Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

New observations of comet 12P/Pons Brooks have pinned down a <a href="https://sci.esa.int/web/herschel/-/49378-the-deuterium-to-hydrogen-ratio-in-the-solar-system" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">D/H ratio</a> in its water that matches Earth’s oceans within acceptable uncertainties. This unexpected discovery tightens the link between cometary ice and the water at our taps.



For the first time, researchers <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-025-02614-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mapped</a> ordinary water and deuterium bearing water in a comet’s coma using ALMA, giving spatial detail that nailed the source and sharpened the measurement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-led-the-study">Who led the study</h2>



<a href="https://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/sci/bio/martin.cordiner" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martin Cordiner</a> of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center led the international team that combined <a href="https://www.almaobservatory.org/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ALMA</a> and the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility (<a href="https://irtfweb.ifa.hawaii.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IRTF</a>).



“Our new results provide the strongest evidence yet that at least some Halley type comets carried water with the same isotopic signature as that found on Earth, supporting the idea that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/comet-3i-atlas-shows-unusual-dust-patterns-as-it-zips-through-our-solar-system/">comets</a> could have helped make our planet habitable,” said Cordiner.



“By mapping both H2O and HDO in the comet’s coma, we can tell if these gases are coming from the frozen ices within the solid body of the nucleus, rather than forming from chemistry or other processes in the gas coma,” said <a href="https://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/sci/bio/stefanie.n.milam" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stefanie Milam</a> from NASA's <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goddard</a> and co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-isotopes-explain-earth-s-water">Isotopes explain Earth’s water</h2>



Water is H2O, but the hydrogen can be the heavy isotope deuterium, so scientists track the D/H ratio to compare water across the solar system and test shared origins or separate histories. 



Different comets have shown different D/H values in the past, which complicated the idea that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-a-comet-explodes-cosmic-airbursts-are-more-common-than-we-thought/">comets</a> filled Earth’s oceans.



A warm inner solar system comet, <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/comets/103p-hartley-hartley-2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">103P/Hartley 2</a>, carried water with a D/H close to Earth’s, measured with the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/herschel-space-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Herschel</a> telescope in 2011 and often cited as <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10519" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> for icy deliveries from small bodies.



Other targets pulled in the opposite direction. Rosetta sampled <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1261952" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">67P/Churyumov Gerasimenko</a> and found a much higher D/H, pointing to diverse water reservoirs among comets.



Meteorites have long weighed in too. Many <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1223474" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbonaceous chondrites</a> (a rare type of primitive stony meteorite characterized by their high carbon content and other volatile elements) show ocean-like water, which led many researchers to favor asteroids over comets as the main source of Earth’s water supply.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comet-12p-reveals">What comet 12P reveals</h2>



12P/Pons Brooks belongs to <a href="https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/tools/sbdb_lookup.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Halley-type comets</a>, objects with orbits between 20 and 200 years that sweep through the inner solar system only now and then. 



Its orbital period is about 71 years according to NASA Jet Propulsion Lab’s (<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JPL</a>’s) Small-Body Database (<a href="https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/tools/sbdb_lookup.html#/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SBD</a>) database, so it gives us rare chances to study an icy body that likely formed far from the Sun.



Many members of this class are thought to originate in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11214-015-0161-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oort cloud</a>, a distant reservoir of small icy bodies nudged inward over time, which means their ice can preserve early solar system conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-comet-12p-water">Measuring comet 12P water</h2>



ALMA’s <a href="https://www.almaobservatory.org/en/about-alma/how-alma-works/technologies/interferometry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interferometry</a> links many antennas to create high resolution images at millimeter wavelengths, letting scientists map where molecules arise within the coma rather than just tallying totals along a line of sight.



The group paired ALMA’s maps with near infrared measurements from the NASA IRTF, using its <a href="https://irtfweb.ifa.hawaii.edu/~ishell/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iSHELL</a> spectrograph to track water and companion gases that inform composition and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whats-up-in-the-night-sky-during-the-month-of-april-2025/">context</a>. 



That one-two approach narrowed uncertainties enough to report a D/H with a precision that separates it from many past comet results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-like-water-in-12p-is-important">Earth-like water in 12P is important</h2>



If some Halley-type comets carry ocean-like water, then the roster of plausible couriers expands beyond certain asteroids and a few Jupiter family comets. 



A mixed delivery, timed during heavy bombardment in early Earth history, remains a coherent picture that many geochemists and dynamicists can test with new targets.



Comets also carry carbon based molecules. <a href="https://www.mps.mpg.de/en/rosetta/rosina" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ROSINA</a> (Rosetta Orbiter Spectrometer for Ion and Neutral Analysis) mass spectrometer <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27386550/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">identified</a> the amino acid glycine and phosphorus at 67P, a reminder that icy bodies can ship both water and life’s raw materials together to rocky worlds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-comets-show-different-water">Why comets show different water</h2>



Different formation zones, thermal histories, and processing by sunlight and cosmic rays can tweak isotope ratios in ices. 



That leads to the mix of D/H values seen so far, including the high number at 67P and Earth-like water at Hartley 2 and now 12P.



Sampling a broader set of Oort cloud and Halley-type objects will show whether 12P sits at one end of a spectrum or marks a common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interstellar-comet-31-atlas-stuns-astronomers-with-size-and-speed/">pattern</a> for this family.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comet-12p-and-future-space-missions">Comet 12p and future space missions</h2>



Future campaigns can repeat the ALMA plus IRTF playbook on other periodic comets as they approach the Sun. 



Missions on the horizon, such as <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11214-023-01035-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Comet Interceptor</a>, aim to visit a dynamically pristine object and could take isotope studies off Earth entirely with in situ measurements.



Each target with a precise D/H moves the debate from broad strokes to fine lines, where models of solar system dynamics and geochemistry either hold water or spring leaks.



12P passed perihelion in April 2024, which brought its activity within reach of powerful facilities that did not exist during many earlier apparitions. 



Timing, instrumentation, and careful cross calibration combined to give the field a clean measurement that others can challenge or confirm with comparable methods.



Precision like this offers a stepping stone toward a full inventory of small-body water sources across different dynamical classes and origins. This is a leap forward, even by today’s technological standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-we-still-need-to-learn">What we still need to learn</h2>



Isotope ratios in other molecules, such as nitrogen and oxygen species, will further test shared heritage between cometary ices and Earth’s reservoirs. 



Linking those chemical fingerprints with dynamical simulations of how material moved around the young solar system will sharpen which bodies delivered what, and when.



A handful of well measured comets can anchor those models, but the goal is a population view that explains the widespread seen so far without special pleading.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-025-02614-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



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Comet 12P/Pons Brooks is made of water that is almost identical to Earth's water

New observations of comet 12P/Pons Brooks have pinned down a...

In the bearded dragon, sex isn’t determined by chromosomes alone. These lizards can hatch male or female depending not just on their DNA, but also on the temperature of their nest. 



This rare phenomenon has made the bearded dragon a focus for scientists exploring how sex is determined in vertebrates.



Now, two separate studies have built nearly complete reference genomes of the central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australian-dragons-reveal-new-clues-about-the-mysteries-of-sleep/">bearded dragon</a>, Pogona vitticeps.



The research provides the clearest look yet at what makes a male a male - and why sometimes, a genetically male dragon hatches as a female.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bearded-dragon-s-genetic-switch">The bearded dragon's genetic switch</h2>



The new research comes from scientists at the <a href="https://www.canberra.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Canberra</a> in Australia and <a href="http://www.zju.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zhejiang University</a> in China. Both groups independently sequenced the bearded dragon genome, using different technologies and approaches.



The teams landed on the same key insight: a likely master sex-determining gene hiding in the dragon’s Z chromosome.



Unlike humans, where sex is determined entirely by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-chromosomes-have-conserved-specific-elements-for-600-million-years/">chromosomes</a>, bearded dragons follow a ZZ/ZW system. Males are ZZ and females are ZW. 



But high temperatures during egg incubation can flip the switch - turning a genetic male (ZZ) into a fully functional female. That rare flexibility in vertebrates has made these lizards essential for studying how environment and DNA interact.



With the help of advanced sequencing tools, both teams zoomed in on one region of the genome they believe controls this entire process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-genomes-one-big-answer">Two genomes, one big answer</h2>



The first study used a combination of DNBSEQ short-reads and long-reads from the new CycloneSEQ nanopore sequencer. It’s the first time this technology has been used to sequence an animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turtles-have-genomes-unlike-any-other-animal/">genome</a>.



The second project, focused on a female lizard, used a mix of PacBio HiFi, ONT ultralong reads, and Hi-C sequencing.



By analyzing different animals (one male, one female) and utilizing different technology, the teams created genomes that complement each other. 



Together, the genomes help fill in gaps and confirm shared findings - like the identification of roughly 124 million base pairs of previously missing sequence, including genes and regulatory elements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bearded-dragon-sex-gene">Bearded dragon sex gene</h2>



Thanks to these advanced methods, the scientists were able to assemble nearly the full genome - 1.75 billion base pairs in each case - down to the telomeres. 



The researchers also mapped the Z and W chromosomes in detail, including a key “pseudo-autosomal region” (PAR) where the sex chromosomes pair and recombine.



Most importantly, both teams pinpointed the same region of the genome as the likely home of the sex-determining gene. Within that region, one gene stood out: Amh, or Anti-Müllerian hormone. 



The hormone - along with its receptor Amhr2 and another gene, Bmpr1a - were identified as strong candidates for controlling sex.



Expression analysis showed that Amh is far more active in developing males, suggesting it could be the master regulator. The twist? Bearded dragons also have autosomal (non-sex chromosome) versions of these genes, meaning they might act together in a network, not just through the sex chromosomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-milestone-for-reptile-genetics">A milestone for reptile genetics</h2>



Until now, no reptile had a clearly identified master sex-determining gene like mammals (Sry) or birds (Dmrt1). This discovery may be the closest we’ve come in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptiles-survived-hellish-conditions-during-earths-worst-climate-crisis/">reptiles</a>.



Arthur Georges, senior author on the second paper, explained that the new genome assemblies will fuel rapid progress in many research areas. They open the door to studies on cranial and brain development, behavior, and how genes interact with one another as well as with the environment. 



Georges added that the bearded dragon now offers a strong squamate model for comparison with more traditional model species, including mice, humans, and birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-determination-in-bearded-dragons">Sex determination in bearded dragons</h2>



Qiye Li, senior author on the first paper, explained why the bearded dragon was the first animal genome sequenced using the new technology.



“We decided to start working on the bearded dragon genome last year as the first animal genome for this new sequencer because it was the Year of the Dragon in China," said Li.



"The two reference genomes, derived from opposite sex and generated by different technologies, are indeed complementary to each other."



"I am excited that both genomes pinpoint the key role of AMH signaling in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snakes-depend-on-their-sex-chromosomes-for-survival/">sex determination</a> in this species. But how did the sex chromosomes arise? We anticipate that additional high‑quality genomes from related species will further elucidate the evolutionary origin of the ZW system and complete the story."



A webinar with the two lead authors will take place on August 26 at 10:00 AM UTC, offering a chance for researchers and the public alike to ask questions and learn more about what’s next for this fascinating species.



The research was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/gigascience/article/doi/10.1093/gigascience/giaf085/8237437">GigaScience</a>.



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How heat can rewrite the destiny of a bearded dragon

In the bearded dragon, sex isn’t determined by chromosomes alone....

We all know the feeling. You meet someone new, trade a few words, and it feels like you’ve known them forever. With others, no matter how much time you spend together, the connection never comes. But why?



Researchers say the answer might be hidden in the brain. A new study shows that people whose brains respond in similar ways to the world are more likely to become <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-friendships-improve-your-health-as-you-age/">friends</a> later. Long before two strangers grab coffee or share stories, their brains may already be in sync.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-people-prefer-like-minded-company">People prefer like-minded company</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-changes-what-we-thought-about-friendship-between-plants-fungus-networks/">Humans</a> have always preferred like-minded company. Scientists call this tendency homophily - the pull toward people who look, act, or think like us. It explains why friends often share hobbies, values, or humor. 



But a deeper question has nagged researchers for years. Do friendships create this similarity, or do people seek out those who already see the world the same way?



Carolyn Parkinson at the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Los Angeles</a> wanted to find out. She and her colleagues designed an experiment that started before friendships had a chance to form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-predicts-future-friendships">The brain predicts future friendships </h2>



The team recruited 41 graduate students. Just before classes began, and before anyone had a chance to build connections, each student entered a brain scanner. 



Inside, they watched 14 short movie clips. The clips covered many styles and topics - documentaries, comedies, debates, food, sports, science.



The researchers tracked activity across 214 brain regions. Each student’s brain left a unique signature of how they paid attention, reacted, and interpreted what they saw. These “neural fingerprints” became the key to predicting future friendships.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-friendships-in-the-brain">Mapping friendships in the brain</h2>



Two months later, all 288 students in the program completed surveys asking who they spent free time with. They repeated the surveys six months after that. These results created a living map of friendships - who became close, who drifted apart, and who stayed distant.



When the researchers compared this map to the brain data, patterns emerged. Students who became <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxytocin-has-a-hidden-influence-on-who-we-call-friends/">friends</a> eight months later had already shown more similar brain responses back at the start. 



The strongest overlap appeared in the orbitofrontal cortex, a region linked to how we assign value and meaning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-impressions-aren-t-enough">First impressions aren’t enough</h2>



Interestingly, at the two-month mark, there was no big difference between the brains of friends and non-friends. That means early friendships may form out of convenience - living nearby, attending the same events, or sitting together in class. 



But as time passes, people sort themselves out. Those with deeper neural similarities grow closer. Others drift away.



The study also revealed that people who became closer showed stronger alignment across 42 brain regions. 



Many of these areas help us understand stories, focus attention, and imagine other people’s perspectives. It seems that lasting friendships may rely on how similarly two minds interpret the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-similar-ways-of-thinking">Similar ways of thinking</h2>



These findings go beyond shared taste in movies or music. Even after accounting for whether students enjoyed the clips, the brain similarities held. That suggests something more fundamental at work.



“Sociodemographic factors, at least in terms of what we were able to measure here, just seem to explain part of the picture,” Carolyn Parkinson explained.



In other words, friendships aren’t just about being the same age or studying the same subject. They may be built on hidden compatibilities in thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-thinking-lines-up">When thinking lines up</h2>



The brain regions that mattered most belong to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/friends-affect-how-our-brain-responds-to-shopping/">networks</a> that knit together memories, beliefs, and emotions into a picture of what’s happening. 



When two people’s brains line up in these areas, conversations flow more easily. Communication feels natural rather than forced.



“People whose thinking processes are more similar find it easier to get on. When they say something, they just know what the other is thinking because it is how they think themselves,” noted Robin Dunbar at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-friendship-is-deeper-than-background">Friendship is deeper than background</h2>



The team checked whether similarities in gender, nationality, or academic background explained the brain overlap. These factors played a role, but they didn’t erase the effect. 



Even after adjusting for such variables, people who grew closer showed distinct neural alignment. This means that the roots of friendship run deeper than surface similarities. 



You might connect with someone from a different culture, age, or background if your minds process experiences in the same way. That connection could outlast friendships built only on proximity or circumstance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-are-friendships-born-or-shaped">Are friendships born or shaped?</h2>



For some scientists, these results confirm an old intuition. Dunbar, who wasn’t part of the study, sees the findings as expected. 



“That like attracts like, rather than people thrown together by accidents draw closer in their traits. In other words, close friends are born, not made,” noted Dunbar.



But the story isn’t entirely one-sided. Life still shapes friendships. Initial bonds may form by chance. Over time, those built on deeper alignment endure, while others fade. 



Both circumstance and compatibility matter, but this research shows that compatibility often wins out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-compass-in-our-brains">Hidden compass in our brains</h2>



What does this mean for everyday life? It suggests that our brains act like quiet compasses, pointing us toward the people who will eventually become close friends. 



We may not be aware of it, but the ease we feel with some people could reflect deep similarities in how our minds process the world.



Friendship, then, is more than shared interests or happy accidents. It is also about shared rhythms of thought, hidden long before we realize it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-025-02266-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Human Behaviour</a>.



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Secrets of lasting friendships are hiding in the brain

We all know the feeling. You meet someone new, trade...

Erythrocyte,Interaction,With,Plastic,Microparticles,In,Blood.,3d,Illustration,Showing

Scientists can pull plastic particles out of seawater with relative ease, but finding and tracking them in human body tissue is far more complex. 



A new expert <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44222-025-00335-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> lays out how labs can detect plastic particles in blood, lungs, placentas, and other tissues - and why measurement choices will shape what health risks they reveal.



The authors dissect a fast-moving literature to show where current methods succeed, where they fail, and what must improve. 



They highlight the importance of sample preparation, standardized reporting, and clear metrics so that studies can be compared and results trusted.



At the center is a simple but daunting question: How do you measure plastic inside living systems without distorting the evidence?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-particles-in-human-tissue">Plastic particles in human tissue</h2>



“Every biological sample represents a different matrix,” said <a href="https://www.umass.edu/stockbridge/about/directory/baoshan-xing" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Baoshan Xing</a>, professor of Environmental and Soil Chemistry at the University of Massachusetts (<a href="https://www.umass.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UMass</a>) and lead study author.



That simple point drives the lab playbook. Fatty tissues, protein-rich organs, shells, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-humans-used-ancient-plant-fiber-technology-to-make-tools-39000-years-ago/">plant fibers</a> need tailored digestion steps, from alkaline solutions to enzymes. These steps allow researchers separate plastics without melting or morphing them.



Researchers use the term microplastics for solid plastic particles roughly one micrometer to five millimeters in size. It's a range now common in U.S. government and research guidance. 



Nanoplastics typically refer to particles smaller than one micrometer, often defined by colloidal behavior in the one to 1,000 nanometer range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-plastics-in-the-lab">Finding plastics in the lab</h2>



After digestion, labs isolate particles and verify their identity. The main tools are Raman spectroscopy, FTIR spectroscopy, and thermal methods like pyrolysis gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS). 



Each comes with trade-offs in size limits, throughput, and polymer specificity, especially in complex tissues. Scientists use salty solutions to float or sink plastics, making it easier to recover heavier particles.



Quality control matters as much as the chemistry, including strict contamination blanks, clean air handling, and reporting of detection limits to prevent false positives or inflated counts.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/micro-nano-plastics_human-body-concentrations_illustration_credit-Nature_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/micro-nano-plastics_human-body-concentrations_illustration_credit-Nature_1s.webp" alt="Detection, concentration and distribution of MNPs in the human body. Credit: Nature Reviews Bioengineering" class="wp-image-1982042"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Detection, concentration and distribution of MNPs in the human body. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Nature Reviews Bioengineering</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-early-health-signals-show">What early health signals show</h2>



Researchers have measured <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-inhale-the-equivalent-of-a-credit-card-in-microplastics-each-week/">microplastics</a> in human blood, showing that polymer fragments can circulate systemically. They detected measurable mass concentrations using pyrolysis GC/MS.



Follow-up work has begun to profile sizes, shapes, and polymer types in blood from healthy volunteers to probe possible links with physiology.



Scientists have found plastic particles in human placentas on both the mother’s and baby’s sides. This raises concerns about exposure before birth, which cannot be answered without better, standardized tests.



Human lung tissue examined after surgery has contained identifiable microplastics. Micro-FTIR revealed polymer types and reported concentrations per gram of tissue under stringent blank controls.



Vascular studies have reported microplastics and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-could-help-remove-nanoplastics-from-the-environment/">nanoplastics</a> in carotid artery plaques and associated those findings with higher risks of heart attack, stroke, or death over follow-up periods in clinical cohorts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methods-alter-outcomes">Methods alter outcomes</h2>



Dose matters, but researchers can count it in several ways. The number of particles per gram, mass per gram, or surface area per gram do not tell the same story in a tissue where sizes, shapes, and polymers vary widely.



Interpretation hinges on the metric. Fibers may be many but light, while spheres may be few but heavy. Different shapes behave differently, so researchers must choose measurement methods that fit the health question.



“There are no accepted protocols yet,” said Xing. Without standard methods, it’s hard to compare plastic levels across studies or turn them into health guidelines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-helps-track-plastics">AI helps track plastics</h2>



High-throughput imaging and spectral data generate mountains of information, which is where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-machine-learning-can-help-us-protect-chimpanzees/">machine learning</a> (ML) can help.



Researchers are pairing Raman datasets with classification models to speed up polymer identification and reduce analyst bias.



Thermal analysis coupled with FTIR is also being automated with ML to tease apart polymer signals in complex biological matrices, improving throughput while keeping false identifications in check.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastics-research-needs-standards">Plastics research needs standards</h2>



Reference materials, interlaboratory comparisons, and matrix specific digestion and detection protocols will make results more trustworthy and comparable across labs. 



Agencies are already coordinating methods of research, from definitions to practical measurement guidance, to support that standardization push.



“This is a headache,” said Xing. The upside is that a clear, shared toolkit would let scientists quantify risks with the same confidence we expect in other areas of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-in-human-brains-may-affect-mental-health/">environmental health</a>.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44222-025-00335-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Reviews Bioengineering</a>.



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Easier method helps detect and measure the amount of plastic particles in human bodies

Scientists can pull plastic particles out of seawater with relative...

Cast,Of,Fossilized,Early,Ancient,Man,Skull.,Australopithecus,Afarensis,Is

The story of human evolution is not a simple ladder from early forms to more advanced ones. For decades, fossils shaped a picture of steady, linear progress - one form giving rise to another in a neat sequence.



But science often rewrites its narratives when new evidence appears. Now, remarkable finds in Ethiopia are challenging long-held assumptions and painting a richer, more intricate picture of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-males-small-females-a-window-into-prehistoric-power-struggles/">origins</a>.



Recent fossil discoveries in Ethiopia suggest that our evolutionary past was far more complex than a simple linear progression. 



Research led by UNLV anthropologist <a href="https://www.unlv.edu/people/brian-villmoare" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brian Villmoare</a>, in collaboration with the <a href="https://shesc.asu.edu/research/projects/ledi-geraru-research-project-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ledi-Geraru Research Project</a>, has revealed that Australopithecus and early and unidentified Homo species coexisted between 2.6 and 2.8 million years ago in the same part of Africa.



These findings challenge the traditional “march from ape to human” model and instead support the idea of a branching tree with multiple lineages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-australopithecus-the-basics">Understanding Australopithecus - the basics</h2>



Australopithecus walked the African landscape around 3 million years ago, bridging the gap between our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-males-small-females-a-window-into-prehistoric-power-struggles/">ape-like ancestors</a> and modern humans. 



They stood upright, though shorter and smaller-brained than us, and their mix of traits - long arms for climbing, but pelvis and legs built for walking - shows how they lived in both trees and open grasslands. 



Fossils of species like Australopithecus afarensis, best known from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lucy-could-barely-run-what-does-that-say-about-our-ancestors/">famous skeleton "Lucy,"</a> reveal that these early hominins were already experimenting with bipedalism while still relying on arboreal agility.



What makes Australopithecus so fascinating is the story their bones tell about adaptation. They didn’t use tools the way later hominins did, but they set the stage for it by freeing their hands once walking became the norm. 



Their teeth and jaws suggest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/">a varied diet</a>, probably fruits, roots, and tougher plants, helping them survive in shifting environments. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-australopithecus-lived-with-others">Australopithecus lived with others</h2>



At the <a href="https://shesc.asu.edu/research/projects/ledi-geraru-research-project-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ledi-Geraru site</a>, scientists found 13 teeth. Some belonged to early Homo, while others came from a previously unknown Australopithecus species.



The latter is different from the famous Australopithecus afarensis skeleton, known as “Lucy,” that disappeared from the fossil record around 2.95 million years ago. 



The research showed no evidence of Lucy’s kind aged any younger than 2.95 million years.



“This new research shows that the image many of us have in our minds of an ape to a Neanderthal to a modern human is not correct - evolution doesn’t work like that,” said <a href="https://www.asu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ASU</a> paleoecologist Kaye Reed. 



“Here we have two hominin species that are together. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestor-paranthropus-robustus-walked-upright-2-million-years-ago/">Human evolution</a> is not linear - it's a bushy tree, there are life forms that go extinct.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-site-shows-oldest-homo-and-tools">Site shows oldest Homo and tools</h2>



Ledi-Geraru is already well known in paleoanthropology. It has produced the oldest known Homo jaw fossil, dated to 2.8 million years ago, and the earliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-tools-ever-made-on-earth-hominins-3-million-years-ago-cradle-of-humankind/">Oldowan stone tools</a>. 



The site’s sediments, which are rich in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-homo-sapiens-stone-tools-preserved-volcanic-ash-grotta-di-castelcivita/">volcanic ash</a>, allow precise dating.



Crystals in the ash, called feldspars, are key for determining the ages of fossils, as they can be dated from volcanic eruptions above and below the fossil layers. 



This geological context also provides clues about the environment in which these species lived.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-australopithecus-territory-had-rivers">Australopithecus territory had rivers</h2>



Two to three million years ago, the Ledi-Geraru area was a dynamic landscape of rivers, vegetation, and shallow lakes that expanded and shrank over time. 



This is a stark contrast to today’s faulted badlands. 



Geological evidence indicates that the region preserved an interpretable record for the period from 2.3 to 2.95 million years ago - a crucial time in terms of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-ate-tough-plants-and-changed-the-world-forever/">human evolution</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/new-hominin-species_fossil-teeth_LGRP_credit-Nature_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/new-hominin-species_fossil-teeth_LGRP_credit-Nature_1s.webp" alt="New hominin species fossil teeth from the LGRP. Credit: Nature" class="wp-image-1982136"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New hominin species fossil teeth from the LGRP. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Nature</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multiple-lineages-multiple-niches">Multiple lineages, multiple niches</h2>



The study concluded that before 2.5 million years ago, eastern Africa may have had as many as four hominin lineages: early Homo, Australopithecus garhi, the newly discovered Ledi-Geraru Australopithecus, and potentially others in nearby regions.



“We used to think of human evolution as fairly linear, with a steady march from an ape-like ancestor to modern Homo sapiens," Villmoare said. 



Instead, humans branched out multiple times into different niches.



"Our pattern of evolution is not particularly unusual, and what has happened to humans has happened to every other tree of life.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tooth-enamel-holds-hidden-answers">Tooth enamel holds hidden answers</h2>



Detailed analysis of the teeth showed differences from known Australopithecus and Homo specimens. 



These distinctions suggest the Ledi-Geraru Australopithecus was neither a late-surviving A. afarensis nor A. garhi, but rather a previously unknown species. 



However, the team has not yet named it, as more fossils are needed for a full classification.



Researchers are now studying the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tooth-enamel-analysis-suggests-early-eurasians-were-multiple-species-paranthropus-robustus/">tooth enamel</a> to understand diet and possible interactions between early Homo and this Australopithecus species. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-study-is-needed">More study is needed</h2>



Key questions remain: Did they compete for food or share resources? How often did they encounter each other? Who were their ancestors?



“Whenever you have an exciting discovery, if you’re a paleontologist, you always know that you need more information,” Reed explained. “You need more fossils.”



“That’s why it’s an important field to train people in - and for people to go out and find their own sites and explore places where we haven’t yet found fossils.”



More finds could reveal not just how these species lived but also why some survived while others vanished.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09390-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: Kaye Reed, <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>.



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New early Homo species discovered that challenges "ape-to-human" evolution theory

The story of human evolution is not a simple ladder...

Your herb garden may be packing more plant power than you think. Common plants like basil, thyme, and lavender don’t just add flavor - they’re part of a botanical family that’s quietly storing enormous genetic surprises. 



One of their lesser-known cousins just revealed a hidden capacity that could have major implications for health, farming, and science.



In a new study, researchers at <a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a> discovered that a Mediterranean shrub called ground oak has a genome almost as large as a human's - about three billion base pairs. 



The shrub also carries four full sets of chromosomes, plus an unusually large gene cluster tied to the production of potent natural chemicals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-with-hidden-powers">Plants with hidden powers</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-in-the-mint-family-may-help-produce-new-medicines/">mint family</a> of plants has long intrigued scientists for its powerful natural properties. Certain species have shown potential as anti-cancer, anti-viral, or pest-repellent agents. But harnessing those chemicals in useful quantities has always been a challenge. 



The new genetic insight could bring researchers closer to doing just that - by replicating the plant’s chemical-making machinery in the lab.



“What if we could spray our veggies with a natural product that makes a hungry deer or insect say, ‘No thank you,’” said MSU researcher Björn Hamberger, pointing to possible agricultural uses.



“These plants also have exciting antimicrobial properties, which could help with the trouble we see nowadays concerning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-fueling-antibiotic-resistance-in-our-soils/">antibiotic resistance</a>."



“This project was like many others where we walked in thinking we knew just what to do,” Hamberger said. “We’ve learned again that plants always have something more up their sleeves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ground-oak-links-to-healing">Ground oak links to healing</h2>



Humans have relied on mint family plants for thousands of years - not just for taste and scent, but also for healing and wellness. 



At Michigan State University, Hamberger and his team focus on the special molecules created by these plants, known as specialized metabolites. The molecules help plants survive harsh environments and resist disease, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urgent-need-to-protect-earths-forests-from-non-native-pests/">pests</a>, or other threats.



Unlike basic molecules that all plants need to live (like sugars and amino acids), these specialized metabolites are more like bonus features. Some might <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aloe-vera-waste-shows-promise-as-natural-insect-repellent-anti-aging-properties/">repel bugs</a>. Others might fight off bacteria. And many of them, scientists are learning, could be used to improve human health or agriculture.



“Plants don’t have the luxury of running away from pests or pathogens, so they turn to chemistry to get the job done,” said Hamberger.



In previous work, the Hamberger Lab sequenced the genome of American beautyberry, a plant known for its mosquito-repelling properties. That work helped uncover how different mint family members evolved their chemical arsenals. 



The research also earned MSU graduate students Abigail Bryson and Nicholas Schlecht the university’s Neogen Land Grant Prize - awarded to research that promises real-world scientific and economic impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-ground-oak">Why ground oak?</h2>



To push further into the mint family’s chemical secrets, Bryson set her sights on ground oak, a small mounded <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-shrub-holds-the-record-for-europes-oldest-tree/">shrub</a> with pinkish-purple flowers and oak-shaped leaves. Native to the Mediterranean, the plant hasn’t been widely studied.



“We thought: let’s sequence ground oak, find out how the plants achieve their useful chemical products, and get a blueprint to build plant-derived therapeutics in the lab,” said Hamberger.



“This was all good, until Abby found out ground oak had an unexpectedly massive surprise in store for us."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-of-the-largest-plant-genomes">One of the largest plant genomes</h2>



The commonly studied Arabidopsis plant has about 135 million DNA base pairs. Ground oak has nearly 3 billion - more than 20 times as much.



“When you assemble a genome, it's like you have parts of sentences of a book, and you are trying to figure out what the story says, line by line, chapter by chapter,” said Bryson, lead author of the study and now a postdoctoral researcher at the Donald Danforth Plant Science Center.



“Something about genomes that is difficult to picture is the size of the data we are working with. If the genome was the size of an actual book, the thickness of that book would be hundreds of feet, and the human and ground oak genomes would be around the size of world’s fifth tallest building,” she added.



To handle the challenge, Bryson collaborated with plant genome expert Robin Buell and got additional support from MSU's Department of Plant Biology and the Max T. Rogers Nuclear Magnetic Resonance facility.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ground-oak-holds-extra-genes">Ground oak holds extra genes</h2>



The surprises didn’t stop at size. Ground oak turned out to be tetraploid - meaning it carries four complete sets of chromosomes. Humans, by comparison, have two.



“Imagine if you have to sort through and solve four puzzles dumped into the same box - that’s what Abby achieved,” said Hamberger.



The team also found a large gene cluster - a tight grouping of related genes - linked to the production of the plant’s specialized metabolites. That’s significant because gene clusters like this can streamline how traits evolve and are passed on.



In an earlier study of American beautyberry, the Hamberger Lab found a similar but smaller gene cluster. The discovery suggests this kind of genomic arrangement might be common across mint family plants - and may help explain how these species evolved such a wide range of powerful compounds.



Why cluster or duplicate genes at all? According to Hamberger, it's about efficiency. “If one set of genetic information is already performing an important duty, its duplicate is free to evolve newer functions,” he said.



“Once materials are packed together tightly, it’s easier to move them onto the next generation."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-future-powered-by-plants">A future powered by plants</h2>



With these discoveries, the team at MSU is a step closer to producing useful plant-based chemicals in the lab at scale. That could mean more sustainable pest control, new antimicrobial treatments, or even fresh strategies to tackle diseases that resist current medicine.



So, the next time you smell mint or brush past rosemary in the garden, think about what’s really packed inside. It’s not just aroma or flavor - it might be the future of medicine or farming, encoded in a genome as tall as a skyscraper.



The work was supported by the National Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Health, and the U.S. Department of Energy’s Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2590346225001555" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Communications</a>.



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Ground oak’s genetic secrets may inspire new medicines and pesticides

Your herb garden may be packing more plant power than...

Imagine taking a single puff from an inhaler once a week and gaining protection from viral infections that make winters unbearable. Scientists believe such an approach could also guard against future pandemics. 



The idea comes from new animal studies on an mRNA treatment designed to boost our natural defenses against viruses.



“You can think about this as a universal antiviral,” said Dusan Bogunovic at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a> in New York. The treatment aims to activate the body’s built-in antiviral shield before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/previously-overlooked-viruses-may-secretly-shape-bacterial-populations/">viruses</a> have the chance to spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-body-fights-viruses">How the body fights viruses</h2>



Our immune system already holds powerful tools against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-virus-spread-too-quickly-for-bats-alone-to-be-responsible/">infection</a>. When cells detect viruses, they release interferon, a molecule that activates about 1000 genes. 



These genes lead to the production of antiviral proteins. Some block viruses from entering cells, while others stop new viral particles from spreading.



“Our innate immune system is extremely powerful,” said Bogunovic. However, respiratory viruses reproduce so quickly that they often outpace these defenses. A head start could keep infections mild while the rest of the immune system catches up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-activating-protective-genes">Activating protective genes</h2>



In earlier research, many scientists believed that interferon itself could serve as a powerful, broad antiviral treatment. Interferon is a natural signaling molecule that helps cells activate hundreds of protective genes, which then produce antiviral proteins to fight <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-makes-a-virus-capable-of-causing-a-pandemic/">infections</a>. 



The idea was that by giving patients interferon directly, doctors could strengthen the body’s immune defenses and block a wide range of viruses. 



However, this approach faced a serious obstacle: interferon often caused harmful side effects when used as a drug. These side effects limited its practical use and prevented it from becoming the universal antiviral once hoped for.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-the-interferon-challenges">Overcoming the interferon challenges</h2>



To overcome this, Dusan Bogunovic and his colleagues explored a different path. Instead of relying on interferon itself, they focused on the proteins that interferon activates. 



Out of the many possibilities, they selected ten promising proteins that are naturally produced when the body detects a viral attack.



The team then delivered instructions for making these proteins into cells using mRNA technology. This method has a unique advantage: rather than struggling to push large, pre-made proteins into cells, the mRNA allows cells to produce the proteins internally, right where they are needed most.



Laboratory tests showed strong results. Human cells infected with flu and Zika <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/preparing-for-the-next-pandemic-lessons-about-viral-transmission/">viruses</a> displayed enhanced antiviral defenses after receiving this mRNA treatment. These findings gave researchers hope that such a strategy could also prove effective in living animals and, eventually, in humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inhaler-that-targets-many-viruses">Inhaler that targets many viruses</h2>



The team then delivered the mRNA mixture directly to the lungs of golden hamsters. The results were striking. Treated hamsters resisted SARS-CoV-2 infection, showing much lower viral levels than untreated ones.



“I was like, ‘wow, this actually might be a universal antiviral,'” said Bogunovic. Current antiviral drugs usually target specific viruses. A treatment effective against many viruses would be a major breakthrough, comparable to antibiotics revolutionizing medicine by tackling a broad range of bacteria.



This method may also allow tailoring protein combinations for particular viruses. “Some combinations of interferon-triggered proteins might be especially effective against specific viruses,” said Bogunovic. 



Such flexibility could create both broad and targeted therapies depending on the need. Delivering enough mRNA to the right cells remains a technical challenge. 



“This is certainly exciting and could lead to very promising advances, but we are several steps down the line away from talking about a deployable, versatile countermeasure,” noted Aris Katzourakis at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-the-mrna-inhaler">Potential of the mRNA inhaler</h2>



Despite hurdles, the research shows how mRNA technology can extend beyond vaccines. 



Bogunovic is optimistic that viruses may not easily evolve resistance, as multiple proteins target different parts of the viral lifecycle. This strategy has already proved successful in HIV treatments.



“The research highlights the potential of mRNA technology beyond vaccines. The current trajectory in the US with mRNA vaccines will certainly and tragically slow down progress on both of these fronts,” said Katzourakis.



If these advances continue, one weekly puff might one day shield us from the viruses that have long shaped human health.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.adx5758" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Translational Medicine</a>.



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One puff inhaler could block many dangerous viruses

Imagine taking a single puff from an inhaler once a...

Scientists just measured something that sounds impossible. When light passes through atoms, it can spend what appears to be less than zero time interacting with them. Yes, negative time. And no, this isn't science fiction.



Picture a stadium crowd doing the wave. People stand and sit in sequence, but somehow the wave moves faster than any single person. 



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a> found light doing something similar with atoms, except they measured the part where it got really weird.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experiment-that-shouldn-t-work">Experiment that shouldn't work</h2>



Light usually slows down when passing through materials. That's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/time-has-three-dimensions-and-space-is-just-a-byproduct-according-to-new-theory/">normal physics</a>. 



But with very short <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intense-quantum-light-generates-weird-electron-behavior/">light pulses</a> and the right conditions, the peak of a light wave can exit a material before it seemingly should. 



Scientists have seen this for years but dismissed it as a reshaping effect, not actual negative time. The Toronto researchers weren't satisfied with that explanation. 



They cooled <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/rubidium-atom" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rubidium atoms</a> to near absolute zero and shot incredibly weak light pulses through them - so weak that they could track individual photons.



<a href="https://www.physics.utoronto.ca/~aephraim/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aephraim Steinberg</a>, a University of Toronto professor specializing in experimental quantum physics, led the work with researcher <a href="https://utoronto.academia.edu/DanielaAngulo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Daniela Angulo</a>. 



They used two laser beams. One carried the signal they wanted to study. The other acted like a heartbeat monitor for the atoms.



"This is tough stuff, even for us to talk about with other physicists. We get misunderstood all the time," said Steinberg.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-negative-time">Measuring negative time</h2>



Here's where things get strange. When a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-photons-fascinating-behavior-in-quantum-realm/">photon</a> passed through and excited the atoms, the probe beam detected tiny changes. 



These changes told them exactly how long the atoms remained excited. The answer? Sometimes it was negative.



"That time turned out to be negative," Steinberg explained.



The team discovered that when light pulses experienced what physicists call <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/cta.4132" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">negative group delay</a> - when the pulse peak exits early - the atoms showed corresponding negative excitation times. 



The two measurements matched perfectly, proving this wasn't just a visual trick but a real physical phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-negative-time-actually-works">How negative time actually works</h2>



Before you start planning trips to yesterday, understand what's really happening. The speed of light remains unchanged.



"We don't want to say anything traveled backward in time," Steinberg said. "That's a misinterpretation."



Light pulses contain many frequencies mixed together, like a chord in music. When these frequencies hit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/manipulating-quantum-dance-of-spinning-electrons/">resonant atoms</a>, each gets shifted slightly differently. 



Mix them back together, and the peak can end up ahead of where you'd expect. No single part breaks the speed of light - the wave just reshapes itself through <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41565-024-01633-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum interference</a>.



The atoms essentially record this reshaping. When the pulse peak shifts forward, the atoms' response shifts too, creating a measurable negative interaction time. It's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossibility-paradox-calculating-incalculable-quantum-realm-particles/">quantum mechanics</a> at its strangest, but it follows all the rules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-scientists-care">Why scientists care</h2>



This experiment settles a long debate. Some physicists argued negative group delay was just mathematical sleight of hand. Others suspected it represented something physically real.



Their setup required extraordinary precision. They trapped rubidium-85 atoms in a tiny cloud, sending shaped signal pulses through it, while a probe beam traveled in the opposite direction. 



The signal matched a specific atomic transition in rubidium. The probe stayed slightly detuned to monitor without being absorbed.



By correlating probe changes with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supercooled-nanowires-detect-protons-at-close-to-the-speed-of-light/">single-photon detections</a>, they isolated effects from individual photons. 



Tests across different pulse durations and cloud densities confirmed their predictions every time. Where theory predicted negative delays, they measured negative times.



This discovery matters for quantum technology. Future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computer-defeats-a-supercomputer-in-crucial-annealing-optimization-task/">quantum computers</a> and networks need precise control of photon-atom interactions. 



Understanding these timing effects, even negative ones, helps engineers build better quantum systems.



The work also pushes quantum mechanics into new territory. At quantum scales, particles behave in probabilistic ways that defy everyday intuition. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next</h2>



This experiment shows that time measurements can get equally weird, though causality never breaks.



Steinberg acknowledged controversy around their findings, but noted that no scientist has challenged the experimental results.



"We've made our choice about what we think is a fruitful way to describe the results," he said.



As for practical uses, Steinberg remains realistic. 



"I'll be honest, I don't currently have a path from what we've been looking at toward applications," he admitted. "We're going to keep thinking about it, but I don't want to get people's hopes up."



The discovery opens new paths for exploring quantum effects. Sometimes the strangest findings lead to unexpected breakthroughs. 



We now know negative time isn't just theoretical - it's measurable, real, and perfectly consistent with physics. It is not the kind that lets you change the past.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2409.03680" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



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Evidence of 'negative time' observed in quantum physics experiments

Scientists just measured something that sounds impossible. When light passes...

Divers in the eastern Mediterranean are finding warm, clear water and an explosion of newcomers. Predators from tropical seas are settling in, while native fish are vanishing.&nbsp;



What was once exceptional heat is now the new normal, and the sea’s ecology is changing fast.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warmer-depths-new-arrivals">Warmer depths, new arrivals</h2>



“We were at a depth of 30 meters (100 feet) this morning and the water was 29C,” said Murat Draman, a scuba instructor off Antalya in southern Turkey.&nbsp;



Draman remembers August months in the early 2000s when the sea was closer to 25C. Now <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surface-water-can-penetrate-earths-deep-interior/">surface waters</a> near Antalya are pushing nearly 32C, and the warmth reaches deep.&nbsp;



Warmer water has flung open a biological gateway. Hundreds of Red Sea species are crossing the Suez Canal and finding a home in the eastern basin.



Scientists say the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-mediterranean-nearly-lost-all-of-its-water-6-million-years-ago/">Mediterranean</a> is among the fastest-warming seas on the planet. This year brought its hottest June and July on record, according to figures from <a href="https://www.mercator-ocean.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mercator Ocean International</a>. 



As temperatures climb, tropical and subtropical species can survive - and thrive - farther north and west than before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-surge-of-lionfish">A surge of lionfish</h2>



“About a decade ago, we saw one or two of them. Now we’re talking about 15 or 20 per dive - even more than when we go to the Red Sea,” Draman said.&nbsp;



He is referring to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-lionfish-global-domination-mediterranean-sea-marine-ecosystems/">lionfish</a>, the striking but highly venomous species Pterois miles, armed with long, spotted fins and a voracious appetite. In Antalya’s coves and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-may-be-more-resilient-than-we-thought/">reefs</a>, they are now common.



“They are big predators. Small fish like gobies suffer a lot, we hardly see them anymore,” he added.&nbsp;



The small, bottom-dwelling fish once dotted the rocks. Now they are at risk of being eaten out of sight. Warmer water is part of the story. So is the sudden arrival of skilled hunters that the local food web is not built to resist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-warning-from-the-east">A warning from the east</h2>



"The invasion started almost immediately after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869,” said Gil Rilov, a professor at Israel’s Oceanographic and Limnological Research Institute (<a href="https://www.ocean.org.il/about-iolr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IOLR</a>). But the pace has recently quickened.



“But now it’s getting warmer, and also (in 2015), the canals got deeper and wider, so more and more new species move in every year.”&nbsp;



Some newcomers may help fill niches as native species struggle with heat. Many others displace or outcompete what was there before.



What Rilov sees off Turkey, Lebanon, and Israel is spreading west.&nbsp;Rabbitfish, for example, have reached Malta - more than 1,700 kilometers from the canal. 



Rilov calls the eastern basin “a warning,” pointing to two drivers behind native losses: relentless heat and fierce competition. "What is happening here will happen in five, 10 or 20 years in the north and west of the Mediterranean."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tropical-species-in-a-warmer-mediterranean">Tropical species in a warmer Mediterranean </h2>



Mercator’s latest analysis showed the Mediterranean posted its warmest July on record with an average surface temperature of 26.68C. That number hides local extremes and the vertical reach of heat.&nbsp;



As heat soaks downward, species that once found cool refuge at depth now face <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-corals-can-help-them-recover-from-heat-stress/">thermal stress</a> throughout the water column.&nbsp;



The sea is not just warmer at the top. It is warmer everywhere that matters to fish, invertebrates, and algae.



The “tropicalization” is not limited to the Suez pipeline either. A 2024 <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2320687121">study</a> suggests the Strait of Gibraltar could deliver more warm-water species from West Africa into the western Mediterranean by mid-century.&nbsp;



In a pessimistic scenario, researchers warn the basin could be entirely tropicalized by 2100. That would mean a wholesale turnover of communities, food webs, and the services people rely on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-absence-of-mediterranean-predators">Absence of Mediterranean predators</h2>



Local food webs can blunt an invader’s impact - if they have the right hunters. In the eastern Mediterranean, many apex predators are missing or depleted. That leaves lionfish and other arrivals with little to fear.



Draman sees the imbalance daily. He argues for keeping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/">invasive species</a> out of protected areas to shield what biodiversity remains. Without checks and balances, populations grow fast.&nbsp;



“It is clear that with the absence of Mediterranean predators, species such as lionfish are very comfortable here and their population is increasing year on year,” said Draman.



In their native range, lionfish do not rule the reefs. “In the Red Sea, lionfish have predators. There are sharks and barracudas. Here, we have none of that.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-be-done-now">What can be done now</h2>



Managers face two timelines. One is immediate: reduce local pressures that make ecosystems fragile - overfishing, habitat loss, and pollution - and limit the spread of high-impact invaders near sensitive habitats.&nbsp;



The other timeline is generational: curb greenhouse gas emissions to slow the ocean’s march toward tropical conditions. Neither is easy. Both are necessary.



The message from Antalya’s reefs is simple. The Mediterranean is warming fast. Tropical species are already here and native fish are losing ground. And what is unfolding in the east is a warning for the rest of the basin.&nbsp;



The sooner that warning is heeded, the better chance there is to keep familiar seas from becoming something unrecognizable.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://phys.org/journals/proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Tropical species are taking over the Mediterranean Sea

Divers in the eastern Mediterranean are finding warm, clear water...

Seeing is not only about reflected light that reaches the eye. It's also about timing - how quickly and when those signals arrive and are processed by the eye's retina. 



When viewing a landscape, for instance, the light from different parts of that scene reach your eye at slightly different times, yet your brain is able to process the entire view in a single instant rather than filling in the blanks over microseconds.



Inside the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/retinal-scans-provide-a-window-into-human-aging/">eye</a>, messages travel along paths of different lengths before they exit toward the brain. That uneven wiring sets up a timing problem the system has to solve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vision-processing-in-the-eye-s-retina">Vision processing in the eye's retina</h2>



New research shows that the human eye's retina uses its own tools to keep signals in sync, trimming timing differences to just a few thousandths of a second at the point where fibers leave the eye. 



The work was led by <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=9LKw0-sAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annalisa Bucci</a> at the Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology Basel (<a href="https://iob.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IOB</a>). Her team also included collaborators from the University of Basel and <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a>.



Longer axons are built thicker inside the eye, and those thicker fibers conduct faster, so arrivals line up.



In the center of gaze, the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK554706/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fovea</a> funnels information from neighboring receptors through ganglion cells whose fibers can take very different routes to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-retinal-cells-explain-complex-color-perception/">optic</a> nerve. 



Despite that, the team reports that temporal fibers on the far side of the fovea conduct more than 40 percent faster than nasal fibers that have a shorter trip, shrinking the spread at the exit to under 2.5 milliseconds.&nbsp;



“We conclude that the human brain orchestrates axonal conduction speeds of unmyelinated axons in the retina to synchronize the arrival times of sensory signals,” wrote Bucci.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retina-timing-in-the-eye">Retina timing in the eye</h2>



Neural <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23820043/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">circuits</a> care a lot about time, often at the scale of milliseconds. Small shifts can change how signals add up, whether in hearing, touch, or vision.



If parts of a scene were always late or early, edges would smear and quick changes would blur. The eye and brain work together to prevent that from happening, and this study shows the eye starts the job.



Conduction speed depends on a few physical features. One key factor is axon caliber, which increases speed in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2017.00798/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unmyelinated fibers</a> with a square root relationship to diameter.



The authors combined high-density electrical recordings with careful anatomy to connect those principles to human tissue. 



They measured propagation speed along many individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apple-snails-regrow-their-eyes-and-may-help-humans-do-the-same/">retinal</a> ganglion cell fibers and found that the longer the route, the bigger the cable and the faster the impulse.



That speedup did not fully erase every difference. It cut a large potential mismatch down to a few milliseconds at the eye’s output, leaving the rest to be handled downstream.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-single-photoreceptors-to-reaction-times">Single photoreceptors to reaction times</h2>



To check whether people actually respond as if signals were in step, the team used adaptive optics scanning light ophthalmoscopy (<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29359094/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AOSLO</a>) to flash tiny spots onto single foveal cones. This tool can stimulate individual photoreceptors with pinpoint precision in awake observers.



Participants pressed a button when they saw the flash. Reaction times were statistically uniform around the fovea, with no reliable benefit for regions that should have had shorter wiring. That behavioral result lines up with the timing equalization seen in the tissue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cell-types-and-the-map-of-the-eye">Cell types and the map of the eye</h2>



The retina’s output is not one-size-fits-all. Two major cell families dominate: <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8175861/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">retinal ganglion cells</a> of the midget type, tuned for fine detail and color, and parasol cells, tuned for larger, quicker changes. 



Tiny pathways dominate the central retina, while parasol cells contribute more as you move outward.



Those identities show up in timing. In the human fovea, median propagation speeds cluster around about 0.6 meters per second for midget axons and about 0.7 meters per second for parasol axons.



In the periphery both classes speed up and widen the gap further, roughly 0.9 and 1.1 meters per second, respectively. The shift mirrors the change in axon caliber and the functional demands of those pathways.



Even with these differences, the eye’s geometry still creates unequal travel distances. 



The study’s modeling shows how faster long routes compensate for much of that extra path, trimming the final spread to a narrow window at the nerve head.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retina-thickness-matches-speed">Retina thickness matches speed</h2>



There is another angle that ties retinal timing to everyday eye care. The retinal nerve fiber <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17210181/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">layer</a> at the back of the eye is a sheet of unmyelinated ganglion cell axons, and its thickness can be measured in living people with optical coherence tomography, a routine clinical scan.



The authors built a model of axon trajectories and densities, then showed it lines up with known patterns of nerve fiber thickness across the retina. That agreement adds a structural cross-check to the physiological measurements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-retina-begins-signal-synchronization">Retina begins signal synchronization</h2>



The results suggest that synchronization begins before the brain even gets the message. 



Some compensation also happens earlier in the retinal circuit, because response delays of upstream cells vary with location and stimulus size, and later stages in the brain likely polish the timing further.



Across the nervous system, axons tune conduction time so that signals converge when and where they should. 



The eye now joins that story with direct human data, linking tissue structure, measured speeds, and behavior in one coherent picture.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-025-02011-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Neuroscience</a>.



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Human eyes are able to 'sync' everything they see before sending signals to the brain

Seeing is not only about reflected light that reaches the...

Activation,Of,The,Immune,Response:,Antigen,Presenting,Cell,Activates,T-lymphocytes

Aging bodies usually slow down. Immune defenses are no exception, as infections hit harder and vaccines work less well. Yet a subset of older adults carry unusually youthful immune features, and that wrinkle changes the story in surprising ways.



A new perspective argues that keeping parts of the immune system young late in life can come with a cost. The tradeoff shows up most clearly in a blood vessel disease that strikes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-identify-a-turning-point-when-your-body-starts-aging-faster-proteins-key/">older adults</a> and can threaten sight and the heart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-youthful-immune-traits-in-elders">Youthful immune traits in elders</h2>



The <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-025-00919-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perspective</a> is led by <a href="https://www.mayo.edu/research/faculty/weyand-cornelia-m-m-d-ph-d/bio-20527870" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornelia M. Weyand</a>, M.D., Ph.D., and <a href="https://www.mayo.edu/research/faculty/goronzy-jorg-m-d-ph-d/bio-20527076" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jörg J. Goronzy</a>, M.D., Ph.D., at Mayo Clinic. Their work explores how retained youthful traits in T cells line up with disease patterns seen in late life.



“We propose that sustained immune youthfulness can be detrimental to the aging host, while immune <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-can-slow-aging-right-down-to-your-dna/">aging</a> may be a beneficial adaptation,” wrote Weyand and Goronzy. 



The core message is not a rebuke of aging, but a call to understand which immune features help and which harm as years add up.



The authors focus on a form of autoimmunity in which the body’s defenses misidentify self as threat. 



They point to patterns showing that some older patients retain a T cell pool that behaves more like that of much younger people, with strong renewal and rapid responses.



Those traits sound helpful during an infection. In the wrong context, they can feed persistent inflammation in tissues that never needed defending in the first place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giant-cell-arteritis-is-a-late-life-risk">Giant cell arteritis is a late life risk</h2>



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36656970/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Giant cell arteritis</a> is an autoimmune vasculitis that targets medium and large arteries and can narrow vessels, reduce blood flow, and damage the vessel wall. It is the most common <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41584-021-00718-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vasculitis</a> in older adults, especially among people of Northern European ancestry.



Across populations, the pooled incidence is about 10 cases per 100,000 people older than 50, with higher <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7948334/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rates</a> in some regions and lower in others. 



That number helps explain why clinicians are trained to keep an eye out for new headaches, jaw pain, and sudden visual changes in older patients.



Prevalence climbs with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-method-reverses-aging-in-human-cells-without-modifying-dna/">age</a>, peaking in the 70s and 80s, and it affects women more often than men. Those facts line up with the perspective’s central point about late-life immune patterns.



Untreated or smoldering disease can lead to permanent vision loss or aortic complications, including aneurysm, which underscores why accurate diagnosis and monitoring matter. Fast steroid treatment saves sight, but long-term disease control remains a challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-persistent-vessel-inflammation">Persistent vessel inflammation</h2>



A line of studies has mapped a small set of T cells with self-renewing traits in inflamed arteries of older patients. 



These cells look and act younger than expected for age, and they appear to supply the fuel for chronic inflammation.



The cells in question are stem-like memory <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3277283/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CD4+ T cells</a>. They carry a transcription factor profile consistent with renewal capacity and sit near the lesions that clinicians see on imaging or biopsy.



Within the vessel wall, they cluster in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41568-019-0144-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tertiary lymphoid structures</a>, small immune neighborhoods that help them persist. Their presence explains how inflammation can recur even when symptoms seem quiet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-failed-checkpoints-in-immune-aging">Failed checkpoints in immune aging</h2>



The immune system relies on immune checkpoints to keep T cells from overreacting, especially in tissues that need peace. Those checkpoints include receptor-ligand pairs that send inhibitory signals and help maintain tolerance to self.



Several lines of <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7136921/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> show that the axis of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmed_cell_death_protein_1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PD-1</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PD-L1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PD-L1</a> is off balance in this disease, with low PD-L1 on vascular dendritic cells and macrophages that should be braking T cells. 



That imbalance removes a layer of control and helps explain why inflammation is hard to shut down in affected arteries. 



Other checkpoint pathways may falter as well. A 2023 <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37075705/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> reported a defective immune checkpoint impaired, in giant cell arteritis leading to a pathogenic immune response. 



This checkpoint normally regulates T cell activation and prevents excessive inflammation. This research points to a broader failure to impose restraint on activated T cells.



Clinical experience also shows that turning off checkpoints in cancer can, in rare cases, trigger vasculitis. 



Case <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11986302/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reports</a> and reviews link checkpoint inhibitor treatment to giant cell arteritis in older patients, which fits the idea that removing brakes can unmask self-reactivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-some-aging-may-help">Why some aging may help</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-experimenting-with-new-approach-to-fight-and-stop-human-aging-necrosis/">Aging</a> changes the adaptive immune system in predictable ways. Vaccine responses dip, naive T cells become rarer, and recall responses dominate, a set of shifts often grouped under <a href="https://immunityageing.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12979-019-0164-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immunosenescence</a>.



Those changes are not uniformly bad. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31186548/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reviews</a> of T cell aging highlight adaptations in self-renewal, quiescence, and cellular senescence that appear to limit runaway activation in older adults, which may protect against autoimmunity in some contexts.



The perspective adds a useful twist by suggesting that delayed immune aging can be maladaptive in late life. In other words, a youthful T cell program, sustained for decades, may become a liability when new tissue changes accumulate.



Age adds new neoantigens, altered self molecules that T cells can misread as foreign. A renewing T cell pool plus a higher antigenic load makes a potent mix, especially in tissues exposed to wear and tear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-impact-of-immune-aging">Clinical impact of immune aging</h2>



A practical question follows: how do we identify older adults whose immune systems remain unusually youthful, and who might be at higher risk for late-life autoimmunity. 



The answer will likely combine immune profiling with imaging and careful clinical phenotyping.



Mayo Clinic has framed a strategy around prediction and early interception, a push that leaders describe under the Precure initiative, which aims to predict and prevent disease before it becomes serious.&nbsp;



For vascular inflammation, that could mean spotting the signatures of self-renewing T cells, then tailoring treatment to shut off the supply rather than only chasing the flames.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-025-00919-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a>.



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Human immune systems have a 'fountain of youth' and scientists are trying to activate it

Aging bodies usually slow down. Immune defenses are no exception,...

You read words with your eyes, but you also hear them with a voice in your head. That inner speech isn’t just a feeling. It leaves a clear footprint in the brain that can be mapped to text on a screen. 



For people who can’t speak because of paralysis or other conditions, that shift could open the door to faster, more natural conversation.



Scientists have now identified brain activity patterns linked to inner speech and decoded them into text with a 74% accuracy rate.



Published in the journal Cell, the work could enable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-computer-interface-device-lets-users-play-games-with-only-their-minds/">brain-computer interface</a> (BCI) systems to help people who cannot speak out loud communicate by silently thinking a password to activate the system.



“This is the first time we’ve managed to understand what brain activity looks like when you just think about speaking,” explains lead author Erin Kunz of <a href="https://www.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>. 



“For people with severe speech and motor impairments, BCIs capable of decoding inner speech could help them communicate much more easily and more naturally.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-movement-decoding-to-inner-speech">Movement decoding to inner speech</h2>



BCIs already help people with disabilities by interpreting brain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-the-speed-at-which-the-brain-processes-information/">signals</a> that control movement. 



These systems operate prosthetic devices or type text by decoding attempted speech - when users engage speech muscles but produce unintelligible sounds. 



This is faster than eye-tracking but still demands effort, which can be tiring.



The Stanford team explored decoding purely imagined speech. “If you just have to think about speech instead of actually trying to speak, it’s potentially easier and faster for people,” says co-first author Benyamin Meschede-Krasa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-worked">How the study worked</h2>



Four participants with severe paralysis from ALS or brainstem stroke took part. Researchers implanted microelectrodes into the motor cortex, a speech-related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/multitasking-messes-with-your-brains-natural-rhythm/">brain</a> area. 



Participants either attempted speaking or imagined saying words. The two tasks activated overlapping regions, though inner speech produced weaker signals.



The researchers also observed that imagined speech involved reduced activity in non-primary motor areas compared to attempted speech, suggesting more streamlined neural pathways. 



Their models could reliably distinguish between the two types of speech despite these similarities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-and-unexpected-findings">Decoding and unexpected findings</h2>



Artificial intelligence models, trained specifically on data from participants’ imagined speech, demonstrated the ability to decode complete sentences from a remarkably large vocabulary of up to 125,000 words, achieving an accuracy rate of 74%. 



In addition to decoding prompted sentences, the system was sensitive enough to pick up on unplanned, spontaneous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-stops-paying-attention-to-repeated-distractions/">mental activity</a>.



For example, when participants were asked to count the number of pink circles on a screen, the BCI detected the numbers they silently tallied, even though they were never instructed to think them. 



This finding indicates that imagined speech generates distinct and identifiable neural patterns, even without direct prompting or deliberate effort from the user.



Furthermore, the research revealed that inner speech signals tend to follow a consistent temporal pattern across multiple trials. 



In other words, the timing of brain activity during silent speech remained stable each time the participants imagined speaking.



This reliable internal rhythm could be an important factor in refining future decoding algorithms, as it provides a predictable framework for translating thought into text with greater accuracy and speed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinguishing-speech-types">Distinguishing speech types</h2>



While the brain activity patterns for attempted speech and inner speech showed many similarities, the researchers discovered that there were still consistent and measurable differences between them. 



These differences were significant enough for the system to accurately tell the two apart, even when the signals came from overlapping brain regions.



According to Frank Willett, this distinction opens the door for developing BCIs that can selectively respond to one type of speech over the other. 



In practical terms, this means a device could be programmed to completely ignore inner speech unless the user chooses to activate it.



To give users full control, the team designed a password-based activation method. In this setup, decoding of inner speech would remain locked until the person silently thought of a specific phrase - in this case, “chitty chitty bang bang.” 



When tested, the system successfully recognized the password with more than 98% accuracy, ensuring both security and intentional use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-inner-speech-decoding">Future of inner speech decoding</h2>



Summing it all up, your inner voice leaves a measurable trace in the brain’s speech-planning system. With thin sensors and well-trained models, that trace can be turned into text in real time, without any physical movement. 



Free-form inner speech decoding remains a challenge due to variability in brain activity and limited vocabulary coverage. 



However, the authors highlight that higher-density electrode arrays, advanced machine learning models, and integration of semantic context could improve accuracy.



“The future of BCIs is bright,” Willett says. “This work gives real hope that speech BCIs can one day restore communication that is as fluent, natural, and comfortable as conversational speech.”



It’s not telepathy, and it’s not flawless, but it points toward a faster, more humane way for people who can’t speak to be heard - using the voice they already have, the one inside.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(25)00681-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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New brain-computer interface 'reads' your innermost thoughts and translates them into text

You read words with your eyes, but you also hear...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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