Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Regulations imposed to protect the environment can continue to influence behaviors even after they are repealed -- and sometimes in ways that counteract the original goals of the policies. 



This is the conclusion of a study co-authored by <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> (UCR) marketing professor Hai Che.



The researchers examined policies aimed at reducing the use of single-use plastic bags in Austin and Dallas, Texas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavioral-changes-after-plastic-bag-ban">Behavioral changes after plastic bag ban</h2>



Significantly, the study revealed that the behaviors prompted by the plastic bag regulations persisted even after the rules were no longer in place. 



However, some of these lingering impacts were not beneficial to the environment. 



Che and his co-authors discovered an increase in sales of plastic trash bags after the cities prohibited stores from giving away free plastic bags for carrying groceries. 



They quantified this by analyzing barcode scanner data on consumer purchases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unintended-increase-in-plastic-consumption">Unintended increase in plastic consumption</h2>



“We were hoping for positive spillover effects, like customers will be more environmentally conscious and consume less one-time use plastic or paper products,” said Che, an associate professor at UCR's School of Business.&nbsp;



“But that's not what happened in the data. People wound up buying more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-win-the-battle-of-planet-vs-plastic-drastic-changes-are-needed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic</a>.” He added that customers had been repurposing the free grocery bags as liners for household trash bins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-the-big-deal-about-plastic-bags">What's the big deal about plastic bags?</h2>



Plastic bag use by grocery stores has a major environmental impact. These bags often end up as litter in our streets, parks, and especially in waterways, where they can take hundreds of years to break down. 



Wildlife mistake them for food, leading to ingestion that can harm or even kill animals like sea turtles, birds, and marine life. 



Additionally, producing plastic bags relies heavily on fossil fuels, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. 



The sheer volume of single-use plastic bags also overwhelms recycling systems, making it difficult to manage waste effectively and increasing pollution levels.



Beyond the environment, plastic bags from grocery stores influence consumer behavior and community cleanliness. 



Many people rely on these bags for their convenience, but their widespread use encourages a throwaway culture that overlooks the importance of sustainability. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-changes-in-consumer-habits">Positive changes in consumer habits</h2>



Despite the unintended increase in plastic bag purchases, the bag rules likely changed consumer behavior in positive ways as well. 



People might have gotten into the habit of using reusable canvas or burlap bags for everyday shopping, although such data wasn't available to the researchers. 



The study also found that the longer a policy is in place, the longer the behaviors it encourages linger after the policy is repealed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ban-on-free-plastic-bags-nbsp">Ban on free plastic bags&nbsp;</h2>



In Dallas, the City Council imposed a five-cent fee for single-use bags for five months in 2015 before repealing it due to lawsuits from plastic bag manufacturers.&nbsp;



When free bags became available again, plastic bag sales initially declined sharply but returned to pre-policy levels after 13 months.



The Austin City Council banned single-use carryout bags in 2013, and the policy remained in place for five years until 2018 when the Texas Supreme Court struck down such bans statewide.&nbsp;



After the repeal, the increase in plastic bag purchases declined gradually and did not revert to the pre-policy baseline even after 18 months, which was the end of the researchers' analysis period. In fact, the carryover effect remained 38.6% above the baseline at the end of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-the-environmental-impact">Analyzing the environmental impact</h2>



To evaluate the overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-dietary-choices-have-enormous-environmental-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental impact</a>, the research team conducted a “break-even analysis” to determine if the plastic bag policies ultimately reduced plastic waste despite the negative spillover effects.&nbsp;



They calculated how many fewer single-use grocery bags consumers would need to use to offset the additional trash bags purchased due to the policies.



The analysis revealed that in Dallas, consumers would need to use one less grocery bag every seven trips, while in Austin, it would be one less bag every five trips to break even in terms of environmental impact.&nbsp;



“Interestingly, even a slight reduction in grocery bag use can offset the increased plastic consumption from trash bags. This suggests that these policies might still benefit the environment overall, even when repealed,” Che said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-for-environmental-policies">Broader implications for environmental policies</h2>



The study contributes to a growing body of knowledge on the unintended consequences of environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-decades-of-climate-policy-what-works-and-what-doesnt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">policies</a> and offers insights applicable beyond plastic bag usage.&nbsp;



“While our study focused on plastic bags, similar spillover effects have been documented in policies targeting sugary drinks, energy efficiency, and health incentives,” Che said.&nbsp;



“In each case, behaviors that weren't directly targeted by the policy - like purchasing more sugary snacks when soda is taxed - can offset or even undermine the policy's primary goals.”



This research highlights the complexity of designing environmental regulations that achieve their intended outcomes without unintended side effects.&nbsp;



It underscores the importance of considering how policies might influence a range of consumer behaviors, both directly and indirectly, to ensure that environmental goals are met effectively.



The study is published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00222437241290157" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Marketing Research</a>.



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Environmental policies like plastic bag bans at grocery stores can often backfire

Regulations imposed to protect the environment can continue to influence...

A group of scientists has given us a view into the radiation environment around Mars, which will be crucial for future astronauts as they explore the Red Planet.



They have pieced together the first comprehensive energy spectrum of protons during a recent solar eruption event.



This accomplishment significantly deepens our understanding of the radiation conditions around Mars -- a crucial step in ensuring the safety of astronauts on future exploration missions to the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-radiation-s-impact-on-space-travel">Solar radiation's impact on space travel</h2>



Solar radiation poses significant challenges for astronauts venturing into deep space, which is why it's important to understand the radiation levels the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-kidneys-may-not-survive-a-roundtrip-to-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first Mars astronauts</a> will be dealing with.



Without the Earth's protective atmosphere and magnetic field, astronauts are directly exposed to high-energy particles and harmful ultraviolet rays. 



This exposure can increase the risk of cancer, damage the central nervous system, and cause acute radiation sickness, making long-duration missions especially risky. 



Even short-term exposure can lead to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-space-travel-affect-eye-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eye problems like cataracts</a>, which have been a concern for many space travelers.



To combat these dangers, space missions incorporate various shielding techniques and develop advanced materials to protect crew members. 



Scientists are also researching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-travel-weakens-astronauts-immune-system-similar-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pharmaceutical countermeasures</a> that could help mitigate the effects of radiation on the body. 



Additionally, mission planners carefully monitor solar activity to schedule spacewalks and other extravehicular activities during periods of lower solar radiation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-solar-radiation-storms-on-mars">Impact of solar radiation storms on Mars</h2>



Solar energetic particle (SEP) events are caused by solar eruptions and are among the most destructive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-missions-prepare-intense-solar-storms-coming-red-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space weather phenomena</a>. 



During these events, charged particles, including protons, that are emitted by the Sun, become accelerated and may fly through space and enter the atmospheres of planets.



The flux of high-energy, charged particles in space may thus suddenly increase during these solar radiation storms, imposing significant threats to spacecraft safety, technological equipment and, of course, the well-being of astronauts.



In contrast to our blue planet, Mars lacks a robust protective magnetic field and only boasts a very thin atmosphere. This renders its surface more susceptible to these high-energy particles and to other, secondary particles.



Studying the impact of SEP events on Mars is, thus, critical for radiation protection in future Mars explorations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-the-presence-of-high-energy-protons">Monitoring the presence of high-energy protons</h2>



Back in November 2021, China’s Tianwen-1 orbiter stepped into its science mission orbit around Mars. Its onboard device, the Mars Energy Particle Analyzer (MEPA), began its job by measuring particle flux. 



With the MEPA's capacity to measure a wide energy range from 2–100 MeV, it is highly suitable for monitoring the presence of high-energy protons, both on the planet and in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-solar-storm-auroras-strikes-mars-nasa-spacecraft-record-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian space</a>. This provided critical data for the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-radiation-on-and-around-mars">Detecting radiation on and around Mars</h2>



On February 15th, 2022, an exciting incident occurred. MEPA registered a solar energetic particle event that had remarkable intensity and energy.



The accelerated protons in this event had energies that were high enough to penetrate the Martian atmosphere and induce radiation enhancement on the surface.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/mars_SEP-event_observations_solar-radiation-measured_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/mars_SEP-event_observations_solar-radiation-measured_1s.webp" alt="The SEP particle event on February 15, 2022 was simultaneously detected by the Chinese Tianwen-1 orbiter, TGO, MAVEN, and the Curiosity rover on the surface of Mars. Credit: Geophysical Research Letters" class="wp-image-1951687"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The SEP particle event on February 15, 2022 was simultaneously detected by the Chinese Tianwen-1 orbiter, TGO, MAVEN, and the Curiosity rover on the surface of Mars. Credit: Geophysical Research Letters</figcaption></figure>



The event was simultaneously detected by the European Space Agency’s Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO), NASA’s Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution Orbiter (MAVEN), and the Curiosity rover on the Martian surface.



This marked the first time an SEP event was observed by so many different radiation and particle detectors focused on Martian conditions. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-constructing-the-proton-energy-spectrum">Constructing the proton energy spectrum</h2>



Harnessing data from these multiple detectors, the researchers painted a full picture of the proton energy spectrum during the SEP event.



The low- and medium-energy proton spectra were obtained by Tianwen-1 and MAVEN. The high-energy proton flux was deduced by merging observations from Curiosity with simulations of particle transport in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secondary-peak-extreme-geomagnetic-solar-storm-expected-today/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian atmosphere</a>.



By fitting the observed and derived fluxes at different energies, the researchers made a breakthrough. They successfully constructed the complete proton energy spectrum of the SEP event, ranging from 1 to 1000 MeV.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-path-for-future-research">A path for future research </h2>



Taking their findings a step further, these scientists used this spectrum to compute the radiation dose caused by the event, both in Martian orbit and on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/auroras-and-severe-solar-storms-will-continue-through-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian surface</a>.



This calculation aligns with actual dose measurements, thus validating the reliability of the Tianwen-1 MEPA data and the accuracy of the Martian radiation transport model.



Beyond the immediate discovery, this study paves a path for future research on similar space weather phenomena. 



The research highlights the necessity for continuous and coordinated radiation monitoring on Mars. After all, the more we know about our neighboring planet's radiation environment, the safer that our future explorers will be.



-----



This significant research was supported by the Key Research Program and Strategic Priority Program of CAS, along with the National Natural Science Foundation of China.



This study was conducted jointly by researchers from the <a href="https://en.ustc.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Science and Technology of China</a>, the Institute of Modern Physics (<a href="https://english.imp.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IMP</a>) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (<a href="https://english.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CAS</a>), the Lanzhou Institute of Physics (<a href="https://www.cast.cn/english/channel/1809" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LIP</a>), and the University of <a href="https://www.uni-kiel.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kiel</a> in Germany.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL111775" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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Mars radiation levels are measured for the first time and will help astronauts prepare

A group of scientists has given us a view into...

Jupiter’s iconic Great Red Spot has captivated observers for centuries. Now, astronomers at UC Berkeley have identified equally intriguing Earth-sized spots at Jupiter’s poles. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unpredictable-ovals-appear-at-jupiter-s-poles-nbsp">Unpredictable ovals appear at Jupiter's poles&nbsp;</h2>



Unlike the Great Red Spot, these polar ovals appear and vanish unpredictably and are only visible at ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths.What is causing the mysterious haze at Jupiter’s poles?&nbsp;



These dark UV ovals, embedded in the stratospheric haze at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-great-red-spot-may-not-be-as-old-as-we-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a>’s north and south poles, were observed just below the bright auroral zones - regions similar to Earth’s northern and southern lights.&nbsp;



Absorbing more UV light than the surrounding areas, the ovals stand out in images captured by NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope.&nbsp;



A recent systematic study of Hubble’s observations from 2015 to 2022 revealed that these southern UV-dark ovals (SUDO) appear 75% of the time at the south pole, while their northern counterparts (NUDO) were spotted only twice in 25 global maps of Jupiter’s north pole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-mystery-at-jupiter-s-poles">Unraveling the mystery at Jupiter's poles</h2>



The discovery of these UV spots has led researchers to suspect that they are linked to Jupiter’s powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-jupiters-magnetosphere-will-help-us-predict-space-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic field</a>, which influences processes extending deep into the planet's atmosphere. These phenomena go far beyond the surface-level magnetic interactions responsible for auroras on Earth.



The findings, led by <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Berkeley</a> undergraduate researcher Troy Tsubota and senior astronomer Michael Wong, were recently published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41550-024-02419-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.&nbsp;



Their analysis builds on observations that date back to the late 1990s when Hubble first detected dark UV ovals at both poles.&nbsp;



The north pole ovals were also observed by NASA’s Cassini spacecraft during its flyby of Jupiter in 2000, but these features received little attention until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-systematic-study-of-the-polar-spots-nbsp">Systematic study of the polar spots&nbsp;</h2>



Tsubota’s systematic analysis of Hubble data revealed eight distinct southern UV-dark ovals between 1994 and 2022. However, similar features at the north pole were far less common, appearing only twice in 25 maps.&nbsp;



Most of the Hubble images used for this research were part of the Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) project, directed by Amy Simon at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center.&nbsp;



OPAL captures yearly snapshots of the outer planets - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune - to study their atmospheric dynamics and evolution. Tsubota’s innovative approach to analyzing OPAL data proved fruitful.&nbsp;



“In the first two months, we realized these OPAL images were like a gold mine,” said Tsubota. “I quickly constructed an analysis pipeline to process all the images and see what insights we could gain.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-causes-the-mysterious-ovals">What causes the mysterious ovals?</h2>



Collaborating with planetary atmospheric experts Tom Stallard of <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northumbria University</a> and Xi Zhang of <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Cruz</a>, the researchers developed a theory to explain these dense haze spots.&nbsp;



Stallard proposed that the ovals are the result of swirling vortex dynamics originating in Jupiter’s ionosphere.&nbsp;



The vortex may be driven by friction between Jupiter’s magnetic field lines and the sheet of ionized plasma surrounding the planet, which is influenced by volcanic activity on Jupiter’s moon Io.



The vortex spins most rapidly in the ionosphere, weakening as it descends into the atmosphere. At its deepest point, it stirs up the stratospheric haze, creating the dense, UV-dark ovals observed by Hubble.&nbsp;



“The haze in the dark ovals is 50 times thicker than the typical concentration, which suggests it likely forms due to swirling vortex dynamics rather than chemical reactions triggered by high-energy particles from the upper atmosphere,” said Zhang.&nbsp;



“Our observations showed that the timing and location of these energetic particles do not correlate with the appearance of the dark ovals.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jupiter-s-complex-atmospheric-system">Jupiter’s complex atmospheric system</h2>



The research team estimates that these ovals take about a month to form and dissipate within a few weeks. This rapid lifecycle highlights the dynamic nature of Jupiter’s atmosphere and the complex interplay of forces that shape its features.



Wong emphasized that the UV ovals offer valuable insights into the connections between different atmospheric layers.&nbsp;



“Studying connections between different atmospheric layers is very important for all planets, whether it’s an exoplanet, Jupiter, or Earth,” Wong said.&nbsp;



“We see evidence for a process connecting everything in the entire Jupiter system, from the interior dynamo to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hydrothermal-vents-could-support-life-on-jupiters-moons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">satellites</a> and their plasma torii to the ionosphere to the stratospheric hazes. Finding these examples helps us to understand the planet as a whole.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-planetary-evolution">A window into planetary evolution</h2>



The discovery of these polar UV-dark ovals underscores the importance of long-term observational projects like OPAL.&nbsp;



By systematically analyzing decades of data, researchers can uncover subtle but significant atmospheric features that were previously overlooked.



The findings not only enhance our understanding of Jupiter but also contribute to broader studies of planetary evolution. Similar atmospheric dynamics may exist on other gas giants in our solar system or even on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-discovery-nasa-identifies-over-5500-distant-worlds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanets</a> beyond it.



As researchers continue to study these enigmatic spots, their work will shed light on the mechanisms that drive atmospheric phenomena across a variety of planets, offering a richer understanding of the complexities within our solar system and beyond.



Image Credit: Troy Tsubota and Michael Wong, UC Berkeley



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What is causing the mysterious haze at Jupiter’s poles?

Jupiter’s iconic Great Red Spot has captivated observers for centuries....

Two hundred and thirty million years ago, in what is now Wyoming, dramatic seasonal changes dominated the climate. Torrential monsoons drenched the region for months, followed by extreme dry spells. Such harsh conditions posed significant challenges for amphibians, which rely on moist environments for survival. 



However, a group of salamander-like creatures developed a unique adaptation to endure these extremes, as evidenced by their unusual fossils discovered recently.



A recent study describes a new species of fossil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-40-of-amphibians-face-extinction-due-to-escalating-climate-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibian</a> preserved in torpedo-shaped burrows. These ancient creatures apparently used these burrows to wait out the dry seasons, showcasing an early form of estivation - a state of dormancy similar to hibernation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasonal-survival-strategies-of-amphibians-nbsp">Seasonal survival strategies of amphibians&nbsp;</h2>



Lead author Cal So, an incoming postdoctoral scientist at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Field Museum in Chicago</a>, explains that Wyoming during the Triassic period experienced some of the most drastic seasonal effects due to the mega-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-land-conditions-affect-the-asian-monsoon-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monsoon</a> impacting the supercontinent Pangea.



“How did these animals stay moist and prevent themselves from drying out during the hot and dry season that lasted several months?” So asked. “We find these fossils inside these cylindrical structures up to 12 inches long, which we’ve interpreted as burrows."



The discovery traces back to 2014 when David Lovelace, a research scientist at the <a href="https://museum.geoscience.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin Geology Museum</a>, was searching for fossils in a rock layer he named the Serendipity Beds. 



Lovelace noticed cylindrical structures resembling infilled burrows and collected several for analysis. Upon examining one of the preserved burrows in the lab, he found a tiny, toothy skull.



“I saw sharp, pointy teeth, and my first thought was that it was a baby crocodile,” Lovelace recalled. “But when we put it all together and prepared it, we realized it was some sort of amphibian.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-reveal-a-new-amphibian-species">Fossils reveal a new amphibian species</h2>



Collaborating with Jason Pardo, a postdoctoral researcher at the Field Museum specializing in fossil amphibians, the team conducted high-resolution CT scans of the burrows, revealing more skeletal remains.&nbsp;



Recognizing the significance of their find, the researchers continued excavations and ultimately collected around 80 fossil burrows, most containing skulls and bones.



The partial remains suggest that these amphibians were about a foot long with tiny, underdeveloped arms. Their skulls had a scoop-like shape, indicating they likely used their heads to dig burrows into the muddy riverbeds during dry seasons.



“They spent the dry season underground, in a state somewhat similar to hibernation, until the monsoon returned a few months later,” So explained.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, some of these creatures never emerged, possibly due to changes in river paths that left their burrows dry, leading to their demise.



The amphibians have been given a Shoshone name: Ninumbeehan dookoodukah, meaning “Little People’s flesh eater.” This name honors the Eastern Shoshone people and references the creature's sharp teeth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eastern-shoshone-community-engagement">Eastern Shoshone community engagement </h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a> were discovered on lands stewarded by the <a href="https://www.blm.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bureau of Land Management</a>, within the ancestral territories of the Eastern Shoshone people. The research team established an ongoing collaborative relationship with the local community.



“Our interest is in education, so we met with the Tribal Historic Preservation Officer for the Eastern Shoshone, and he connected us with the schools,” Lovelace said.&nbsp;



Middle school students from Fort Washakie School, along with their teachers and elders, joined the researchers in the field. The elders shared their knowledge of the land, while the students assisted in finding burrows and bones.



Amanda LeClair-Diaz, Office of Indian Education Coordinator and a co-author of the paper, highlighted the importance of this collaboration.



“This process of scientists, community members, educators, middle school students, and Eastern Shoshone elders coming together to learn about these fossils and choosing a Shoshone name for the fossil, Ninumbeehan dookoodukah, solidifies the intergenerational connection we as Shoshone people have to our homeland and the beings that exist within this environment,” said LeClair-Diaz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-amphibian-survival">Insights into amphibian survival</h2>



The discovery of Ninumbeehan dookoodukah offers valuable insights into life during the Triassic period. Small amphibians from this era are rare in the fossil record, making this find particularly significant.



“We find some big ones, but these small ones are really quite challenging to find,” Pardo said. The survival strategy of these amphibians - burrowing to escape extreme weather - mirrors behaviors seen in some modern species.



Understanding how ancient creatures adapted to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> extremes can inform current studies on how modern amphibians might cope with the changing climate.&nbsp;



“The way that Ninumbeehan could slow down its metabolism to wait out the dry weather indicates that some lineages of modern amphibians that have similar seasonal behavior might allow for greater survivorship than some of the models suggest,” Pardo said. “It’s a little glimmer of hope.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-to-the-past-in-hope-for-the-future">Looking to the past in hope for the future</h2>



The research not only uncovers a new species but also strengthens the connection between science and indigenous knowledge. 



By integrating paleontology with community collaboration, the study enriches our understanding of Earth's history and fosters appreciation for the intricate relationships between ancient creatures and their environments.



As climate change poses new challenges, the resilience strategies of Ninumbeehan dookoodukah may inspire hope and guide conservation efforts for present-day amphibians facing similar environmental pressures.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.1041" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



Image Credit: Copyright: Gabriel N. Ugueto



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Amphibian fossils found in burrows reveal ancient survival strategies 

Two hundred and thirty million years ago, in what is...

The cells in our bodies function like bustling cities. They run on an iron-powered system that uses hydrogen peroxide, not merely as a cleaning agent, but as a conduit for crucial signals that involve carbon dioxide (CO2) and help protect the DNA.



It's an efficient system under normal circumstances, but becomes a cause for concern when cells experience stress, such as during inflammation or a sudden surge in energy usage.



Under such strain, oxidative stress can inflict damage to cells at the genetic level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-bicarbonate">Role of bicarbonate</h2>



There is a chemical reaction within our cells that goes by the name of the Fenton reaction. In this reaction, iron and hydrogen peroxide mix, producing destructive hydroxyl radicals that indiscriminately attack DNA and RNA. 



However, these cells manage to turn what seems to be an adversary -- CO2 -- into an ally. 



Carbon dioxide, infamous for its impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/met-office-2024-co2-levels-will-surpass-the-point-of-no-return/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global climate</a>, provides our DNA and cells with bicarbonate, which helps maintain pH balance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bicarbonate-s-overlooked-function">Bicarbonate's overlooked function</h2>



According to a study conducted by a team of chemists from the University of Utah, bicarbonate's function extends beyond being a simple pH buffer.



The research showed that bicarbonate can alter the Fenton reaction in our cells, thereby reducing the formation of chaotic hydroxyl radicals. Instead, the reaction produces carbonate radicals which pose a lesser threat to DNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxidative-stress-and-diseases">Oxidative stress and diseases</h2>



<a href="https://www.chem.utah.edu/directory/burrows/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cynthia Burrows</a>, a distinguished professor of chemistry, and senior author of the study, talked about the implications of this discovery, particularly in understanding diseases where oxidative stress plays a substantial role.



“So many diseases, so many conditions have oxidative stress as a component of disease. That would include many cancers, effectively all age-related diseases, a lot of neurological diseases,” said Burrows. 



“We’re trying to understand cells’ fundamental chemistry under oxidative stress. We have learned something about the protective effect of CO₂ that I think is really profound.”



Burrows' team included research associate professor, Aaron Fleming, and doctoral candidate, Justin Dingman, both of whom are members of the Burrows Laboratory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-impact-of-co-2-on-dna">Real impact of CO2 on DNA</h2>



Through their study, the researchers discerned the significant role of bicarbonate in our cells when they are confronted with oxidative stress.



Without bicarbonate, or CO2 being present during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-secret-code-called-spatial-grammar-may-rewrite-genetics-textbooks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> oxidation reactions, the free radical species generated - the hydroxyl radical - is extremely reactive and severely damages DNA.



However, the presence of bicarbonate from dissolved CO2 changes the reaction, resulting in a less damaging radical that targets only guanine, a constituent of our genetic code.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bicarbonate-the-new-game-changer">Bicarbonate, the new game-changer</h2>



The discovery by Burrows and her team suggests that cells are far more intelligent than previously believed.



This could reshape our understanding of oxidative stress and its link to diseases, such as cancer, and aging.



More importantly, their findings suggest that many scientists studying cell damage might have been conducting lab experiments in ways that don't reflect real conditions, which could cast doubt on their findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-question-of-proper-lab-conditions">Question of proper lab conditions</h2>



Scientists grow cells in a tissue culture in an incubator set to body temperature, where carbon dioxide levels are raised to 5%. 



This environment replicates the cells' natural habitat as they metabolize nutrients. However, this environment changes when researchers begin their experiments outside the incubator.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-co-2-beyond-dna">Importance of CO2 beyond DNA</h2>



According to Burrows, bicarbonate must be included in experiments to ensure reliable results. 



“Most people leave out bicarbonate/CO₂ when studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-and-imprint-new-era-dna-transformation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> oxidation because it is difficult to deal with the constant outgassing of CO₂,” Burrows explained.



“These studies suggest that to get an accurate picture of DNA damage that occurs from normal cellular processes like metabolism, researchers need to be careful to mimic the proper conditions of the cell and add bicarbonate, i.e., baking powder!”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-positive-outcomes">Potential positive outcomes</h2>



Burrows conjectures that her study could have unexpected benefits that may someday advance research in other areas. 



Her lab is currently seeking new funding from NASA to study the effect of CO2 on people confined to enclosed spaces, such as those inside space capsules and submarines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co-2-s-protective-properties-on-dna">CO2's protective properties on DNA</h2>



Research into the protective effect of CO2 could be vital for astronauts working in enclosed environments where elevated CO2 levels are commonplace.



A slightly higher concentration of CO2 might offer a protective shield against radiation, which generates hydroxyl radicals. Such findings could drastically change the way we look at carbon dioxide and its role within our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-molecular-orientation-new-discovery-deepens-the-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a>.



Ultimately, this study sheds light on how cells smartly defend DNA and maintain balance. The discovery of bicarbonate's role in this process is bound to stir the realms of scientific research, shattering misconceptions and reshaping future studies.



The research was funded by the NIH/National Institute of General Medical Sciences.



The study is published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.08.26.609766v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BioRxiv</a>.



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<pre class="wp-block-code"><code> </code></pre>

CO2 is actually good for our DNA, even though it's wreaking havoc on Earth's climate

The cells in our bodies function like bustling cities. They...

How do you tell if a plant is doing well or poorly? Is there a way to increase agricultural productivity in our world of climate change and overpopulation? The answers to these pressing questions may be found in a tiny yet powerful plant sensor created by researchers from Japan's Tohoku University.



This is more than just a tale of innovation; it's the story of how we're transforming the way we monitor our planet's green life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-methods-new-problems">Old methods, new problems</h2>



The adverse impacts of climate change are not news. Harsh weather conditions such as heatwaves, intense rainfall, and prolonged droughts stress our plants and crops, reducing yields and endangering the long-term health of our farms, forests, and biodiversity.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sensors-that-detect-plant-stress-could-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tracking plant responses</a> has always been challenging, and while drones and aircraft offer a bird's eye view of our greenery, they capture only surface-level information.



Moreover, these high-tech solutions need constant adjustments to track plants accurately over time. On the other hand, smaller, ground-level sensors that can monitor individual plants require manual checks, which become impractical for larger fields or forests.



"The traditional methods may work well for some purposes, but they are difficult to operate and quite expensive. In order to continuously monitor small changes, we needed a new solution," said Kaori Kohzuma, a member of the research team at <a href="https://www.tohoku.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tohoku University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-step-towards-smarter-agriculture">Step towards smarter agriculture</h2>



Addressing these challenges, the researchers developed a unique sensor that can be attached directly to the underside of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-a-secret-breathing-strategy-in-response-to-heat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> leaves. Framed in its small body is a powerful spectroscopic sensor and light source that can measure leaf color over time without blocking sunlight.



Easy to use and durable, the sensor is powered by a battery and equipped with Wi-Fi for data transfer. Thanks to its waterproof design, it can work outdoors for over a month, ensuring extended data collection.



"Smart agriculture is a huge time-saver," said Ko-ichiro Miyamoto, a researcher at Tohoku University.



"Farmers don't have time to manually check every single plant. This sensor is able to provide fine-tuned readings for what's going on in real time. Then, they can react accordingly to areas where plants are experiencing high levels of stress."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-putting-the-plant-sensor-to-test">Putting the plant sensor to test</h2>



The sensor was put through stringent tests where it had to take on a commercial spectrometer across about 90 leaves from 30 different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-diverse-crops-traps-carbon-and-boosts-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant species</a>. 



In the face-off, the sensor distinguished colors accurately across seven out of its eight detectable wavelengths. It also showed similar readings to commercial chlorophyll meters at 620 nm.



An outdoor trial was conducted to test the sensor under real-world, changing conditions. Attached to birch leaves, it tracked changes in leaf color during autumn, leaf fall, and aging over a span of two weeks.



The sensor recorded a decrease in chlorophyll - often an indication of plant stress - and documented how the plant's response shifted with sunlight intensity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-smart-agriculture">Future of smart agriculture</h2>



"This affordable sensor is a promising tool for accurately monitoring plant health and stress through leaf color and light reflection data," said Kohzuma.



"Its low cost makes it possible to place multiple sensors across various locations, creating a network for simultaneous monitoring in many spots."



Indeed, the future of agriculture looks bright, and this smart sensor technology could well be the forerunner in a new wave of precision farming. 



Farmers, forest rangers, and researchers alike could benefit from the granular data provided by these sensors, and use it to ensure the health and productivity of our plant life in a challenging environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-plant-sensors">Significance of plant sensors</h2>



Smart farming is more than a buzzword; it's an essential part of our initiatives to sustain life on Earth. 



"The plant sensor can be a powerful tool in the field of agriculture and ecological study by realizing simultaneous, multi-point and remote monitoring at a low cost," noted the researchers.



As we continue to battle against climate change and overpopulation, innovative solutions like the plant sensor offer a beacon of hope for our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaccinating-plants-could-boost-global-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">green world</a>. It's time to embrace technology that will help plants thrive in a changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214180424000709?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research</a>.



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New sensor remotely tracks plant health in real time

How do you tell if a plant is doing well...

Ever wondered how social stress affects our brains? Well, scientists are now diving deep, using the aquatic social dynamics of cichlid fish to peer into the murky waters of mental health. 



The latest findings suggest that social dynamics can significantly influence oxidative stress in the brain. But what exactly is oxidative stress, and what's the interplay with social stress? 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-stress-and-the-brain">Social stress and the brain</h2>



Social stress isn't good for the grey matter in the brain. It's believed to contribute to a build-up of oxidative stress in the brain.



This, in turn, has been linked to mental health and neurodegenerative disorders. However, the specific mechanisms that transform social stress into oxidative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-eats-away-our-brains-cognitive-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a>, and how social status factors in, remain hazy.



Dr. Peter Dijkstra and his team at <a href="https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&amp;rls=en&amp;q=Central+Michigan+University&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Central Michigan University</a> chose to investigate these questions in an unexpected setting - a fish tank filled with cichlids, a type of highly social fish with a hierarchical group structure. 



The findings? Social stress can magnify oxidative stress in the brains of low-status fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-low-rank-high-stress">Low rank, high stress</h2>



“We found that low rank was generally linked to higher levels of oxidative stress in the brain,” said Dijkstra. 



“The patterns of oxidative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-is-contagious-and-this-applies-to-animals-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> in the brain are likely influenced by social experience modulating cellular processes in the brain.”



Male cichlids live within a rigid, eye-catching social hierarchy. Dominant males are larger, more aggressive, and flashier than their subordinate counterparts, thanks to higher levels of androgen hormones. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-in-social-fish">Stress in social fish </h2>



Dominant males have territories to protect and females to woo. What's more, hormones like androgens are known to increase due to social stress and correlate with changes in levels of oxidative stress across various organs.



The researchers then wondered how social stress impacts oxidative stress levels, given that the cichlids' stressful social life was closely tied to their androgen levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-social-stress-levels-in-fish">Monitoring social stress levels in fish </h2>



The researchers set the stage for cichlids to interact freely in large tanks. They then recorded the cichlids' behavior and soon found a stable hierarchy emerging between the fish.



They collected blood samples and examined the brains of the male fish, measuring markers of oxidative stress and antioxidant capacity in each brain division.



The researchers found that low-status fish evidenced higher levels of oxidative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-learn-resilience-from-stressful-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> and lower antioxidant capacity than their high-ranking counterparts. Even though the alpha males showed higher oxidative stress levels in their blood, their brains seemed somehow better shielded.



Surprisingly, signs of reproductive activity associated with high status in these fish were linked to higher antioxidant levels and lower oxidative stress in the brain. This could be connected to their higher androgen levels, which can be neuroprotective in certain situations.



However, the researchers warn that the effects of status on oxidative stress are far from simple. When they looked at markers of oxidative DNA damage and antioxidant capacity in various brain divisions, they found that different markers reacted differently to the fish's social status.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-stress-and-modern-society">Social stress and modern society</h2>



Dr. Dijkstra highlights the relevance of their study for understanding how stress in our modern human societies can influence essential physiological functions. 



“We compare ourselves to others continuously, and these problems are especially compounded by social media. But I would be hesitant to directly relate our findings to human societies,” he states.



He suggests that far more research is needed before making any connections between the findings of the cichlid study and the effect of stress on human societies. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The scientists caution that further targeted studies are necessary to comprehend the impact of the interplay between social stress and oxidative stress on specific brain regions. 



“I think we just uncovered some interesting patterns across different divisions of the brain,” said Dijkstra. “The next step is to understand the regulation of oxidative stress better and how social stress influences this. This requires more rigorous experimental studies.“



Our understanding of how social stress influences our brains is currently woefully inadequate, so every study like this helps us navigate the unknown a bit better.



So, whether you're a dominant alpha or feeling a tad subordinate, remember that we're all swimming in the same <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-significantly-lowers-heart-disease-risk-by-reducing-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stressful</a> societal waters. The point is to keep swimming and discover how we can navigate these currents better.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/behavioral-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnbeh.2024.1477984/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience</a>.



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Social stress harms the brains of low-status fish

Ever wondered how social stress affects our brains? Well, scientists...

The neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin have won popularity titles in the realm of brain science.



The former has often been heralded as the "pleasure chemical," while the latter is associated with happier, more relaxed moods.



However, the roles of these two chemical messengers are more complex and critical than commonly portrayed.



Recent research reveals an intricate balance between them, which contributes significantly to shaping our behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-real-dynamic-duo">The real dynamic duo</h2>



<a href="https://neuroscience.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford's Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute</a> has set the stage for a fascinating reveal about the nature of these two protagonists.



Unraveling a new aspect of these mood-managing molecules in their study, the researchers illustrate the complex relationship between dopamine and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-dance-of-dopamine-and-serotonin-influences-social-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">serotonin</a>. 



The findings contradict the common misconception that dopamine is purely a pleasure or reward chemical and serotonin only a gentle mood stabilizer.



"In addition to their involvement in our everyday behavior, dopamine and serotonin are implicated in a wide variety of neurological and psychiatric disorders: addiction, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autism-and-adhd-disorders-directly-linked-amount-of-time-kids-spend-on-screens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">autism</a>, depression, schizophrenia, Parkinson’s and more," explained Robert Malenka, the study's senior author. 



"It's critical for us to understand their interactions if we are to make progress treating these disorders."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-players-distinct-roles">Distinct players, distinct roles</h2>



Historically, dopamine has been closely associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-the-brain-identify-rewards-and-punishments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reward</a> prediction and seeking, while serotonin has been known to balance these impulses and promote long-term thinking. 



Two primary theories have been developed to explain their interplay: the "synergy hypothesis" and the "opponency hypothesis."



The synergy hypothesis suggests that, while dopamine handles short-term rewards, serotonin manages long-term benefits.



Conversely, the opponency hypothesis argues that dopamine and serotonin act as balancing forces, with dopamine spurring immediate action while serotonin promotes patience.



The new study from Stanford's NeuroChoice Initiative provides the first direct experimental test of these competing hypotheses, and offers fresh insights into the dopamine-serotonin dynamic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-revealing-experiment">A revealing experiment</h2>



The team used specially engineered mice to observe and control both dopamine and serotonin systems. 



This experimental approach helped the researchers pinpoint the interaction between these two neurotransmitters within the nucleus accumbens, a part of the brain involved in emotion, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nutritional-interventions-can-boost-motivation-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">motivation</a>, and reward processing.



In this experiment, the researchers noticed that the dopamine and serotonin systems responded in opposing ways when the mice learned to associate a tone and flashing light with a reward.



They noted that dopamine signaling increased in response to the reward, while serotonin signaling decreased.



It was found that both systems had to be operational for the mice to successfully predict the arrival of a reward based on the presentation of sound and light cues.



This finding supports the decades-old hypothesis of dopamine-serotonin opponency.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-better-understanding-of-dopamine-and-serotonin">A better understanding of dopamine and serotonin</h2>



The Stanford study suggests that dopamine and serotonin work in tandem, yet in contrasting ways, to help the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-enhances-brain-function-during-exercise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> learn from the experience of being rewarded.



The study proposes that dopamine acts as the "accelerator," encouraging reward-seeking behavior, while serotonin plays the role of the "brakes," encouraging patience and long-term thinking.



This new understanding could significantly impact the treatment of disorders, including addiction and mood disorders like depression and anxiety, which involve dopamine and serotonin dysfunction.



Other implications include the potential development of new strategies in addiction treatment to reduce dopamine signaling and increase serotonin activity.



Similarly, for depression, the focus would be on enhancing both systems to improve motivation and long-term planning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improved-treatments-and-better-health-outcomes">Improved treatments and better health outcomes </h2>



The innovative techniques used in this study could have long-standing applications for neuroscience research. 



As Malenka pointed out, these novel methodologies could help answer a host of questions related to how the brain mediates adaptive behavior and what goes wrong when these systems malfunction in disorders such as addiction, depression, and autism.



Understanding the delicate dance between dopamine and serotonin is not just about resolving a scientific curiosity. 



It's about enabling improved treatments, better health outcomes, and ultimately, more balanced, brighter lives for people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dopamine-and-serotonin-in-the-body">Dopamine and serotonin in the body</h2>



While the most popular role of dopamine and serotonin is in the brain, their impact is not exclusive to this part of the body.



Dopamine plays a crucial role in movement regulation and its dysfunction leads to motor disorders, such as Parkinson's disease.



In similar ways, serotonin&nbsp;affects&nbsp;a&nbsp;host of&nbsp;physiological functions, including gut motility, regulation of appetite and the sleep cycle.



In fact,&nbsp;outside of the brain, it&nbsp;is&nbsp;in the gut that&nbsp;the&nbsp;majority&nbsp;of&nbsp;serotonin is produced; here it helps digest food and is also transmitted to the brain along the gut-brain axis.



This broader understanding of dopamine and serotonin as multi-system players highlights their importance not just in shaping our moods and behaviors, but also in maintaining our overall health.



The Stanford study's revelations about the balance and interplay between these neurotransmitters could pave the way for holistic approaches to treating disorders that span both neurological and physical realms.



By addressing the underlying mechanisms at play, future therapies might simultaneously improve mental health and systemic well-being.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08412-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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How dopamine and serotonin shape behavior

The neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin have won popularity titles in...

Have you ever thought about the long-term effects of smoking trendy e-cigarettes? Are they better in terms of health effects than traditional tobacco cigarettes?



The sweeping wave of smoke-free e-cigarettes, also known as vapes, has seemingly sanitized the tobacco-polluted air with their battery-powered, vapor-producing devices.



Some e-cigarettes even come in a variety of flavors, making them especially appealing to the younger generation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-e-cigarettes-as-a-smoking-alternative">E-cigarettes as a smoking alternative</h2>



In a novel study led by Dr. Marianne Nabbout at the <a href="https://www.uams.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences</a>, shocking revelations about smoking and vaping have emerged.



Contrary to popular belief and crafty marketing strategies, the health implications of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaping-linked-to-lower-sperm-counts-and-testicular-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vaping</a> may not be as innocent as many perceive.



"E-cigarettes have long been marketed as a safer alternative to regular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tobacco-bans-could-help-prevent-1-2-million-lung-cancer-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tobacco</a> smoking. Some believe that e-cigarettes don't contain any of the harmful products, such as free radicals, found in regular tobacco cigarettes, because no combustion is involved," explained Dr. Nabbout.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-e-cigarettes-and-smoking">Comparing e-cigarettes and smoking</h2>



The&nbsp;study,&nbsp;conducted with&nbsp;the help of&nbsp;researchers&nbsp;at&nbsp;the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pennsylvania</a>,&nbsp;aimed to&nbsp;look&nbsp;into the immediate effects of both&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quitting-smoking-at-any-age-brings-big-and-immediate-health-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smoking</a> and vaping on the body's vascular functions .



The&nbsp;study&nbsp;participants&nbsp;consisted&nbsp;of&nbsp;31 healthy&nbsp;smokers&nbsp;or&nbsp;vapers between&nbsp;the&nbsp;ages&nbsp;of&nbsp;21 and 49 years.



In&nbsp;three&nbsp;different&nbsp;sessions,&nbsp;each&nbsp;participant&nbsp;underwent two MRI scans -&nbsp;before&nbsp;and after a smoking/vaping episode.



They&nbsp;used&nbsp;a cuff to&nbsp;restrict&nbsp;blood flow in the thigh. Following&nbsp;the&nbsp;deflation of&nbsp;the cuff, they&nbsp;assessed&nbsp;the&nbsp;vital metrics&nbsp;including femoral artery blood flow velocity and venous oxygen saturation.&nbsp;



For&nbsp;the&nbsp;assessment of&nbsp;cerebrovascular reactivity,&nbsp;they used&nbsp;a&nbsp;type of MRI&nbsp;known as phase-contrast MRI.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-apples-to-apples">Comparing apples to apples</h2>



Then, the gathered data from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marijuana-smokers-may-have-more-lung-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smokers</a> and vapers was compared to the baseline scans of ten non-smoking and non-vaping individuals, ranging in age from 21 to 33 years. The results were eye-opening.



There was an alarming decrease in resting blood flow velocity in the superficial femoral artery after inhaling both smoke and vapors from e-cigarettes.



This artery runs along the upper legs and supplies oxygen-enriched blood to the thighs, knees and lower legs. 



Interestingly, the reduction was more pronounced following the inhalation of e-cigarettes containing nicotine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-e-cigarettes-and-smoking-reduce-oxygen">E-cigarettes and smoking reduce oxygen</h2>



And it's not just about blood flow. The researchers also discovered a decrease in venous oxygen saturation in the vapers, whether or not the e-cigarettes contained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-and-nicotine-use-during-pregnancy-linked-to-infant-mortality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nicotine</a>.



This implies a possible immediate decrease in the lungs' uptake of oxygen after vaping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-public-awareness">Need for public awareness</h2>



"This study serves to highlight the acute effects smoking and vaping can have on a multitude of vascular beds in the human body," noted Dr. Nabbout.



"If the acute consumption of an e-cigarette can have an effect that is immediately manifested at the level of the vessels, it is conceivable that the chronic use can cause vascular disease."



These results indicate that, contrary to widespread belief, vaping may not be entirely risk-free.



The research serves to remind us that the path to a healthier lifestyle involves abstaining from smoking and vaping entirely.



Regulatory bodies should lean on science to guide the regulation of such products for the benefit of public health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-this-mean-for-public-health">What does this mean for public health?</h2>



Although&nbsp;the&nbsp;current&nbsp;study&nbsp;only&nbsp;compares the acute effects of using e-cigarettes and tobacco cigarettes, the findings lead to questions about the chronic, long-term effects of this behavior. 



In the long run, there is an increased risk that the condition of reduced blood flow and oxygen saturation can lead to peripheral artery disease, heart disease, or even strokes.



E-cigarette users will also mislead their perceptions on smoking as a "safe alternative" for long periods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increase-in-e-cigarette-use">Increase in e-cigarette use</h2>



Experts&nbsp;note&nbsp;that the&nbsp;fast-emerging&nbsp;popularity of e-cigarettes&nbsp;among&nbsp;the&nbsp;younger&nbsp;populace&nbsp;will introduce new public health concerns. 



The flavors, slick advertisements, and appearance of e-cigarettes have proved quite alluring to the generations who might never have thought about smoking.



That&nbsp;alone&nbsp;indicates&nbsp;that&nbsp;the&nbsp;public&nbsp;has&nbsp;a&nbsp;right&nbsp;to&nbsp;raise further questions&nbsp;and&nbsp;to&nbsp;bring the practice of vaping under intense regulatory scrutiny&nbsp;to&nbsp;discuss the&nbsp;potential long-term&nbsp;hazards&nbsp;posed&nbsp;by these devices.



As researchers like Dr. Marianne Nabbout continue to uncover the truth about e-cigarettes, the public must be informed of the risks so that the allure of the product does not overshadow its potential dangers.



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Vaping causes extreme health issues even without using tobacco

Have you ever thought about the long-term effects of smoking...

If you were to rewind the clock to the 1980s and tune your ear to the deep-sea waters off the coast of New Zealand, a peculiar sound might have caught your attention. 



This sound, reminiscent of a "quack," echoed through the South Fiji Basin's underwater soundscape in July 1982, presenting a unique mystery for researchers investigating marine acoustics at the time.



This strange, quack-like sound quickly became a topic of widespread interest, and its continuous repetition earned it the nickname "Bio-Duck."



Initially recorded during an experiment designed to characterize the marine audio environment of the region, the sound's repetitive and patterned nature left researchers astonished and intrigued at the possibility that it was biological in origin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-source-of-the-quack-still-unknown">The source of the quack still unknown</h2>



One of the pivotal contributors to this research was Ross Chapman who, at the time, was associated with the <a href="https://www.uvic.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Victoria</a>. He reflects about how the sound generated heated discussions among scientists who were perplexed about its source.



"The sound was so repeatable, we couldn't believe at first that it was biological. But in talking to other colleagues in Australia about the data, we discovered that a similar sound was heard quite often in other regions around New Zealand and Australia."



The mysterious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baleen-whales-cannot-escape-human-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">underwater communications</a> became a major point of discussion at the 187th Meeting of the Acoustical Society of America in November, 2024, where Chapman and his team presented their findings. They have yet to identify the makers of these enigmatic sounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unchartered-territory-of-ocean-noise-exploration">Unchartered territory of ocean noise exploration</h2>



Chapman’s journey into deciphering the mystery began in 1986 with the analysis of the data from the experiment. 



"We discovered that the data contained a gold mine of new information about many kinds of sound in the ocean, including sounds from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-mammals-in-the-us-are-highly-vulnerable-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine mammals</a>," he recalled. 



The field of marine acoustics was in its fledgling stages in the '80s, and every day was an opportunity for a new discovery. 



Despite the thrill and excitement, the source of the Bio-Duck sounds remained an enigma, with some theories suggesting that the sounds could be originating from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-may-have-ultrasonic-hearing-as-a-form-of-defense/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic minke whales</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engaging-in-a-deep-sea-dialogue">Engaging in a deep-sea dialogue</h2>



Chapman, however, had a different hypothesis. He believed these sounds were something more than just random noises - they could be a conversation. 



This hypothesis was supported by the pattern of the sounds recorded by an acoustic antenna, an array of hydrophones towed behind a ship. 



The acoustic array's unique design allowed the researchers to identify the direction the sounds were originating from and revealed that they came from different directions all around the ship.



"The most amazing thing was that when one speaker was talking, the others were quiet, as though they were listening. Then the first speaker would stop talking and listen to responses from others," Chapman noted.



This observation hinted at an organized communication pattern among the unseen marine speakers. He likened this to a conversation where one individual speaks while the others wait to respond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-story-unfolds-in-the-deep-sea">A story unfolds in the deep sea</h2>



"Maybe they were talking about dinner, maybe it was parents talking to children, or maybe they were simply commenting on that crazy ship that kept going back and forth towing that long string behind it," said Chapman.



While the mystery of the Bio-Duck is yet to be conclusively solved, the intriguing possibility of a deep-sea dialogue continues to fascinate us. 



It offers a reminder that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monitoring-ocean-life-through-underwater-soundscapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">underwater</a> universe is rich with life and communication, and humbles us with the realization that there is so much more left for us to understand about the world beneath the waves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-legacy-of-the-bio-duck-mystery">The legacy of the Bio-Duck mystery</h2>



The quack-like sounds of the Bio-Duck are not just a relic of past research; they’ve become a cornerstone for understanding the complexity of deep-sea ecosystems. 



These sounds have inspired decades of study into marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/language-like-patterns-decoded-in-sperm-whale-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal communication</a>, particularly among whales and other cetaceans. 



Today, advancements in acoustic technology allow scientists to revisit these historical recordings with modern tools, uncovering new layers of information that were previously inaccessible.



In recent years, the Bio-Duck has been referenced in studies seeking to map marine animal behaviors and migration patterns. 



These efforts emphasize the importance of long-term data collection, proving that even recordings from the 1980s can yield fresh insights when paired with today’s computational power.



The continued analysis of sounds like the Bio-Duck serves as a reminder of the mysteries still hidden in the deep sea. 



They highlight the need for sustainable marine exploration to protect these habitats and preserve the uncharted conversations of the underwater world.



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Unknown origin: 'Quack-like' sounds heard in the deep ocean remain a mystery

If you were to rewind the clock to the 1980s...

If you're a crayfish, location can make all the difference. In North America, these small crustaceans are facing tough times due to habitat destruction, damming, and pollution, leading many species to require urgent help.&nbsp;



Conversely, some of these same species, when introduced to Europe, have found the environment so favorable that they've become invasive, outcompeting local crayfish and spreading diseases that push native species toward extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searchable-atlas-the-world-of-crayfish">Searchable atlas: The World of Crayfish </h2>



Previously, researchers and conservation planners had to sift through multiple data sources to determine where specific crayfish species had been documented.&nbsp;



Now, a new mapping project led by the <a href="https://www.uvt.ro/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">West University of Timișoara, Romania</a> (WUT) and the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a> has compiled information on 427 crayfish taxa and over 100,000 observation records into the first searchable global atlas, named the World of Crayfish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-importance-of-crayfish">Ecological importance of crayfish</h2>



“One of the most basic pieces of information to know about a species is where it lives: its distribution and its range size. But we just don’t have that information for a lot of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bright-coloration-in-crayfish-does-not-serve-an-evolutionary-purpose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crayfish</a> species,” said Bloomer.&nbsp;



“About a third of crayfish are thought to be threatened or endangered, but for another 20-ish percent, we don't have the data available to even assess what their conservation status should be.”



Bloomer acknowledges that most people outside her field may not notice or appreciate crayfish, but she emphasizes their importance. 



Crayfish are considered “keystone species” in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-quarter-of-freshwater-fish-species-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater ecosystems</a>, playing significant roles as food sources for other animals and as ecosystem engineers. They create burrows that provide habitats for many species in semi-terrestrial environments. Unfortunately, their impact as invaders is equally significant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-unified-action">Urgent need for unified action</h2>



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Invasive species</a> are one of the gravest challenges to biodiversity in Europe, with profound ecological, economic, and societal consequences," said atlas co-creator Mihaela Ion, researcher at the <a href="https://www.ibiol.ro/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Biology Bucharest, Romanian Academy</a>.



"They disrupt ecosystems, outcompete native species, and impose significant costs on sectors like agriculture and fisheries. In some cases, they even threaten public health. A unified, science-driven approach is essential to mitigate their impact.”



These ecological changes occur locally but require global collaboration for effective conservation and invasion mitigation. That's why Ion, Bloomer, and their collaborators believe the new global crayfish atlas will make a significant difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-the-crayfish-atlas">Building the crayfish atlas</h2>



“We're looking at climate change, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat loss</a>, and international spread of invasive species and disease,” Bloomer said. “These global issues require global collaborations to move forward and make an impact.”



“The World of Crayfish™ (WoC) platform is designed to become a transformative tool in biodiversity research and management,” added Lucian Pârvulescu, a professor at WUT and project coordinator for the atlas.&nbsp;



“It serves as a foundation for integrating expert-validated datasets and applying advanced analysis techniques to address pressing ecological challenges like invasive species management." 



'WoC exemplifies the future of biodiversity data infrastructure - accessible, integrative, and purpose-driven. By focusing on freshwater ecosystems, particularly crayfish species, it addresses an urgent need for tools that do more than collect data - they provide solutions.”



Creating the atlas involved extracting GPS coordinates from every modern crayfish occurrence record in scientific literature, as well as museum and agency collections. 



Several thousand records were sourced from the <a href="https://crustacean.inhs.illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Crustacean Collection of the Illinois Natural History Survey</a>, part of the Prairie Research Institute at Illinois. Atlas co-creator and emeritus curator Christopher Taylor has collected and curated the collection for nearly 30 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-empowering-conservation-efforts">Empowering conservation efforts</h2>



The more than 100,000 data points can be visualized on a world map scalable to 20-kilometer hexagons, including an address lookup tool. 



Bloomer notes that this spatial scale is meaningful for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> planning but masks the exact locations where sensitive or imperiled species were found. 



Researchers and resource managers can register for an account on the website to access more detailed location data. Future updates to the atlas aim to enhance its capabilities.



“Through collaboration with international experts and leveraging scientific advancements, WoC aims to combine ecological data with geospatial and predictive tools. These tools will support tailored analyses, such as mapping invasive species dynamics, evaluating habitat suitability, and predicting population trends,” Pârvulescu said. 



“The platform’s strength lies in its ability to merge diverse data streams into a cohesive system that generates actionable insights.”



Ultimately, the team hopes the atlas will empower researchers, policymakers, and agencies to develop conservation assessments and policies to protect these important animals with precision and urgency. Bloomer also hopes the atlas will inspire public interest in crayfish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-raising-awareness-and-appreciation-for-crayfish">Raising awareness and appreciation for crayfish</h2>



“The unfortunate reality in conservation biology is that a lot of the species that get attention and funding are charismatic megafauna that people see on TV or in zoos," said Bloomer.



"This website gives the public better access to information on what lives near them, and could get them more interested in their local landscape. Hopefully, they’ll see that crayfish are just as cool as lions and rhinos."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.18229" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PeerJ</a>.



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Global crayfish atlas offers new tools for conservation 

If you're a crayfish, location can make all the difference....

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires its seeds like mini ballistic missiles. But how does it do this? Researchers seem to have solved this mystery -- a question that has baffled scientists for hundreds of years.



The results of a recent study, based on a myriad of experiments, high-speed videography, image scrutiny, and advanced mathematical modeling, are published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-squirting-cucumber">Understanding the squirting cucumber</h2>



The squirting cucumber, or Ecballium elaterium, derives its name from its unique method of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-seeds-go-dormant-to-avoid-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> dispersal.



As the fruit ripens, it transitions into a seed-launching machine, that can shoot out seeds enveloped in a jet of mucus-like fluid.



In a minuscule span of just 30 milliseconds, the seeds are propelled at speeds of around 20 meters per second or 44 miles per hour, enabling them to land a considerable distance away (approximately 10 meters or 33 feet). 



This is equal to around 250 times the length of the fruit itself .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-seed-dispersal">Decoding seed dispersal</h2>



Despite the fruit's intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal</a> method, the mechanism behind it -- as well as its impact on the plant's reproduction -- remained elusive until recently.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> ran a battery of tests on Ecballium specimens grown at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.



These experiments included capturing the seed dispersal in motion using a high-speed camera, conducting indentation tests, measuring the volume of the fruit and stem before and after dispersal, and observing the fruit's changes through time-lapse photography. 



Armed with this data, the team devised mathematical models to describe and understand the internal and external mechanics at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluid-distribution-in-squirting-cucumber">Fluid distribution in squirting cucumber</h2>



The team's rigorous approach resulted in the identification of key features of the plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersal strategy</a>. 



These involve a highly pressurized system, fluid redistribution, rapid recoil, and variable launch - that together form a sophisticated launch system.



The fluid redistribution from the fruit back into the stem, a feature thought to be unique to the squirting cucumber, was among the most significant findings.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="4NlCX5nNI6-4062310-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fine-tuning-for-successful-seed-dispersal">Fine-tuning for successful seed dispersal</h2>



The team's mathematical model helped them explore the effects of altering different parameters, and revealed that the squirting cucumber's seed projection method has been naturally fine-tuned for optimal dispersal and propagation.



For instance, making the stem thicker and stiffer led to a narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal area</a> and, therefore, a lower survival rate.



On the other hand, reducing the fluid transferred from the fruit to the stem caused the seeds to be ejected at accelerated speeds but with a nearly vertical launch angle, again resulting in reduced dispersal and survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mechanisms-of-a-unique-plant">Mechanisms of a unique plant</h2>



"For centuries people have asked how and why this extraordinary plant sends its seeds into the world in such a violent way," said Dr. Chris Thorogood, Deputy Director and Head of Science at the <a href="https://obga.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford Botanic Garden</a>.



"Now, as a team of biologists and mathematicians, we’ve finally begun to unravel this great botanical enigma." 



Dr. Derek Moulton, professor of Applied Mathematics at the Oxford <a href="https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mathematical Institute</a>, also participated in the research.



"The first time we inspected this plant in the Botanic Garden, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-europes-plants-at-risk-due-to-decline-in-seed-dispersers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed</a> launch was so fast that we weren’t sure that it had actually happened. It was very exciting to dig in and uncover the mechanism of this unique plant," Dr. Moulton explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-seed-dispersal">Beyond seed dispersal</h2>



According to Dr. Finn Box, a Royal Society University Research Fellow at the University of Manchester, this study has implications beyond botany.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/squirting-cucumber_Ecballium-elaterium_squirting-seeds_UOxford_1s.webp" alt="A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella" class="wp-image-1951606"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A still showing the jet ejected from a squirting cucumber, which carries its seeds distances of up to 10m away from the mother plant. Credit: Dominic Vella</figcaption></figure>



"This research offers potential applications in bio-inspired engineering and material science, particularly on-demand drug delivery systems, for instance microcapsules that eject nanoparticles where precise control of rapid, directional release is crucial," said Dr. Box.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-squirting-cucumber-a-part-of-history">The squirting cucumber: A part of history</h2>



Ecballium elaterium, a member of the Cucurbitaceae family, which also includes melon, pumpkin, squash, and courgette, is native to the Mediterranean region where it is commonly regarded as a weed due to its effective seed-dispersal strategy.



This plant caught the attention of ancient Greeks and Romans alike, with naturalist Pliny the Elder describing its powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed launch</a> centuries ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-future-research">Conservation and future research</h2>



Given the squirting cucumber's extensive use as a model for understanding complex biological phenomena, conserving its natural habitats becomes imperative. This plant holds significant scientific and ecological value.



Future research could investigate the genetic underpinnings of its unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dispersal system</a>, linking it to other species within the Cucurbitaceae family to unravel shared evolutionary traits.



Additionally, exploring the potential for cross-disciplinary applications, from environmental management to biomimicry in engineering, could broaden our perspective on how such ecological marvels can benefit human society while preserving biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410420121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: Dominic Vella



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How the 'squirting cucumber' squirts and the trigger that makes it happen

There is a fruit called the 'squirting cucumber' that fires...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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