol influences people's pain thresholds and the effect that this has on their subsequent behavior.



It seems that alcohol may make us less sensitive to pain and, at the same time, more aggressive towards others. This then may increase the possibility that we end up causing harm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unmasking-the-unsuspected-connection">Unmasking the unsuspected connection</h2>



The findings of this study are based on a well-established experimental design in operation since 1967.



A total of 870 volunteers who drink an average of 3-4 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-causes-women-to-consume-more-alcohol-than-intended/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcoholic beverages</a> per occasion, at least once a month, took part in two independent laboratory experiments.



The study attracted a varied pool of participants through newspaper advertisements, which offered the added incentive of a $75 reward upon completion of the experiment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-experiment-a-tipple-for-tolerance">The experiment: A tipple for tolerance</h2>



After a thorough briefing and signing informed consent, each participant was given an indistinguishable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sugary-beverages-premature-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beverage</a>, either alcoholic or a placebo.



The drinks were cleverly designed to keep the participants in the dark about the nature of their drink. 



To maintain the illusion, placebo beverages included minute alcohol traces on top and around the rim to mimic the taste of an alcoholic concoction.



Once the drinks were downed, the researchers monitored the participant's pain threshold by administering one-second electrical shocks to their fingers, intensifying the shocks until the participant reported pain. 



This marked the participant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/men-have-a-higher-pain-threshold-when-females-are-treating-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain threshold</a>, a crucial aspect of the subsequent experiment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-outcome-when-alcohol-ignites-aggression">The outcome: When alcohol ignites aggression</h2>



Following their drinks, the volunteers were involved in an online competitive reaction time task. The winner had the liberty to shock the loser, with shock intensity and duration at their discretion.



Unbeknownst to the participants, the opponent was non-existent and the results were manipulated by the researchers.



The outcome was quite telling. Those who had consumed alcohol displayed higher pain thresholds. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increased-pain-tolerance-and-aggression">Increased pain tolerance and aggression </h2>



More concerning, however, was the direct correlation between their increased pain tolerance and how intense and long-lasting a shock they were willing to deliver to their supposed opponent. 



This suggested a pronounced tendency towards aggressive behavior, triggered by having an increased tolerance of pain themselves.



On the contrary, participants who consumed placebo beverages exhibited less aggressive behavior, as their pain threshold was comparatively lower.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-empathy-and-more-aggression">Less empathy and more aggression</h2>



This study took place at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ohio State University</a>. Insightful comments from co-author Professor Brad Bushman shed light on the findings.



“We’ve all heard the idiom 'I feel your pain.' But if intoxicated people can’t feel their own pain, they might be less likely to feel empathy when others feel pain, and that could lead them to be more aggressive," he explained.



Professor Bushman also noted that participants who had consumed alcohol had average blood alcohol concentrations of between 0.095% and 0.11%, just above the legal limit.



This led Bushman to suggest that the effects of alcohol on pain tolerance could potentially be exaggerated for those consuming alcohol beyond these experimental levels, making them even more susceptible to aggressive behavior.



Further research will continue to examine the myriad ways in which alcohol influences behavior, focusing specifically on the links between alcohol, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/no-pain-no-gain-physical-activity-enhances-pain-tolerance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain tolerance</a>, and ensuing aggression.



The study was a collaborative effort, with contributions from C. Nathan DeWall from the University of Kentucky and Peter Giancola, a clinical psychologist based in Montreal. 



Funding was provided by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism and the National Center for Research Resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alcohol-and-its-ripple-effect-on-aggression">Alcohol and its ripple effect on aggression</h2>



The study highlights how alcohol's ability to dull personal pain can ripple outward, influencing social interactions and behaviors. 



In settings like bars or gatherings, heightened pain tolerance paired with reduced empathy might escalate minor disputes into aggressive confrontations. 



Such insights emphasize the need for broader public awareness campaigns about alcohol's behavioral effects, and support systems for individuals prone to aggressive tendencies when intoxicated.



By understanding these mechanisms, policymakers and health professionals can design targeted interventions to address alcohol-induced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-struggle-to-predict-aggression-in-dogs-and-other-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aggression</a>, thereby reducing harm in communities and promoting safer drinking environments.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.jsad.com/doi/10.15288/jsad.24-00144" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs</a>.



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Alcohol increases pain tolerance and fuels aggression

An interesting new study has generated some unexpected results relating...

The Nebra Sky Disc, estimated to be over 3,600 years old, is a globally significant artifact that has been listed in UNESCO’s “Memory of the World” register since 2013.&nbsp;



Despite its reputation as one of the most extensively studied archaeological discoveries, the precise process used to craft this extraordinary object has remained uncertain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-intricate-manufacturing-process">An intricate manufacturing process</h2>



Previous studies based on the disc’s material composition made it clear that it could not have been cast directly in its final form. However, new metallographic analyses have revealed that its creation involved a complex hot forging method.&nbsp;



Researchers determined that producing the disc required approximately ten cycles of heating to around 700°C, forging, and annealing, a process used to relax the metal’s internal structure.



Since the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-metal-spheres-from-the-pacific-ocean-may-earths-first-alien-objects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artifact</a> was recovered by police and returned to Saxony-Anhalt in 2002, it has undergone numerous scientific studies. These investigations have provided valuable insights into its raw materials and even its original coloration, but the exact manufacturing process had remained elusive until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crafting-the-nebra-sky-disc-a-technical-feat">Crafting the Nebra Sky Disc: A technical feat</h2>



Creating a bronze disc with a diameter of 31 centimeters and a thickness of only a few millimeters is no straightforward task. The most recent findings focus on the steps needed to transform a cast bronze blank into the final product.



The study was conducted by the <a href="https://www.lda-lsa.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">State Office for Heritage Management and Archaeology Saxony-Anhalt</a>, in collaboration with <a href="https://www.ovgu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg</a> and <a href="https://deltasigma.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DeltaSigma Analytics GmbH</a>. 



The researchers utilized advanced metallographic techniques, including energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, electron backscatter diffraction, and light microscopy on color-etched samples. They also performed hardness tests to better understand the metal’s properties.



The team examined a small sample taken from the disc’s outer edge in 2002, which had previously been reinserted, temporarily removing it for further analysis.&nbsp;



To validate their findings, experimental trials were conducted by skilled coppersmith Herbert Bauer, who created a replica of the Sky Disc from a cast blank.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-advanced-forging-techniques">Evidence of advanced forging techniques</h2>



The analyses confirmed that the disc’s creation involved a series of carefully executed hot forging cycles. Until it reached its final dimensions, approximately ten cycles were necessary, each including heating to around 700 °C, forging and then annealing to relax the metal structure again.



Interestingly, Bauer’s experiments required significantly more forging cycles to produce the replica, suggesting that the original cast blank used for the Sky Disc was slightly larger and thinner than the one used in the replication.



“That the investigations continue to produce such fundamental new findings more than 20 years after the Sky Disc was secured not only once again demonstrates the extraordinary character of this find of the century, but also how highly developed the art of metal processing was already in the Early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-technology-is-a-modern-solution-for-clean-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bronze Age</a>,” said State Archaeologist Harald Meller, the study’s senior author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-nebra-sky-disc-nbsp">Significance of the Nebra Sky Disc&nbsp;</h2>



The findings highlight the advanced skills of Early Bronze Age metalworkers. These artisans were not only proficient in casting but also in mastering complex forging techniques, such as hot forging.&nbsp;



Drawing on their vast expertise and skill, they were capable not only of mass-producing axes but also of crafting an exceptional artifact like the Nebra Sky Disc, which remains unparalleled even by today’s standards.



This remarkable artifact reflects a high level of technical expertise, showcasing the creativity and ingenuity of ancient craftspeople who worked with limited <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a> but extraordinary skill.



“In addition, the Sky Disc shows how important it is to re-examine seemingly well-known finds when new methods become available,” Meller said.



The Nebra Sky Disc continues to provide invaluable insights into the technological and cultural achievements of the Early Bronze Age.&nbsp;



As research progresses, this extraordinary artifact reveals ever more about the ingenuity of ancient civilizations, solidifying its status as one of the most fascinating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enduring-mystery-ai-discovers-303-more-line-drawings-carved-into-the-nazca-desert/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">archaeological discoveries</a> of our time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-80545-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



Image Credit: Juraj Lipták, State Office for Heritage Management and Archaeology Saxony-Anhalt



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The Nebra Sky Disc: What does it do, and how was it made?

The Nebra Sky Disc, estimated to be over 3,600 years...

In 1923, lead was first introduced into gasoline to enhance car engine performance. However, this improvement in automotive health came at a significant cost to human well-being.



According to a new study, exposure to car exhaust from leaded gasoline during childhood has altered the mental health balance in the U.S. population, leading to generations of Americans who are more depressed, anxious, inattentive, or hyperactive.&nbsp;



The research estimates that over the past 75 years, 151 million cases of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-potency-linked-to-dramatic-rise-in-psychiatric-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychiatric disorders</a> have resulted from American children's exposure to lead.



The study was led by Aaron Reuben, a postdoctoral scholar in neuropsychology at <a href="https://duke.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a>, and his colleagues at <a href="https://www.fsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida State University</a>, 



The findings suggest that Americans born before 1996 experienced significantly higher rates of mental health problems due to lead exposure. These individuals likely experienced personality changes that made them less successful and resilient in life.



Leaded gasoline for cars was banned in the U.S. in 1996, but the researchers emphasize that anyone born before then - especially during its peak use in the 1960s and 1970s - had concerningly high lead exposures as children.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neurotoxic-effects-of-lead">Neurotoxic effects of lead</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lead-pollution-has-made-its-way-to-the-top-of-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lead</a> is neurotoxic and can erode brain cells and alter brain function once it enters the body. Health experts state that there is no safe level of exposure at any point in life. 



Young children are especially vulnerable to lead's ability to impair brain development and alter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-health-may-literally-be-a-state-of-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>. Unfortunately, regardless of age, our brains are ill-equipped to combat lead toxicity.



Because water systems in older American cities still contain lead pipes, the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) issued regulations in October that give cities 10 years to identify and replace lead plumbing, allocating $2.6 billion to get it done. 



Earlier this year, the EPA also lowered the level of lead in soil that it considers potentially hazardous, resulting in an estimated one in four U.S. households having soil that may require cleanup.



“Humans are not adapted to be exposed to lead at the levels we have been exposed to over the past century,” Reuben said. “We have very few effective measures for dealing with lead once it is in the body, and many of us have been exposed to levels 1,000 to 10,000 times more than what is natural.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lead-exposure-and-mental-health">Lead exposure and mental health</h2>



Throughout the past century, lead was used in paint, pipes, solder, and most disastrously, automotive fuel.&nbsp;



Numerous studies have linked lead exposure to neurodevelopmental and mental health problems, particularly conduct disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-adult-depression-linked-to-worse-memory-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a>. 



However, it had not been clear how widespread lead-linked mental illness symptoms might have been.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lifelong-burden-of-lead-exposure-nbsp">Lifelong burden of lead exposure&nbsp;</h2>



To address this complex question, Reuben and his co-authors Michael McFarland and Mathew Hauer, both professors of sociology at Florida State University, turned to publicly available nationwide data.&nbsp;



By using historical data on U.S. childhood blood-lead levels, leaded-gas use, and population statistics, they determined the likely lifelong burden of lead exposure carried by every American alive in 2015.



From this data, the researchers estimated lead’s assault on mental health and personality by calculating “mental illness points” gained from leaded gas exposure as a proxy for its harmful impact on public health.



“This is the exact approach we have taken in the past to estimate lead’s harms for population cognitive ability and IQ,” McFarland said, noting that the research team previously identified that lead stole 824 million IQ points from the U.S. population over the past century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-generational-shifts-in-mental-health">Generational shifts in mental health</h2>



“We saw very significant shifts in mental health across generations of Americans,” Hauer said. “Meaning many more people experienced psychiatric problems than would have if we had never added lead to gasoline.”&nbsp;



Lead exposure led to greater rates of diagnosable mental disorders, like depression and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fear-and-anxiety-the-mental-health-impacts-of-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anxiety</a>, but also increased instances of individuals experiencing milder distress that could impair their quality of life.



“For most people, the impact of lead would have been like a low-grade fever,” Reuben explained. “You wouldn’t go to the hospital or seek treatment, but you would struggle just a bit more than if you didn’t have the fever.”



Lead’s effect on brain health has also been linked to changes in personality observable at the national level. “We estimate a shift in neuroticism and conscientiousness at the population level,” McFarland said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-scope-of-lead-exposure">The scope of lead exposure</h2>



As of 2015, more than 170 million Americans - over half of the U.S. population - had clinically concerning levels of lead in their blood when they were children.&nbsp;



This exposure likely resulted in lower IQs, more mental health problems, and a higher risk for other long-term health impairments, such as increased cardiovascular disease.



Leaded gasoline consumption rose rapidly in the early 1960s and peaked in the 1970s. Consequently, Reuben and his colleagues found that essentially everyone born during those two decades was nearly certain to have been exposed to pernicious levels of lead from car exhaust.&nbsp;



The generation with the greatest lead exposures, Generation X (those born between 1965 and 1980), would have experienced the most significant mental health losses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-legacy-of-lead-exposure-nbsp">Addressing the legacy of lead exposure&nbsp;</h2>



“We are coming to understand that lead exposures from the past - even decades in the past - can influence our health today,” said Reuben.



“Our job moving forward will be to better understand the role lead has played in the health of our country, and to make sure we protect today’s children from new lead exposures wherever they occur.”



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.14072" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry</a>.



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151 million Americans have mental health disorders linked to leaded gasoline

In 1923, lead was first introduced into gasoline to enhance...

Every year on December 5, we turn our attention to the soil beneath our feet - the essential foundation of life on our planet. World Soil Day is an international event dedicated to raising awareness about the critical importance of healthy soils for sustaining life on Earth.&nbsp;



Established by the <a href="https://www.fao.org/home/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization</a> (FAO), this day highlights the role of soil in providing essential ecosystem services, including food production and climate regulation.&nbsp;



World Soil Day also draws attention to the alarming rate of soil degradation caused by human activities.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-theme-of-world-soil-day">Theme of World Soil Day</h2>



Each year, World Soil Day revolves around a specific theme to address the biggest soil-related challenges. Past themes have included combating soil salinization, preventing erosion, and promoting soil biodiversity.&nbsp;



The theme for World Soil Day 2024, "Caring for soils: Measure, monitor, manage," is focused on ways to promote soil health.&nbsp;



This theme highlights the vital importance of monitoring soils and collecting accurate data to inform <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-footprint-a-new-frontier-in-sustainable-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable management practices</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-soil-important">Why is soil important?</h2>



Soil is a fundamental resource that supports life on Earth in countless ways. It provides the foundation for nearly all terrestrial ecosystems by acting as the medium for plant growth, supplying nutrients, water, and oxygen essential for vegetation.&nbsp;



This vegetation, in turn, forms the base of food chains and provides resources for humans and animals. Healthy soil is essential for the productivity of crops that feed billions of people worldwide.



Beyond its role in food production, soil acts as a natural water filter, absorbing rainfall and replenishing groundwater while removing contaminants.&nbsp;



Furthermore, soil supports human infrastructure, providing a stable foundation for buildings, roads, and other structures.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-healthy-soil">Benefits of healthy soil</h2>



Healthy soil is the foundation of environmental and human well-being, offering a wide range of benefits. It acts as a natural reservoir of nutrients, supporting the growth of healthy plants.



Through its ability to store and filter water, healthy soil helps maintain water quality and reduces the risk of flooding by preventing surface runoff.&nbsp;



Soil also plays a vital role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farming-practices-boost-soil-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sequestration</a>, capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide, which helps to mitigate climate change.&nbsp;



Furthermore, soil is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-pollution-is-harming-worms-and-bugs-to-an-unknown-degree/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> hotspot. It provides habitats for countless organisms, from microbes to insects, which contribute to nutrient cycling and plant health.&nbsp;



By promoting crop resilience, healthy soil reduces the need for chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Its ability to retain moisture leads to better crop yields - even in periods of drought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-growing-issue-of-soil-degradation-nbsp">The growing issue of soil degradation&nbsp;</h2>



Soil degradation refers to the deterioration of the soil’s quality and health, which can result from a variety of factors such as poor land management, deforestation, overgrazing, urbanization, and the excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.&nbsp;



This process leads to the loss of essential soil nutrients, reduced water retention, and the breakdown of soil structure.&nbsp;



As a consequence, the land becomes less productive, making it harder to grow crops and sustain plant life. Soil degradation also contributes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-erosion-rates-have-exploded-in-the-midwestern-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">erosion</a>, where the topsoil is washed away, leading to further loss of fertile land.



Soil degradation is increasingly recognized as a growing issue across the globe. Over the past century, human activities such as agriculture, deforestation, urbanization, and unsustainable land management practices have significantly accelerated soil degradation.&nbsp;



The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that about one-third of the world’s land is moderately to severely degraded. As the global population continues to rise, the demand for food, water, and land increases, further straining the planet’s soil resources.&nbsp;



In many regions, soil erosion, desertification, and nutrient depletion have become widespread, impacting agricultural productivity and food security.&nbsp;



Climate change exacerbates the problem by altering rainfall patterns and increasing the frequency of extreme weather events, which can lead to further soil loss.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-soil-day">World Soil Day</h2>



The idea of dedicating a day to soil was first proposed by the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS) in 2002. This idea gained momentum with the support of Thailand’s King Bhumibol Adulyadej, who advocated for sustainable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-soils-produce-a-symphony-of-sounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil management</a> throughout his reign. 



In 2013, the UN General Assembly officially declared December 5 as World Soil Day to coincide with the king's birthday, honoring his lifelong commitment to soil conservation.



World Soil Day emphasizes that soil is a fragile resource, taking hundreds to thousands of years to regenerate naturally. It reminds us of the need for collective action to preserve soil health - from adopting sustainable agricultural practices to restoring degraded lands.&nbsp;



Through global participation, this occasion seeks to inspire individuals and communities to appreciate the critical role of soil in building a sustainable future.



Ultimately, healthy soil supports the balance of natural ecosystems and directly influences human health, livelihoods, and the planet's capacity to thrive.



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World Soil Day 2024: Protecting our planet's lifeline

Every year on December 5, we turn our attention to...

One of the most enduring scientific mysteries concerns the origins of life on Earth. Researchers have often focused on the potential role of deep-sea hydrothermal vents - towering underwater structures that release a mixture of organic and inorganic materials.&nbsp;



Within the plumes of these vents are minerals known as iron sulfides, which scientists believe may have catalyzed early chemical reactions essential for life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hot-springs-and-the-emergence-of-life">Hot springs and the emergence of life</h2>



Interestingly, these same minerals are also found in modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-are-1-5-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hot springs</a>, such as the Grand Prismatic Spring in Yellowstone National Park. These springs are created by groundwater heated through volcanic activity beneath the Earth's crust.



New research led by an international team of scientists and published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-54062-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a> contributes to the growing body of evidence suggesting that ancient hot springs may have played a critical role in the emergence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-life-has-inhabited-earth-since-the-very-first-cell-scientists-found-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>. 



This work helps to reconcile competing theories about the environments where life could have first arisen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-geochemistry-to-biology">From geochemistry to biology</h2>



Carbon fixation, a fundamental process for life, involves converting carbon dioxide from the air or water into organic molecules.&nbsp;



Various life forms, including plants, bacteria, and archaea, accomplish this through distinct pathways, with photosynthesis being a well-known example.



Each carbon fixation pathway is a series of enzyme-driven reactions, some of which involve proteins with iron-sulfur cores. These iron-sulfur clusters are present in all life forms and are believed to trace back to the Last Universal Common Ancestor - a cell proposed to be the origin point for all life on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-minerals-in-land-based-hot-springs-nbsp">Minerals in land-based hot springs&nbsp;</h2>



Iron sulfides, formed when dissolved iron reacts with hydrogen sulfide gas, exhibit structures remarkably similar to these iron-sulfur clusters.&nbsp;



This resemblance has led some scientists to hypothesize that iron sulfides were key in bridging the gap between Earth's geochemical conditions and biological processes.



The new research extends this understanding by exploring the chemical properties of iron sulfides in ancient land-based hot springs, which share similarities with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-hydrothermal-vents-provide-clues-about-the-origin-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea hydrothermal vents</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-early-earth-s-hot-springs">Simulating early Earth’s hot springs</h2>



To replicate early Earth’s hot spring conditions, researchers designed a custom chamber. Inside, synthesized iron sulfide samples - some pure and others mixed with common hot spring metals - were spread across the chamber.&nbsp;



A lamp simulated sunlight on Earth’s ancient surface, with varying levels of ultraviolet radiation.



Carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas, known to be important for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turning-plants-into-carbon-capture-machines-with-cyanobacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon fixation</a> in deep-sea vent experiments, were continually pumped into the chamber. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hot-springs-and-early-life-processes-nbsp">Hot springs and early life processes&nbsp;</h2>



The results showed that all the iron sulfide samples were capable of producing methanol, a simple organic molecule, though production levels varied.&nbsp;



These findings indicate that iron sulfides can facilitate carbon fixation in both deep-sea vents and terrestrial hot springs.



Methanol production increased when the samples were exposed to visible light and higher temperatures.&nbsp;



Additional experiments with different temperature ranges, lighting conditions, and water vapor content further demonstrated that land-based hot springs could have supported carbon fixation processes on early Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-an-ancient-pathway">Uncovering an ancient pathway</h2>



Further experiments and theoretical analyses revealed that methanol production occurred through a reaction called the reverse water-gas shift.&nbsp;



This reaction mirrors part of the acetyl-CoA (or Wood-Ljungdahl) pathway, a method used by some bacteria and archaea to convert carbon dioxide into energy-rich molecules. The acetyl-CoA pathway is thought to be one of the earliest mechanisms for carbon fixation in life.



What makes this connection fascinating is that the reverse water-gas shift takes place on dry land near hot springs, while the acetyl-CoA pathway occurs in the aqueous environment of living cells. This parallel suggests a shared origin for these processes, bridging the gap between geochemistry and biology.



The study demonstrates that methanol production could occur under a wide range of conditions similar to those found in early Earth’s hot springs.&nbsp;



These results broaden our understanding of how iron sulfides may have facilitated the chemical reactions necessary for life, both in the ocean and on land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-life-s-origins">Implications for life’s origins</h2>



This research supports the prevailing scientific consensus that iron-sulfur clusters and the acetyl-CoA pathway are ancient and may have been crucial in the emergence of life.&nbsp;



By showing that carbon fixation is possible in both marine and terrestrial environments, the findings highlight the versatility of early chemical processes.



Whether life began at the bottom of the ocean or at the edges of hot springs on land, this study underscores the importance of iron sulfides in the origin of life.&nbsp;



The research also provides a framework for understanding how life might arise in similar conditions on other planets, offering valuable insights into the universal principles of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-clues-about-the-origins-of-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life’s origins</a>.



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Hot springs may have played a key role in the emergence of life

One of the most enduring scientific mysteries concerns the origins...

The distinctive scent of a forest on a warm summer day is partly due to terpenes, a group of organic compounds found in tree resins and essential oils. Among these, isoprene is the most abundant molecule, released by plants on a massive scale.&nbsp;



Global plant emissions are estimated at 500 to 600 million tons of isoprene annually, constituting about half of all gaseous organic compounds released by vegetation. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon rainforest</a> was found to be responsible for over a quarter of these emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainforest-emissions-beyond-the-canopy">Rainforest emissions beyond the canopy</h2>



Previously, scientists believed that isoprene in the Amazon basin broke down rapidly and did not reach higher layers of the atmosphere. This breakdown was attributed to hydroxyl radicals - highly reactive molecules formed near the ground during daylight hours - that destroy isoprene within hours.&nbsp;



“However, we have now established that this is only partly true,” said Joachim Curtius, an atmospheric scientist at the <a href="https://www.goethe-university-frankfurt.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goethe University Frankfurt</a> and lead author of a recent study.&nbsp;



“There are still considerable amounts of isoprene in the rainforest at night, and a substantial proportion of these molecules can be transported to higher atmospheric layers.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thunderstorms-and-rainforest-emissions">Thunderstorms and rainforest emissions</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-tropical-thunderstorms-are-radioactive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tropical thunderstorms</a> play a pivotal role in elevating isoprene molecules. These storms act like vacuum cleaners, pulling isoprene to altitudes between 8 and 15 kilometers.&nbsp;



When the sun rises, hydroxyl radicals react with the isoprene molecules, but the frigid temperatures at these heights transform the compounds differently than near the ground.&nbsp;



The molecules combine with nitrogen oxides - produced by lightning during storms - to form clusters of aerosol particles just a few nanometers in size. Over time, these particles grow and serve as condensation nuclei for water vapor, significantly influencing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-trigger-cloud-formation-and-alter-weather-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cloud formation</a> in tropical regions.



“We were able to shed light on these processes with the help of research flights that started two hours before sunrise and then continued through the day,” explained



Study senior author Jos Lelieveld is the director at the <a href="https://www.mpic.de/2285/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Chemistry in Mainz</a> and also head of the <a href="https://www.goethe-university-frankfurt.de/77173710/CAFE_Brazil" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CAFE-Brazil</a> research project.



For this project, an international research team collected data on the chemical processes in the atmosphere over the Amazon rainforest.&nbsp;



“We were able to detect considerable amounts of isoprene in the air flowing out of the thunderstorms at high altitude, from which new aerosol particles rapidly formed after several chemical reactions,” said Lelieveld.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-cloud-formation-over-oceans">Impact on cloud formation over oceans</h2>



Curtius and Lelieveld are also part of the CLOUD consortium, which involves over 20 research groups studying climate-relevant atmospheric chemical processes.&nbsp;



Using a specialized aerosol and cloud experiment chamber at <a href="https://home.cern/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CERN</a> in Geneva, the researchers replicated high-altitude atmospheric conditions to analyze sunlight-triggered reactions in detail.&nbsp;



“In this way, we were able to determine exactly the rate at which the aerosol particles form from the isoprene products,” explained atmospheric researcher Xu-Cheng He, who is in charge of the isoprene experiments.&nbsp;



“Interestingly, it emerged that even extremely small amounts of sulfuric acid and iodine oxoacids commonly present in the atmosphere are sufficient to accelerate the formation of the aerosol particles by a factor of 100. These molecules may, therefore, jointly influence marine cloud formation - a critically uncertain process in climate projections.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-distance-particle-transport-and-climate-models">Long-distance particle transport and climate models</h2>



Sulfuric acid forms in the atmosphere through reactions involving sulfur dioxide and hydroxyl radicals. Within the CLOUD experiment, the Frankfurt team measured extremely low concentrations of sulfuric acid, while the Mainz team focused on hydroxyl radicals.



The winds that prevail at high altitudes above the Amazon rainforest can transport the particles that form from isoprene up to thousands of kilometers away from the sources. This means they may influence cloud formation at great distances.&nbsp;



As clouds, depending on their type and height, both shield solar radiation and prevent heat from being radiated into space, they play a crucial role in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/costs-of-reversing-climate-change-multiply-after-a-tipping-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a>. The researchers, therefore, expect that their findings will contribute to improving climate models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deforestation-s-dual-threat-to-climate">Deforestation’s dual threat to climate</h2>



The CAFE-Brazil project also underscores the environmental risks posed by continued deforestation in the Amazon rainforest.&nbsp;



“On the one hand, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2023-climate-change-report-record-high-temperatures-greenhouse-gases-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gases</a> are released because the forest no longer stores carbon dioxide,” Curtius explained. “On the other hand, clearing the forest impacts both the water cycle and isoprene emissions, further propelling climate change.”



The research highlights the Amazon’s critical role in global climate dynamics and emphasizes the need for conservation efforts to mitigate its far-reaching impacts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08192-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.&nbsp;



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Rainforest emissions shape the climate and cloud formation

The distinctive scent of a forest on a warm summer...

A comprehensive review has recently examined the scientific evidence surrounding coffee’s connection to healthy aging. The experts discovered that daily coffee consumption can add up to two years of healthy aging to our lives.



The percentage of people aged 65 and older worldwide is rapidly increasing, projected to grow from 10% in 2022 to 16% by 2050.&nbsp;



The paper highlights how regular, moderate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caffeine-consumption-may-lower-the-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee consumption</a> can be an essential component of a healthy and balanced lifestyle for this aging demographic.



For reference, the <a href="https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Food Safety Authority</a> considers daily caffeine intake of up to 400 mg - equivalent to three to five cups of coffee - to be moderate and safe for most adults. Pregnant and lactating women, however, should limit their intake to 200 mg per day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-and-reduced-mortality-risk">Coffee and reduced mortality risk</h2>



Coffee, one of the most extensively studied commodities globally, has been linked in over 50 studies to a reduced risk of all-cause mortality.&nbsp;



The research indicates that coffee can play a measurable role in lowering the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-century-of-progress-in-the-fight-against-cardiovascular-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, cancer, respiratory diseases, cognitive decline, and frailty.



The review revealed that regular coffee consumption may extend healthy living by an average of 1.8 years. This suggests that coffee not only contributes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-transfer-longevity-gene-hoping-to-extend-human-lifespan/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">longevity</a> but also supports better health during those additional years. 



Unlike some nutritional interventions that may exhibit gender-specific effects, the increased healthy life expectancy associated with coffee consumption was observed in both men and women.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-and-biological-aging-nbsp">Coffee and biological aging&nbsp;</h2>



Beyond reducing the risk of chronic diseases, the review delved into how coffee affects biological processes associated with aging.&nbsp;



These mechanisms include mitigating genomic instability - cell mutations that contribute to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-25-years-of-research-revealed-about-brain-aging/">aging</a> - and improving regular cellular function.&nbsp;



To ensure reliability, the review concentrated on studies involving humans and human tissue, providing a clearer picture of coffee’s health benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-coffee-in-healthy-aging-nbsp">The role of coffee in healthy aging&nbsp;</h2>



Traditional clinical advice for older adults has often suggested reducing or even avoiding coffee consumption. However, the review suggests these guidelines should be reconsidered in light of growing evidence supporting coffee’s positive role in healthy aging.



“Traditional clinical recommendations have at times overlooked coffee’s role in healthy aging, but with a strong research base around how regular consumption can potentially reduce some of the most chronic diseases facing society, it is likely time to re-evaluate these,” said lead author Rodrigo Cuhno, an expert in biochemistry at the <a href="https://www.uc.pt/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Coimbra</a>.



“We know that the world’s population is aging faster than ever, which is why it’s increasingly important to explore dietary interventions which may allow people to not only live longer but also healthier lives.”



While caffeine is coffee’s most recognized component, it also contains over 2,000 bioactive compounds. Among these, polyphenols offer antioxidant and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-with-milk-has-powerful-anti-inflammatory-properties/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anti-inflammatory benefits</a>, which may help reduce neuroinflammation and regulate insulin sensitivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unanswered-questions-and-future-research">Unanswered questions and future research</h2>



Although both caffeine and non-caffeine compounds in coffee contribute to extending healthy lifespan, much remains unknown about their exact mechanisms of action.&nbsp;



The authors emphasize the need for further research to uncover how these compounds work and identify individuals who may benefit the most from coffee’s unique properties.



“Our review underlines the role regular, moderate coffee consumption can play in mediating against the biological mechanisms which naturally slow or fail as we get older - triggering a range of potential health issues and comorbidities,” said Cuhna.&nbsp;



“And there is still room to understand more about exactly how these mechanisms work, as well as which individuals may be biologically predisposed to benefiting most from coffee’s interactions with them.”



This review underscores coffee's potential as a valuable dietary component for promoting healthy aging.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-coffee-consumption-nbsp">A new perspective on coffee consumption&nbsp;</h2>



The research not only sheds light on coffee’s contributions to reducing chronic disease risks but also highlights its broader biological benefits, paving the way for future research in this area.



“The conception of coffee consumption has undergone a profound modification, evolving from a noxious habit into a safe lifestyle actually preserving human health,” wrote the researchers.



“The last 20 years also provided strikingly consistent epidemiological evidence showing that the regular consumption of moderate doses of coffee attenuates all-cause mortality, an effect observed in over 50 studies in different geographic regions and different ethnicities.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1568163724003994" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aging Research Reviews</a>.



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Healthy aging: Drinking coffee can add years to your life

A comprehensive review has recently examined the scientific evidence surrounding...

In a world where plastic waste increasingly clutters our environments and penetrates life's deepest nooks, there is a growing urgency to address the non-biodegradable nature of conventional plastics.



These polymers end up polluting our air, water, and even the bloodstreams of creatures everywhere.



Despite our best efforts, less than a fifth of the total plastic output is biodegradable, and the methods needed to break down these materials are far from efficient. However, hope may finally be on the horizon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-birth-of-biodegradable-composite-plastic">The birth of biodegradable composite plastic</h2>



A team of researchers based at the <a href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/MCMS/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weizmann Institute of Science’s Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science Department</a>, have made a significant breakthrough. The experts have crafted a new kind of plastic - one that can easily be degraded by bacteria.



The marvel doesn't stop there. The composite plastic they've developed is not only affordable and effortless to create, but also incredibly resilient.



Composite plastics are the new industry favorites, combining two or more pure materials to incorporate desired qualities like lightness and strength. 



These plastics are now integral components in a plethora of industrial products, from airplanes and cars to bicycles. Yet, these plastics still contribute to the mounting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-plastics-treaty-tackles-the-pollution-problem-directly-at-the-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global waste problem</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composite-plastic-with-exceptional-strength">Composite plastic with exceptional strength </h2>



The team chose to focus on readily available, low-cost materials that could be enhanced, and they found a gem in tyrosine. 



This amino acid, which forms sturdy nanocrystals, paired brilliantly with hydroxyethyl cellulose to produce a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodegradable-plastic-shoes-break-down-in-ocean-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodegradable</a> composite plastic.



Hydroxyethyl cellulose, a weak material on its own and a cellulose derivative used extensively in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, became remarkably steadfast when mixed with tyrosine in boiling water. 



The two materials fused to forge a composite plastic of exceptional strength, validated by a 0.04-millimeter-thick strip of the material holding up against a 6-kilogram load.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-with-unprecedented-qualities">Plastic with unprecedented qualities</h2>



The novel material's intriguing traits didn't stop at strength. Typically, when a material's strength is increased, its plasticity reduces. 



But in this case, the composite plastic proved not only sturdy but also more malleable than its core component, hydroxyethyl cellulose.



Additionally, since both cellulose and tyrosine are edible, the biodegradable composite plastic can technically be consumed. 



But is it tasty? That remains a question for another day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-challenges-to-scale-up-production">Overcoming challenges to scale up production</h2>



"The follow-up study that we have already started could advance the commercial potential of this new material, since we have replaced the boiling in water with melting, as is more common in industry," said Professor Boris Rybtchinski, who is part of the team that developed the plastic.



"This means that we heat up the biodegradable polymers until they become liquid and then mix in the tyrosine or other suitable materials. If we manage to overcome the scientific and technical challenges involved in this process, we will be able to explore the possibility of producing this new composite plastic on an industrial scale."



The implications of this research extend beyond industry applications. The new composite plastic could be pivotal to our collective struggle against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-is-changing-the-entire-earth-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic pollution</a>.



Every step toward making plastic production more sustainable brings us closer to a future free of plastic waste.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-promise-of-plastic-reinvention">The promise of plastic reinvention</h2>



The development of biodegradable composite plastics signifies more than a scientific achievement - it is a symbol of hope for a planet drowning in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coca-cola-pepsi-among-top-contributors-to-plastic-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic waste</a>.



Traditional plastics, known for their durability and resistance to natural decomposition, are a significant contributor to global pollution. 



With the new biodegradable plastic from the Weizmann Institute, this narrative could change dramatically.



The innovative material not only addresses the need for sustainable alternatives but also highlights the potential for integrating eco-friendly practices into industrial processes.



By leveraging accessible materials like hydroxyethyl cellulose and tyrosine, the production process reduces dependency on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-from-fossil-fuels-kills-5-million-people-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuels</a>, further contributing to the fight against climate change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-widespread-adoption-of-biodegradable-plastics">Widespread adoption of biodegradable plastics </h2>



As industries explore these alternatives, the widespread adoption of biodegradable plastics could lead to a cleaner, healthier environment while maintaining the strength and flexibility required for diverse applications.



The shift to greener plastics also brings economic benefits. Cost-efficient production methods and scalability mean industries can transition without the high overhead typically associated with sustainable innovations. 



This breakthrough exemplifies how science and industry can collaborate to tackle some of the most pressing challenges of our time.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsnano.3c02528" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Nano</a>.



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The future of plastic: Biodegradable, durable, and even edible

In a world where plastic waste increasingly clutters our environments...

A common picture on college campuses is that of tired, sleep-deprived students. Assignments, night outs with friends, and an unending scroll through social media keep them up far later than they plan. But what if there's something else at play?



A fresh perspective has emerged, suggesting that something much deeper might be robbing our young adults of their sleep. A recent study indicates that it is not excessive screen time, but feelings of loneliness, that are responsible.



The study was conducted by a collaborative team of researchers from Oregon State University (OSU), Harvard Medical School and Chaminade University. The research involved over 1,000 undergraduate students.



It was led by John Sy, a graduate student from OSU, who identified loneliness as the more consistent predictor of insomnia over screen time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loneliness-vs-screen-time">Loneliness vs. screen time</h2>



Struggling with sleep, most of us would be quick to blame our electronic devices - and they indeed play a part. The study found a link between spending 8-10 hours on gadgets and a higher likelihood of insomnia among college students.



But interestingly, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loneliness-causes-people-to-have-more-nightmares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact of loneliness</a> was even more profound on sleep. 



The <a href="https://oregonstate.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OSU</a> study revealed that around 35% of the participants reported high levels of loneliness. These individuals suffered nearly twice as much from symptoms of insomnia compared to their less lonely counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-loneliness-meddles-with-sleep">How loneliness meddles with sleep</h2>



The connection between loneliness and poor sleep has long been recognized, but its significant impact on college students is particularly concerning. 



College life often brings major changes, such as moving away from home, creating new social circles, and managing increased academic pressure - all of which can lead to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loneliness-harms-health-more-than-alcohol-obesity-or-smoking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feelings of isolation</a>.



Loneliness not only heightens stress sensitivity but also fuels overthinking, creating the perfect formula for sleepless nights. Research shows that lonely individuals are twice as likely to experience depression, which further disrupts their sleep patterns. 



Poor sleep, in turn, exacerbates emotional struggles, creating a vicious cycle. Addressing loneliness is essential for improving students' mental health and overall well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loneliness-a-public-health-concern">Loneliness: A public health concern</h2>



The U.S. Surgeon General's office categorizes loneliness as a significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loneliness-drops-in-middle-adulthood-but-then-grows-with-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">public health issue</a>. It affects approximately 50% of American adults, even before coronavirus came into play. 



The health implications of loneliness are on par with smoking, contributing to premature death. It’s crucial that we stop underestimating the impact of loneliness on sleep - particularly among young adults who are juggling new tasks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insomnia-s-effect-on-college-life">Insomnia's effect on college life</h2>



Statistics from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention show that over a quarter of college students experience insomnia. 



This shortage of restful sleep takes a severe toll. It hampers cognitive function, mood regulation, and metabolism. 



For college students, this results in escalated stress levels, anxiety, mood swings, and a dramatic drop in academic performance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dealing-with-loneliness-for-better-sleep">Dealing with loneliness for better sleep</h2>



While limiting screen time to under 8 to 10 hours a day is a good practice, this research underlines the more pressing issue of loneliness. Addressing this sense of isolation can lead to improved sleep, better mental well-being, and enhanced academic results.



So, how can college students combat loneliness? It’s not always easy, but making connections through campus clubs, group activities, or study groups can help. These activities provide chances to meet new people, build friendships, and create a support system. 



Being part of these social groups can make college life feel less lonely and improve overall well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-link-between-sleep-and-loneliness">Link between sleep and loneliness </h2>



Loneliness is more than just an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-emotions-linked-to-unique-brain-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotional state</a>; it’s a health issue that affects overall well-being. For college students, tackling loneliness might just be the key to better sleep. 



Limiting screen time is important, but building strong social connections is crucial for a restful night. Engaging in meaningful conversations, even for a few minutes, can significantly lower stress levels and promote a more peaceful mind before bed. 



So next time you find yourself staring at the ceiling at 2 a.m., consider reaching out - sometimes, the best way to sleep better is to feel connected with others.



The study is recently published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07448481.2024.2428413" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of American College Health</a>. 



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Loneliness disrupts college students' sleep more than screen time

A common picture on college campuses is that of tired,...

Around 35.65 million years ago, two massive asteroids collided with Earth. Despite the scale of these asteroid impacts, a new study by researchers at University College London (UCL) reveals that they did not trigger any lasting changes in Earth’s climate. 



This surprising discovery comes from examining isotopes in tiny marine fossils from that era that offer insights into the resilience of Earth's climate system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tale-of-two-craters">A tale of two craters</h2>



These two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-large-asteroids-will-pass-near-earth-this-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space rocks</a>, each several miles wide, struck Earth about 25,000 years apart. 



One hit the region that is now Chesapeake Bay in the United States, creating a crater 25 to 55 miles (40 to 85 kilometers) in diameter. 



The other impacted Siberia, forming the 60-mile-wide (100 kilometers) Popigai crater. These are the fourth and fifth largest asteroid craters known on Earth, respectively. Yet, despite their size, their effect on Earth’s climate appears to have been minimal in the long run.



The study, recently published in the journal&nbsp;Communications Earth &amp; Environment, found no evidence of significant, lasting climate changes in the 150,000 years following the impacts. This contradicts prior theories that linked such collisions with periods of extreme cooling or warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-climate-after-asteroid-impacts">Ancient climate after asteroid impacts</h2>



The research team inferred ancient climate conditions by analyzing isotopes in tiny fossils from a group of marine organisms known as foraminifera. These single-celled organisms lived both near the surface and on the seafloor of ancient oceans.



"What is remarkable about our results is that there was no real change following the impacts," noted study co-author Professor Bridget Wade from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/earth-sciences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL Earth Sciences</a>.



"We expected the isotopes to shift in one direction or another, indicating warmer or cooler waters, but this did not happen. These large asteroid impacts occurred and, over the long term, our planet seemed to carry on as usual."



The fossils came from a rock core drilled beneath the Gulf of Mexico by the scientific Deep Sea Drilling Project. The samples ranged in age from 35.5 to 35.9 million years.



The researchers looked at both benthic foraminifera, which lived on the seafloor, and planktonic foraminifera, which floated near the surface. This approach allowed them to form a comprehensive picture of how ocean temperatures responded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-short-term-chaos-long-term-stability">Short-term chaos, long-term stability</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-has-lost-its-mini-moon-2024-pt5-may-have-come-from-our-main-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid impacts</a> would have been catastrophic on a human timescale. 



“Over a human time scale, these asteroid impacts would be a disaster. They would create a massive shockwave and tsunami, there would be widespread fires, and large amounts of dust would be sent into the air, blocking out sunlight,” noted Professor Wade.



However, the samples they studied were spaced every 11,000 years, which means shorter-term changes over tens or hundreds of years might not be visible in their data.



Indeed, the Chicxulub impact that led to the extinction of the dinosaurs about 66 million years ago caused climate shifts over a much shorter time - less than 25 years, according to modeling studies.



Despite the absence of a long-term impact on Earth's climate, Professor Wade emphasized the importance of continuing to monitor space and fund asteroid deflection missions. 



“We still need to know what is coming and fund missions to prevent future collisions,” she cautioned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-resilience-to-catastrophe">Earth's resilience to catastrophe </h2>



Interestingly, the researchers did see climate changes that were not associated with the asteroid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-anticipated-comet-of-2024-returns-this-weekend-after-80000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impacts</a>.



Isotope analysis showed warming of about 2 degrees Celsius at the ocean surface and a 1-degree cooling in deep waters, about 100,000 years before the asteroid events. However, around the time of the impacts and afterward, there were no notable changes.



"Given that the Chicxulub impact likely led to a major extinction event, we were curious to investigate whether what appeared as a series of sizeable asteroid impacts during the Eocene also caused long-lasting climate changes," explained study co-author and MSc Geosciences graduate Natalie Cheng.



"We were surprised to discover that there were no significant climate responses to these impacts."



The study's findings highlight Earth's resilience in the face of these ancient catastrophes.



"It was fascinating to read Earth's climate history from the chemistry preserved in microfossils. It was especially interesting to work with our selection of foraminifera species and discover beautiful specimens of microspherules along the way," Cheng added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asteroid-impacts-beyond-climate">Asteroid impacts beyond climate</h2>



While this study suggests that Earth's climate can remain stable even after massive impacts, it also underscores the potential for asteroid impacts to cause significant short-term disruptions. 



The two asteroids, which were between two and five miles wide, each created a massive shockwave upon impact.



Evidence also points to three smaller asteroid collisions during the late Eocene epoch, indicating a disturbance in our solar system’s asteroid belt at that time. These smaller impacts add to the mystery of what was happening in space that may have sent so many asteroids our way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



The study's funding came from the UK's Natural Environment Research Council (<a href="https://www.ukri.org/councils/nerc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NERC</a>), reflecting the importance of understanding the role of asteroid collisions in Earth’s geological history. 



Despite the lack of a long-term climate impact from these two asteroid impacts, the findings are crucial for building a comprehensive view of Earth’s climate history and the resilience of life on our planet.



Asteroid collisions with Earth remain a real threat. Though these events might not always lead to permanent changes, their destructive potential in the short term cannot be ignored. 



The world needs continued investment in asteroid detection and deflection missions to ensure we are well prepared for the day when another giant space rock comes our way.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01874-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Massive asteroid crash 35 million years ago had no climate impact

Around 35.65 million years ago, two massive asteroids collided with...

The saying "dog is man's best friend" raises an intriguing question: When did this bond between dogs and humans truly begin?



A new study, led by François Lanoë at the University of Arizona, takes a major step toward answering this question. The research sheds light on the early relationships between Indigenous people in the Americas and the canines that roamed the land thousands of years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relationship-between-dogs-and-humans">Relationship between dogs and humans </h2>



The study, published in the journal Science Advances, is based on archaeological remains found in Alaska. 



The research reveals that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationship</a> between humans and dogs may have started much earlier than previously thought – around 12,000 years ago, which is well before recorded history in the Americas.



"We now have evidence that canids and people had close relationships earlier than we knew they did in the Americas," said François Lanoë, an assistant research professor in the U of A&nbsp;<a href="https://anthropology.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Anthropology</a>.



This discovery challenges previous assumptions and provides valuable insight into this ancient human-animal connection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-early-canine-remains">Discovering early canine remains</h2>



The breakthrough came in 2018 when Lanoë and his team unearthed a tibia – the lower leg bone – from an adult canine at Swan Point, an archaeological site near Fairbanks, Alaska.



Radiocarbon dating revealed that the bone had belonged to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-and-human-brains-sync-up-during-eye-contact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine</a> that lived around 12,000 years ago, near the end of the Ice Age.



Further excavation in 2023 at Hollembaek Hill, another site in Alaska, revealed an 8,100-year-old canine jawbone. The bones showed signs that these animals might have been tamed or domesticated by humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-did-humans-feed-fish-to-dogs">Did humans feed fish to dogs?</h2>



The most intriguing part of the discovery was the chemical analysis of both bones. Researchers found substantial traces of salmon proteins, which indicated that the canines had eaten fish.



This finding was particularly significant, as wild canines in that era typically hunted land animals, not fish. The presence of salmon in the diet suggests a closer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-shrinking-brain-size-was-partially-caused-by-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationship</a> between the canines and humans, possibly pointing to a dependence on people for food.



“This is the smoking gun because they’re not really going after salmon in the wild,” said Ben Potter, an archaeologist with the University of Alaska Fairbanks. 



The most likely explanation for salmon showing up in the animal's diet was that they were being fed by humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-canines-or-tamed-wolves">Canines or tamed wolves?</h2>



The discovery at Swan Point suggests that humans and dogs had a close bond in the Americas far earlier than we thought. 



But is this the earliest domesticated dog in the region? Not necessarily. While these canines were likely dependent on humans, they may not have been fully domesticated dogs as we know them today.



Lanoë pointed out that the specimens from Swan Point and Hollembaek Hill might be too old to be genetically related to the dogs we know today. 



"Behaviorally, they seem to be like dogs, as they ate salmon provided by people," Lanoë explained. "But genetically, they're not related to anything we know." It's possible that these animals were tamed wolves rather than true domesticated dogs.



The study raises a critical question: What exactly defines a dog? Is it their relationship with humans or their genetic traits? As Lanoë noted, this study invites further research into the nature of these early canine companions. 



"It asks the existential question, what is a dog?" noted Potter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-partnership-with-tribal-communities">Partnership with tribal communities</h2>



This study on the relationship between dog and human is part of a long-standing collaboration with tribal communities in Alaska's Tanana Valley.



Archaeologists have worked in this area since the 1930s, and they often consult with the Healy Lake Village Council before conducting research. The council, which represents the Mendas Cha'ag people indigenous to the region, authorized genetic testing on the canine specimens discovered during this study.



Josh Reuther, an archaeologist at the University of Alaska Museum, highlighted the importance of working with local tribes. Researchers always share their plans with the Healy Lake Village Council before starting studies, including this one.



"It is little – but it is profound – to get the proper permission and to respect those who live on that land," said Evelynn Combs, a Healy Lake member and archaeologist for the tribe's cultural preservation office.



Growing up in the Tanana Valley, Combs often explored archaeological sites with archaeologists, developing a deep respect for the connection between her people and the land. Today, she is part of a community where nearly everyone shares a strong bond with their dogs.



"I really like the idea that, in the record, however long ago, it is a repeatable cultural experience that I have this relationship and this level of love with my dog," Combs said. "I know that throughout history, these relationships have always been present."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-timeless-bond">A timeless bond</h2>



This discovery reaffirms what many have always known: the relationship between humans and dogs is ancient and enduring. In the Tanana Valley, where tribal members have long considered their dogs to be mystic companions, this connection spans millennia. 



For Combs, this bond is more than historical; it is a part of her life. "We still had our companions," she said, reflecting on the centuries of shared history between people and dogs.



As the research continues, it reminds us that the relationship between humans and their canine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-people-treat-their-dogs-is-directly-tied-to-their-own-childhood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">companions</a> is far older than we might have imagined – it's a timeless bond that transcends geography.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ads1335" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances.</a>



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Humans and dogs were bonding much earlier than we thought

The saying "dog is man's best friend" raises an intriguing...

Imagine our early human ancestors standing in the ancient landscapes of southern Jordan, thoughtfully examining rocks before deciding which ones to use for their tools. 



It turns out they weren't just grabbing any stone that was easy to break; they had specific preferences and technical skills in choosing the right material.



Archaeologists Eiki Suga and Seiji Kadowaki have been exploring this fascinating aspect of early human behavior. 



They're from <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagoya University</a> in Japan, and their recent research offers new insights into how Paleolithic humans selected rocks for tool-making.



Their study, published in the Journal of Paleolithic Archaeology, focuses on prehistoric sites dating from 70,000 to 30,000 years ago.



These sites are in the Jebel Qalkha area of southern Jordan, a crucial region as Homo sapiens expanded from Africa into Eurasia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-humans-rocks-and-tools">Early humans, rocks, and tools</h2>



As early humans moved into new territories, they relied on stone tools made from materials like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sophisticated-tools-ancestors-found/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obsidian and flint</a>. 



Understanding how they crafted these tools helps archaeologists piece together aspects of their culture and daily life.



Suga and Kadowaki analyzed flint nodules from outcrops that ancient people used during the Middle and Upper <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-art-discovery-reveals-15800-year-old-fishing-secrets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paleolithic periods</a>. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/stone-tool-discovery_fine-grained-flint_middle-grained-flint_credit-Maruyama_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/stone-tool-discovery_fine-grained-flint_middle-grained-flint_credit-Maruyama_1s.webp" alt="An archaeologist, Eiki Suga, showing fine-grained flint (left) and middle-grained flint (right). Credit: Megumi Maruyama" class="wp-image-1952311"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An archaeologist, Eiki Suga, showing fine-grained flint (left) and middle-grained flint (right). Credit: Megumi Maruyama</figcaption></figure>



They wanted to see if early humans were intentionally selecting certain types of flint based on its properties.



They hypothesized that these humans looked for flint that was translucent and smooth because it could be easily shaped into sharp edges. This suggests a level of sophistication in recognizing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-humans-used-tools-to-make-timber-for-woodworking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">best materials</a> for specific tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-rocks-qualities">Testing the rocks' qualities</h2>



To investigate, the team used two devices: a Schmidt Hammer and a Rockwell Hardness Device. 



The Schmidt Hammer measures the strength of concrete or rock. The hammer hits the surface with a defined amount of energy, and the rebound is measured. That value is then used to determine the strength of the material.



The Rockwell device presses a diamond point into the rock to test its strength. It then calculates the material's hardness based on the depth of the indentation left behind.



Initially, as expected, they found that fine-grained flint required less force to fracture than medium-grained flint. 



This made it more attractive for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-homo-sapiens-stone-tools-preserved-volcanic-ash-grotta-di-castelcivita/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">producing smaller tools</a>. In fact, many stone tools from the Early Upper Paleolithic period, around 40,000 to 30,000 years ago, were made from fine-grained flint.



But here's where it gets interesting. 



An earlier study by the same team revealed that during the Late Middle Paleolithic and the Initial Upper Paleolithic periods, from 70,000 to 40,000 years ago, medium-grained flint was more commonly used for tools. 



So, if fine-grained flint was easier to work with, why did our ancestors sometimes opt for the tougher medium-grained variety?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-were-carefully-chosen-by-early-humans">Tools were carefully chosen by early humans</h2>



Digging deeper, the researchers discovered that much of the fine-grained flint in the area had internal fractures caused by geological activities. 



These fractures made the flint unsuitable for larger tools, like Levallois products and robust blades.



Therefore, even though medium-grained flint was harder to modify, it was more durable for making larger tools. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/stone-tool-discovery_ancient-human-evolution_credit-Matsuhita_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/stone-tool-discovery_ancient-human-evolution_credit-Matsuhita_1s.webp" alt="Investigation of mechanical properties of rocks suggested that paleolithic humans changed their choice of raw material to suit their stone tool morphologies and production techniques. Credit: Eiki Suga, Reiko Matsushita" class="wp-image-1952309"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Investigation of mechanical properties of rocks suggested that paleolithic humans changed their choice of raw material to suit their stone tool morphologies and production techniques. Credit: Eiki Suga, Reiko Matsushita</figcaption></figure>



This indicates that Paleolithic humans made deliberate choices based on the intended use of the tool, balancing ease of crafting with durability.



"This study illustrates that the Paleolithic humans changed their choice of raw material to suit their stone tool morphologies and production techniques," Suga explained. 



"We believe that these prehistoric humans had a sensory understanding of the characteristics of the rocks and intentionally selected the stone material to be used according to the form and production technique of the desired stone tools."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-much-smarter-than-we-thought-back-then">Much smarter than we thought back then</h2>



This research offers a window into the thoughtful decision-making of our ancestors. 



They weren't just using what was readily available; they were assessing the qualities of different materials and selecting the best one for the job.



"This intentional selection of the lithic raw material may have been an important component of the production of stone tools," Suga said. 



"This may show some aspect of flexible technological behavior adapted to the situation."



Their ability to adapt and make these choices reflects a level of technological and cognitive sophistication that adds depth to our understanding of human evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



There are still many questions about how and why Homo sapiens expanded their reach between 50,000 and 40,000 years ago. 



While ancient DNA has shown that modern humans interacted and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthals-and-humans-lived-side-by-side-45000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interbred with Neanderthals</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-denisovan-species-humans-lived-undisturbed-tibetan-plateau-160000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Denisovans</a>, it doesn't tell us the whole story.



"If we want to know what happened that allowed Homo sapiens to thrive, we need to study cultural remains, such as stone tools, excavated from archaeological sites," Suga pointed out. 



"This kind of resource use is an important record for elucidating the evolution of human technological behavior, environmental adaptation, and the process of population growth at that time."



By examining these tools and the materials chosen to make them, researchers can piece together how early humans <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-neanderthals-mastered-adhesive-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adapted to their environments</a> and what strategies they used to survive and flourish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-tools-and-early-evolution">Humans, tools, and early evolution</h2>



To sum it all up, this study emphasizes the importance of archaeology in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-humans-have-lived-walked-died-on-earth-complex-question/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding human history</a>. 



The choices made by Paleolithic humans in selecting their materials reveal a level of ingenuity and adaptability that has been a hallmark of our species.



As we continue to explore and discover more about our ancestors, each finding adds a new piece to the puzzle of human evolution. 



It's a reminder of the complex journey that has led us to where we are today and the innate curiosity and problem-solving skills that have always been part of human nature.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41982-023-00164-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Paleolithic Archaeology</a>.



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Stone tool discovery challenges entire theory of early human intelligence and evolution

Imagine our early human ancestors standing in the ancient landscapes...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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