In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp;



Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-the-heart-with-light">Controlling the heart with light</h2>



The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest.



The external controller detects abnormal rhythms and sends light through the body to activate the pacemaker and restore heartbeat. The study demonstrates the device’s effectiveness across animal and human donor hearts.&nbsp;



The development of the pacemaker was led by John A. Rogers, a professor of material science, biomedical engineering, and neurological surgery at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>.&nbsp;



“We have developed what is, to our knowledge, the world’s smallest pacemaker,” said Professor Rogers.



“There’s a crucial need for temporary pacemakers in the context of pediatric heart surgeries, and that’s a use case where size miniaturization is incredibly important. In terms of the device load on the body - the smaller, the better.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solution-designed-for-newborns">Solution designed for newborns</h2>



Though the light-activated pacemaker can function in patients of all sizes, its miniaturized design was motivated by the needs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infant-speech-is-driven-by-heart-rate-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>. 



Igor Efimov is a co-leader of the study and experimental cardiologist at Northwestern.&nbsp;



“About 1% of children are born with congenital heart defects. The good news is that these children only need temporary pacing after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surgery</a>. In about seven days or so, most patients’ hearts will self-repair. But those seven days are absolutely critical," said Efimov.



Traditional pacemakers require surgery and have wires sticking out of the chest to connect to an external device. When they are no longer needed, the wires are removed - risking bleeding, tissue damage, or even death.



“Wires literally protrude from the body, attached to a pacemaker outside the body,” Efimov explained. “When the pacemaker is no longer needed, a physician pulls it out. The wires can become enveloped in scar tissue. That’s actually how Neil Armstrong died.”



The new injectable pacemaker addresses these risks. All of its components are biocompatible and bioresorbable, meaning they safely dissolve in the body’s fluids without needing surgical removal. Once the device has served its purpose, it simply disappears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-the-light-activated-pacemaker">Refining the light-activated pacemaker</h2>



This innovation builds on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41587-021-00948-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier work</a> by Rogers and Efimov, who developed a quarter-sized dissolvable pacemaker in 2021. Surgeons asked for a smaller version to allow easier placement and suit the smallest patients.&nbsp;



The original device used near-field communication (NFC), but its antenna limited how small the device could be made. To overcome this, the team replaced the NFC system with a novel light-based mechanism.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1s.webp" alt="The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University" class="wp-image-1964846"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Click image to enlarge. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University</figcaption></figure>



“Instead of using the radio frequency scheme for wireless control, we developed a light-based scheme for turning the pacemaker on and delivering stimulation pulses to the surface of the heart. This is one feature that allowed us to dramatically reduce the size,” said Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powered-by-the-body-s-own-fluids">Powered by the body’s own fluids</h2>



The engineers also reimagined how to power the tiny pacemaker. Rather than requiring a battery or external power source, the device uses a simple galvanic cell - a chemical battery formed by two different metals as electrodes.&nbsp;



When the device is inside the body, surrounding biofluids act as the electrolyte, allowing electrical current to flow and stimulate the heart.



“A very tiny light-activated switch on the opposite side from the battery allows us to turn the device from its ‘off’ state to an ‘on’ state upon delivery of light that passes through the patient’s body from the skin-mounted patch,” explained Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-trauma-and-risk">Reducing trauma and risk</h2>



Using infrared light, which can safely penetrate deep into the body, the wearable controller detects when a patient’s heart rate falls too low. It then triggers a light-emitting diode (LED) to flash on and off at the desired pacing rhythm.&nbsp;



“Infrared light penetrates very well through the body,” Efimov said. “If you put a flashlight against your palm, you will see the light glow through the other side of your hand. It turns out that our bodies are great conductors of light.”



Despite its microscopic size - just 1.8 mm wide, 3.5 mm long, and 1 mm thick - the pacemaker delivers stimulation on par with traditional devices. “The heart requires a tiny amount of electrical stimulation,” Rogers said.&nbsp;



“By minimizing the size, we dramatically simplify the implantation procedures, we reduce trauma and risk to the patient, and, with the dissolvable nature of the device, we eliminate any need for secondary surgical extraction procedures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-heart-care">A new era of heart care</h2>



Because these light-activated pacemakers are so small and wireless, doctors could one day deploy multiple units on different parts of the heart to create more advanced pacing systems. 



Each device could be controlled independently using different light wavelengths, enabling personalized and precisely timed stimulation across the heart’s surface.



“We can deploy a number of such small pacemakers onto the outside of the heart and control each one,” Efimov said. “Then we can achieve improved synchronized functional care.”



Professor Rogers noted that because it’s so small, the pacemaker can be integrated with almost any kind of implantable device.



“We also demonstrated integration of collections of these devices across the frameworks that serve as transcatheter aortic valve replacements to address complications that can occur during a patient’s recovery process," said Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bioelectronic-medicine">Future of bioelectronic medicine</h2>



While this breakthrough has clear implications for pediatric heart care, the technology could pave the way for a new generation of bioelectronic medicine.&nbsp;



These tiny, dissolvable devices could one day be adapted to promote nerve and bone regeneration, manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain</a>, support wound healing, and more.



Northwestern engineers shrank the device and removed risks by making it dissolve after use. In doing so, they’ve created a tool that could reshape how doctors care for the heart - from the tiniest patients to adults.



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Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/j_0hZ8cUwgo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video interview...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08726-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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World's smallest pacemaker is set to revolutionize heart health

In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp; Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries. Controlling the heart with light The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest. The external controller detects...

In a recent study, researchers have discovered a fascinating link between Neanderthal DNA and autism spectrum disorder.



This revelation sheds light on the intricate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-neanderthals-may-belong-to-the-same-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic inheritance</a> from our ancient ancestors and its impact on modern human health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neanderthal-dna">Neanderthal DNA</h2>



Neanderthal DNA refers to the genetic material inherited from Neanderthals, ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthals-homo-sapiens-living-spaces-organized-similarly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human</a> relatives who lived around 400,000 to 40,000 years ago. 



When modern humans migrated out of Africa, they interbred with Neanderthals. This interbreeding left traces of Neanderthal DNA in modern non-African populations, comprising about 1-2% of their genomes. 



Neanderthal DNA has influenced various aspects of human biology, including immune response and physical traits. Researchers study this DNA to understand its impact on modern health and diseases, shedding light on how our ancient ancestors continue to shape who we are today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-autism-spectrum-disorder">Autism spectrum disorder</h2>



Autism, or autism spectrum disorder (ASD), is a developmental condition affecting communication, behavior, and social interaction. 



Symptoms vary widely, including challenges with speech, nonverbal communication, and repetitive behaviors. Some individuals with autism have exceptional abilities in specific areas. 



Early diagnosis and intervention are crucial for improving outcomes. Autism's exact causes are unknown, but it involves genetic and environmental factors. 



Support and understanding can significantly enhance the quality of life for those with autism, helping them navigate social settings and develop their strengths. Autism is a spectrum, meaning it affects each person differently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neanderthal-dna-and-its-link-to-autism">Neanderthal DNA and its link to autism</h2>



Neanderthal DNA has been intertwined with our own for millennia, shaping various aspects of our biology, such as disease resistance and physical traits.



A recent study by researchers from <a href="https://www.clemson.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Clemson University</a> and <a href="https://www.luc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Loyola University</a> investigates the connection between specific Neanderthal DNA variations and autism. The team analyzed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-genes-make-you-more-of-a-morning-person/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> samples from 3,442 individuals, both with and without autism.



They discovered that certain genetic polymorphisms inherited from Neanderthals were more prevalent in individuals with autism across diverse ethnic groups, including black non-Hispanic, white Hispanic, and white non-Hispanic populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significant-findings-and-genetic-variations">Significant findings and genetic variations</h2>



The study revealed 25 specific polymorphisms that affect gene expression in the brain, which are more common in individuals with autism. 



Some of these variations are also linked to epilepsy, a condition frequently associated with autism. 



For instance, a variant in the SLC37A1 gene was found in 67% of white non-Hispanic autistic individuals with epilepsy, compared to 26% of autistic individuals without epilepsy and 22% of people without either condition.



"It has been estimated that Eurasian-derived populations have approximately 2 percent Neanderthal DNA, acquired during introgression events shortly after anatomically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-genes-still-influence-modern-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humans</a> migrated out of Africa," the researchers noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-influence-of-neanderthal-dna">The influence of Neanderthal DNA</h2>



Previous research has indicated that Neanderthal DNA shapes certain brain structures. 



Given that people with autism exhibit similar neural patterns, the researchers aimed to explore the potential role of Neanderthal genes in autism. 



Their findings suggest that it's not the overall amount of Neanderthal DNA that differs between individuals with and without <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toddler-screen-time-linked-to-atypical-sensory-behaviors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">autism</a>, but rather the frequency of specific Neanderthal-derived genetic variants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-ancient-alleles-on-modern-health">Impact of ancient alleles on modern health</h2>



The evidence presented in this study is compelling enough to warrant further investigation. 



Understanding the influence of ancient human-derived alleles on modern health could provide valuable insights into the lasting impact of Neanderthals on our physiology and the mechanisms underlying autism.



"This is the first study to provide strong evidence for the active role of a subset of rare, as well as some common, Neanderthal-derived alleles in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revolutionary-gene-therapy-shows-promise-in-treating-autism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">autism</a> susceptibility in multiple major American populations," wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-ancient-hybridization">Impact of ancient hybridization</h2>



The researchers hope their findings will inspire further exploration into the effects of ancient hybridization between Homo sapiens and Neanderthals on brain development, human intelligence, and overall health. 



Additionally, this research could spur the development of new clinical resources for individuals with autism.



As we continue to uncover the complex interactions between our ancient ancestors and modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-how-neanderthal-dna-got-diluted-in-europe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a>, we gain a deeper understanding of how our genetic heritage shapes who we are today.



This study represents a major advancement in understanding autism and the lasting impact of Neanderthal DNA. By exploring the genetic links between Neanderthal ancestry and autism, researchers have uncovered crucial insights that deepen our knowledge of both areas. 



These findings pave the way for future studies that could further unravel the genetic and neurological underpinnings of autism, offering hope for new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41380-024-02593-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Psychiatry</a>.



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Neanderthal DNA is more common in people with autism

In a recent study, researchers have discovered a fascinating link...

A recent study published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BioScience</a> has highlighted the crucial ecological role of gray wolves in the western United States. 



Led by William Ripple from <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, the research examined the ecological consequences of the absence of large predators on plant and animal communities and ecosystem functions. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-baselines-nbsp">Shifting baselines&nbsp;</h2>



According to the experts, the lack of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-gray-wolves-recolonized-germany/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wolves</a> since the 1930s has skewed our understanding of ecosystem dynamics, a concept known as “shifting baselines.”



“By the 1930s, wolves were largely absent from the American West, including its national parks. Most published ecological research from this region occurred after the extirpation of wolves,” Ripple explained.&nbsp;



“This situation underscores the potential impact of shifting baselines on our understanding of plant community succession, animal community dynamics, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grassland-ecosystem-stability-is-driven-by-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem </a>functions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-removal-of-gray-wolves-nbsp">Removal of gray wolves&nbsp;</h2>



The removal of gray wolves has significantly impacted tree recruitment due to the unchecked population of elk and other ungulates in Yellowstone, Olympic, and Wind Cave National Parks. These changes have influenced plant communities and broader ecological processes.



The study underscores the importance of understanding historical contexts and reference conditions when studying areas lacking large predators.&nbsp;



Such areas are common globally due to widespread predator loss. Researchers are encouraged to consider how the presence or absence of large predators has influenced their findings.



“In addition to the loss or displacement of large predators, there may be other potential anthropogenic legacies within national parks that should be considered, including fire suppression, invasion by exotic plants and animals, and overgrazing by livestock,” said co-author Robert Beschta, an emeritus professor at Oregon State.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-presence-of-large-predators-nbsp">Historical presence of large predators&nbsp;</h2>



According to the researchers, delving into national park archives is crucial to understand the historical interactions between predators and their prey, which can clarify the reasons behind shifting ecological baselines.



“Studying altered ecosystems without recognizing how or why the system has changed over time since the absence of a large predator could have serious implications for wildlife management, biodiversity conservation, and ecosystem restoration,” Ripple said.



Integrating historical context into ecological studies is vital for a comprehensive understanding of ecosystem dynamics. Recognizing the historical presence of large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predators-help-prevent-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> and other anthropogenic factors can aid in developing effective conservation and management strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protections-for-gray-wolves-nbsp">Protections for gray wolves&nbsp;</h2>



Recently, a coalition of nearly twelve conservation organizations has taken legal action against the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> and the <a href="https://www.doi.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of the Interior</a> to reinstate protections for gray wolves in Montana and Idaho, arguing that aggressive hunting policies threaten these populations.



The research has significant implications for the long-term conservation of gray wolves and other large predators, informing current management and legal efforts. “We hope our study will be of use to both conservation organizations and government agencies in identifying ecosystem management goals,” Ripple concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-gray-wolves-nbsp">More about gray wolves&nbsp;</h2>



Gray wolves, also known as timber wolves, are large carnivorous mammals native to North America and Eurasia.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-lives">Social lives</h3>



They are highly social animals that live and hunt in packs, which are typically composed of a breeding pair and their offspring. These wolves have a complex system of communication involving vocalizations, body language, and scent marking.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecosystem-balance">Ecosystem balance</h3>



Gray wolves are known for their endurance and ability to travel long distances in search of food, which primarily consists of large ungulates like deer, elk, and moose, though they also eat smaller mammals, birds, and carrion.&nbsp;



They play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of their ecosystems by controlling the population of their prey species.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significant-threats">Significant threats</h3>



Despite their important ecological role, gray wolves have faced significant threats from habitat loss, human conflict, and hunting, leading to their decline in many regions.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-return-of-the-gray-wolf-triumph-or-tragedy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation efforts</a> have helped stabilize some populations, but the species remains under threat in various parts of its range.



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Gray wolves are a crucial component of the American West

A recent study published in the journal BioScience has highlighted...

In stressful times, many of us find comfort in high-fat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/junk-food-diet-triggers-lasting-changes-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">junk food</a>. However, recent research suggests that this common coping mechanism might be doing more harm than good. 



A new study from the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a> has found that a high-fat diet can disrupt <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-influence-our-social-behavior-and-sense-of-fairness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut bacteria</a>, alter behavior, and ultimately fuel anxiety through a complex gut-brain connection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-high-fat-diets">Investigating high-fat diets</h2>



The research team, led by Professor Christopher Lowry of integrative physiology, conducted an experiment with adolescent rats to understand the effects of high-fat diets.



The rats were divided into two groups: one group received a standard diet with about 11% fat, while the other group was fed a high-fat diet with 45% fat, primarily from saturated animal fats.



For nine weeks, the researchers monitored the rats' gut bacteria through fecal samples and assessed their behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significant-findings-beyond-weight-gain">Significant findings beyond weight gain</h2>



As expected, the rats on high-fat diets gained more weight compared to the control group. However, the study revealed more significant findings beyond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-fat-diet-linked-to-weight-gain-and-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weight gain</a>.



The high-fat diet group exhibited significantly less diversity in their gut bacteria, a factor generally linked to poorer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-fat-diets-linked-to-unexpected-health-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health</a>.



They had an increased ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes, a bacterial imbalance often associated with industrialized diets and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-can-be-passed-down-from-parents-to-kids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-brain-connection">Gut-brain connection</h2>



Further analysis showed that the high-fat diet rats had higher expression of three genes (tph2, htr1a, and slc6a4) involved in serotonin production and signaling, especially in the brainstem region known as the dorsal raphe nucleus (cDRD). This area is associated with stress and anxiety.



Although serotonin is typically known as a "feel-good" brain chemical, certain serotonin neurons can trigger anxiety-like responses when activated. Increased expression of tph2 in the cDRD has been linked to mood disorders and suicide risk in humans.



“To think that just a high-fat diet could alter expression of these genes in the brain is extraordinary,” noted Professor Lowry. “The high-fat group essentially had the molecular signature of a high anxiety state in their brain.”



Lowry suspects that an unhealthy microbiome compromises the gut lining, allowing bacteria to enter the body’s circulation and communicate with the brain via the vagus nerve, a direct pathway from the gastrointestinal tract to the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-perspective">Evolutionary perspective</h2>



“If you think about human evolution, it makes sense,” Lowry said. “We are hard-wired to really notice things that make us sick so we can avoid those things in the future.”



In modern times, this sensitivity might explain why high-fat diets can have such a pronounced impact on our gut health and mental well-being. Essentially, our bodies are still using ancient survival strategies to deal with the challenges of contemporary diets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-healthy-fats-in-diet">The role of healthy fats in diet</h2>



Not all fats are detrimental. Healthy fats, such as those found in fish, olive oil, nuts, and seeds, can be anti-inflammatory and beneficial for the brain.



Professor Lowry advises consuming a variety of fruits and vegetables, incorporating fermented foods to support a healthy microbiome, and reducing intake of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/junk-food-diet-triggers-lasting-changes-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">junk food</a>.



If you indulge in high-fat diets like eating a hamburger, consider adding a slice of avocado, as some research suggests that good fats can mitigate some negative effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-fat-diets-and-mental-health">High-fat diets and mental health</h2>



This study highlights the intricate relationship between diet, gut health, and mental well-being. While comfort foods might offer immediate relief, their long-term impact on anxiety and overall health could be substantial.



Adopting a balanced diet with healthy fats and diverse nutrients is crucial for maintaining both physical and mental health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-high-fat-diet">Consequences of high-fat diet</h2>



High-fat diets, particularly those high in unhealthy fats, have been linked to various chronic diseases. Beyond impacting gut health and anxiety, such diets can cause inflammation throughout the body. 



Chronic inflammation is a precursor to several conditions, including arthritis, Alzheimer's disease, and certain cancers.



Research shows that high-fat diets can impair cognitive function. Studies indicate that excessive consumption of unhealthy fats can reduce brain plasticity, which is essential for learning and memory. This impairment can affect cognitive abilities and increase the risk of neurodegenerative diseases.



Additionally, high-fat diets can affect liver health. Consistently consuming high-fat foods can lead to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), where excess fat builds up in liver cells, potentially leading to liver inflammation and damage.



High-fat diets also influence hormone levels. They may disrupt insulin sensitivity, leading to insulin resistance, a condition that often precedes type 2 diabetes. This disruption can affect other hormones involved in hunger and metabolism, contributing to weight gain and metabolic issues.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://biolres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40659-024-00505-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological Research</a>.



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High-fat diets cause high anxiety through changes in gut bacteria

In stressful times, many of us find comfort in high-fat...

A recent study conducted by the <a href="https://www.globalcarbonproject.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Carbon Project</a> has revealed that emissions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-levels-of-nitrous-oxide-will-accelerate-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrous oxide</a>, a potent greenhouse gas, continued unabated from 1980 to 2020. In 2020 alone, over 10 million metric tons of nitrous oxide were released, primarily due to agricultural practices.&nbsp;



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/essd-2023-401" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth System Science Data</a>, indicates that 74% of these emissions in the 2010s came from farming, specifically from the use of chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-emissions-from-fertilizers-could-be-cut-by-80-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilizers</a> and animal waste on croplands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nitrous-oxide-and-global-warming-nbsp">Nitrous oxide and global warming&nbsp;</h2>



According to the report “<a href="https://www.globalcarbonproject.org/nitrousoxidebudget/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Nitrous Oxide Budget 2024</a>,” led by researchers from <a href="https://www.bc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Boston College</a>, nitrous oxide emissions increased at an unprecedented rate during 2020 and 2021, highlighting the urgent need for reducing these emissions to combat global warming.&nbsp;



On Earth, excess nitrogen contributes to soil, water, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-will-increase-dramatically-in-a-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air pollution</a>, while in the atmosphere, it depletes the ozone layer and exacerbates climate change.



“Nitrous oxide emissions from human activities must decline in order to limit global temperature rise to 2°C as established by the Paris Agreement,” said lead author Hanqin Tian, a professor of global sustainability at Boston College.&nbsp;



“Reducing nitrous oxide emissions is the only solution since at this point no technologies exist that can remove nitrous oxide from the atmosphere.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increased-use-of-nitrogen-fertilizers-nbsp">Increased use of nitrogen fertilizers&nbsp;</h2>



The study reveals a significant increase in the use of nitrogen fertilizers, which rose from 60 million metric tons in 1980 to 107 million metric tons in 2020. Additionally, animal manure contributed 101 million metric tons in 2020, leading to a combined total of 208 million metric tons.&nbsp;



This unchecked rise in nitrous oxide, with a global warming potential 300 times larger than carbon dioxide, poses dire consequences for the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-millions-of-nitrous-oxide-measurements-nbsp">Millions of nitrous oxide measurements&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers analyzed millions of nitrous oxide measurements taken over four decades from various sources, making this the most comprehensive assessment of global nitrous oxide emissions and sinks to date.&nbsp;



The team examined data from all major economic activities leading to nitrous oxide emissions and reported on 18 anthropogenic and natural sources and three absorbent sinks.



The top 10 nitrous oxide-emitting countries identified in the study are China, India, the United States, Brazil, Russia, Pakistan, Australia, Indonesia, Turkey, and Canada. 



While some regions, like China and Europe, have successfully implemented policies to reduce emissions, others, including the U.S., continue to see a rise in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agricultural-emissions-negatively-impact-our-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agricultural emissions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-improved-agricultural-practices-nbsp">Need for improved agricultural practices&nbsp;</h2>



Josep Canadell, Global Carbon Project Executive Director and a research scientist at <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSIRO</a>, emphasized the need for improved agricultural practices and more frequent assessments to target high-emission regions.&nbsp;



“The growth rates of atmospheric nitrous oxide in 2020 and 2021 were higher than any previous observed year and more than 30 percent higher than the average rate of increase in the previous decade,” he warned.



To effectively mitigate nitrous oxide emissions, it is crucial to adopt strategies that limit the use of nitrogen fertilizers and manage animal waste better, the authors concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sources-of-nitrous-oxide-emissions-nbsp">Sources of nitrous oxide emissions&nbsp;</h2>



The largest sources of nitrous oxide emissions are primarily from agricultural activities, including the use of synthetic and organic fertilizers and manure management. Industrial processes, such as the production of nitric acid and adipic acid, also contribute significantly.&nbsp;



Fossil fuel combustion in vehicles and power plants, biomass burning including forest fires and agricultural waste burning, and residential wood burning are additional sources.&nbsp;



Waste management practices, such as the decomposition of organic waste in landfills and wastewater treatment, also release nitrous oxide into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dangers-of-nitrous-oxide-emissions-nbsp">Dangers of nitrous oxide emissions&nbsp;</h2>



Nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions pose significant environmental and health risks. As a potent greenhouse gas, nitrous oxide has a global warming potential approximately 300 times greater than that of carbon dioxide over a 100-year period, contributing significantly to climate change.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uv-radiation-nbsp">UV radiation&nbsp;</h2>



Additionally, nitrous oxide is a major contributor to the depletion of the ozone layer, which protects living organisms from harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uv-radiation-played-a-role-in-earths-largest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ultraviolet radiation</a>.&nbsp;



The increased UV exposure due to ozone layer depletion can lead to higher incidences of skin cancer, cataracts, and other health issues in humans, as well as adverse effects on ecosystems and wildlife.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ground-level-ozone">Ground-level ozone</h3>



Furthermore, nitrous oxide is involved in the formation of ground-level ozone, a harmful air pollutant that can cause respiratory problems and other health issues in humans, as well as damage crops and other vegetation.&nbsp;



Reducing nitrous oxide emissions is therefore crucial for protecting both the environment and public health.



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Nitrous oxide emissions have increased at an unprecedented rate 

A recent study conducted by the Global Carbon Project has...

Aerosols, the&nbsp;tiny particles floating in the air from sources like dust,&nbsp;smoke,&nbsp;and pollution,&nbsp;play a role in climate change.&nbsp;They act as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-small-aerosols-influence-cloud-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">"seeds" for cloud formation</a>,&nbsp;with more aerosols leading to thicker,&nbsp;more reflective clouds that can cool the Earth.&nbsp;But a new study has discovered a crucial factor that has been overlooked:&nbsp;the connection between clouds and the Earth's surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cloud-surface-coupling">Cloud-surface coupling</h2>



The researchers,&nbsp;led by the Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center (<a href="https://webhost.essic.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESSIC</a>),&nbsp;investigated how clouds interact with the Earth's surface,&nbsp;a phenomenon known as&nbsp;cloud-surface coupling.&nbsp;



This coupling influences the vertical exchange of heat and moisture between the surface and the atmosphere.&nbsp;



When coupling is strong,&nbsp;warm air from the surface rises,&nbsp;creating updrafts that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aerosol-formation-earths-lower-atmosphere-soas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transport aerosols into the cloud layer</a>.&nbsp;This leads to a more homogeneous distribution of aerosols within the clouds,&nbsp;resulting in more consistent cloud droplet sizes and a stronger cooling effect on climate due to increased reflection of sunlight.&nbsp;



Conversely, when coupling is weak, this vertical transport is diminished, leading to an uneven distribution of aerosols within the clouds and a greater variability in cloud droplet size. 



The variability in cloud properties introduces significant uncertainty into our understanding of how aerosols influence climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-predictions-with-aerosol-cloud-link">Climate predictions with aerosol-cloud link</h2>



"Aerosol-cloud interaction has remained the largest source of uncertainty in understanding Earth's climate and projecting its future changes,&nbsp;especially those incurred by anthropogenic emissions such as sulfate,&nbsp;nitrate,&nbsp;and black carbon," said Zhanqing Li,&nbsp;Distinguished University Professor at <a href="https://umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UMD</a> and lead author of the study.



By understanding how cloud-surface coupling influences interactions between aerosols and clouds,&nbsp;scientists can better predict how aerosols will affect our climate.&nbsp;This is crucial because it helps explain why climate models and real-world observations often don't match up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-perspective">A global perspective</h2>



The team's findings have far-reaching implications. "If we can determine cloud-surface coupling across the globe,&nbsp;we could significantly improve our quantification of aerosol climate effects," explained Tianning Su,&nbsp;a co-author of the study.



This translates to improved climate modeling and forecasting capabilities,&nbsp;allowing for more precise predictions about future climate change scenarios.&nbsp;



Furthermore,&nbsp;this enhanced understanding of aerosol-cloud interactions can help researchers better quantify the impact of human activities -&nbsp;such as the burning of fossil fuels - on the climate system.&nbsp;



This knowledge is essential for developing effective mitigation and adaptation strategies to address the challenges posed by climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aerosols-clouds-and-climate-science">Aerosols, clouds and climate science</h2>



The research not only reveals the intricate nature of climate science but also serves as a stark reminder that seemingly minor elements within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysteries-in-the-sky-how-trees-impact-cloud-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's climate system</a> can wield substantial influence.&nbsp;



The interplay between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-denial-historic-floods-are-not-caused-by-cloud-seeding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clouds</a> and the Earth's surface,&nbsp;once considered a secondary factor,&nbsp;is now recognized as a key player in the broader climate change narrative.



This study underscores the imperative for continued and comprehensive research into the multifaceted mechanisms that govern our planet's climate.&nbsp;Each new discovery,&nbsp;like the significant role of cloud-surface coupling,&nbsp;adds another piece to the complex puzzle of climate change.



By diligently investigating and ultimately understanding these intricate processes, scientists can develop more precise and effective strategies to mitigate the escalating effects of climate change.&nbsp;



This knowledge empowers policymakers and communities alike to make informed decisions and take proactive measures to safeguard the planet for current and future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-uncertainty">Reducing uncertainty</h2>



The researchers are now focused on applying their findings on a global scale,&nbsp;hoping to integrate this new understanding into broader climate projections.&nbsp;



"The goal is to integrate this new understanding into broader climate projections to reduce uncertainty and make more accurate predictions about climate change," said Su.



The study of cloud-surface coupling and its impact on aerosol-cloud interaction is a major step forward in our understanding of climate change.&nbsp;It's a reminder that the Earth's climate system is a complex web of interconnected processes,&nbsp;and that even the smallest details can have a significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cloud-engineering-can-temporarily-cool-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact</a>.&nbsp;



By continuing to explore these connections,&nbsp;we can gain valuable insights into how our planet is changing and what we can do to protect it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adl5044" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Aerosols have an underestimated effect on clouds and climate

Aerosols, the&nbsp;tiny particles floating in the air from sources like...

The Arctic, once a frozen expanse of white and blue, is undergoing a dramatic transformation. Thanks to climate change, this region is warming four times faster than the rest of the planet. As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-arctic-ice-changing-global-climate-warm-arctic-cold-eurasia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures rise</a> and ice retreats, a surprising new phenomenon is taking center stage: a massive bloom of algae beneath the thinning ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-consequence-of-arctic-melting-ice">Unexpected consequence of Arctic melting ice</h2>



We're all familiar with images of polar bears stranded on shrinking ice floes.&nbsp;But the impact of climate change on the Arctic Ocean goes far deeper than its most iconic inhabitants.



"As ice and snow gets thinner,&nbsp;more light penetrates to the bottom of sea ice.&nbsp;This changing light regime has the potential to impact the entire marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-invasion-jellyfish-are-moving-north-in-a-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a>,&nbsp;which all begins with algae," explains Julienne Stroeve,&nbsp;a researcher from the <a href="https://umanitoba.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manitoba</a> and the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado</a>.



The algae form a vast,&nbsp;underwater "lawn" that thrives on the underside of the ice.&nbsp;Much like the phytoplankton that bloom in open oceans,&nbsp;these ice algae are the foundation of the Arctic food web.&nbsp;They feed zooplankton,&nbsp;which in turn nourish fish,&nbsp;seals,&nbsp;and ultimately,&nbsp;polar bears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revelation-of-algae-blooms-in-arctic">Revelation of algae blooms in Arctic</h2>



Mapping this underwater bloom has been a challenge,&nbsp;especially from space.&nbsp;



"Unlike in the open ocean,&nbsp;we can't see the algae within sea ice from space.&nbsp;What we can do is start by estimating light availability," remarks Karley Campbell,&nbsp;a scientist at the <a href="https://en.uit.no/startsida" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tromsø</a>.



This is where <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>'s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/FutureEO/CryoSat" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CryoSat satellite</a> steps in. This remarkable mission has been monitoring Earth's polar ice for 14 years, giving us one of the longest continuous records of ice thickness. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/arctic-ocean_algae-bloom_BlueEye-rover_BREATHE-project_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/arctic-ocean_algae-bloom_BlueEye-rover_BREATHE-project_1s.jpg" alt="Underwater algae in the Arctic Ocean seen by the BlueEye rover. Credit: BREATHE project" class="wp-image-1937027"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Underwater algae in the Arctic Ocean seen by the BlueEye rover. Credit: BREATHE project</figcaption></figure>



Now, scientists have harnessed CryoSat's data, along with information from <a href="https://sentinels.copernicus.eu/web/sentinel/copernicus/sentinel-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Copernicus Sentinel-3</a> and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s <a href="https://icesat-2.gsfc.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICESat-2</a>, to model light penetration through the ice.



By combining this light data with models of snow and ice cover,&nbsp;researchers can predict where and when these algal blooms are likely to occur.&nbsp;The results are striking:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earlier-blooms">Earlier blooms</h3>



The Arctic is experiencing a warming trend,&nbsp;resulting in thinner ice and earlier melting.&nbsp;This allows more sunlight to reach the ocean waters beneath the ice,&nbsp;triggering earlier algal blooms,&nbsp;especially in the southern regions where warming is more pronounced.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snow-matters">Snow matters</h3>



Snow cover acts as a barrier to sunlight. In years with heavy snowfall, the thicker snow layer prevents light from reaching the water, delaying or even suppressing algal blooms. 



Conversely, years with less snow allow more light penetration, leading to earlier and potentially larger blooms.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-trends">Long-term trends</h3>



Climate models predict a continued decline in Arctic snow cover over time. This decrease, coupled with the ongoing warming trend, suggests that algal blooms could start significantly earlier each decade. 



Some regions may experience blooms up to 15 days earlier every ten years due to the combined effects of less snow and thinner ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ripple-effects-of-a-greener-arctic-due-to-algae">Ripple effects of a greener Arctic due to algae</h2>



The implications of these findings are far-reaching. Changes in the timing and extent of algae blooms can disrupt the delicate balance of the Arctic ecosystem. 



Algae exposed to more light may produce different nutrients, potentially impacting the entire food web.



"This unprecedented use of satellite data benefits our knowledge of the rapidly changing Arctic ecosystem," Julienne Stroeve explains. 



"Understanding the photosynthetically active radiation that penetrates sea ice will support wider studies to understand just what is happening to life in the Arctic Ocean due to climate change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-monitoring-and-algae-growth">Arctic monitoring and algae growth</h2>



The collaborative efforts of CryoSat and ICESat-2,&nbsp;along with upcoming missions like CRISTAL,&nbsp;promise to give us even deeper insights into the Arctic's changing environment.&nbsp;



"The rapid changes happening in the Arctic will have widespread consequences that affect all of us," notes Tommaso Parrinello,&nbsp;CryoSat's Mission Manager.



As we continue to monitor the Arctic's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-influences-us-weather-patterns-ai-machine-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transformation</a>, one thing is clear: the once-frozen north is becoming a greener, more dynamic ecosystem. 



The fate of this region is intertwined with our own, and understanding these changes is vital for navigating a future shaped by climate change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023GL106486" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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Arctic Ocean is turning green thanks to climate change

The Arctic, once a frozen expanse of white and blue, is undergoing...

In a remarkable study, researchers have successfully mapped the complete genome of the endangered Przewalski's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-horses-just-like-humans-live-in-a-complex-multilevel-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horse</a>.



Once extinct in the wild, this species now boasts a population of around 2,000, thanks to dedicated conservation efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-mapping">Genome mapping</h2>



Genome mapping is the process of identifying the locations of genes and other significant features within an organism's DNA. It involves creating a comprehensive blueprint of the genetic material, which includes all the DNA sequences and their specific positions on chromosomes. 



This map helps scientists understand the structure, function, and organization of genes, enabling them to study genetic variations, mutations, and their implications. 



Genome mapping is essential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landmark-study-reveals-275-million-new-genetic-variants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">identifying genes</a> associated with diseases, understanding evolutionary relationships, and improving breeding programs for plants and animals. It provides a fundamental tool for advancing genetics, biotechnology, and medical research. 



For example, the mapping of the horse genome, including breeds like the Thoroughbred, has helped identify genes linked to performance traits and health conditions, guiding selective breeding and veterinary care.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborative-achievement">Collaborative achievement</h2>



The study was led by researchers from the <a href="https://twin-cities.umn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Minnesota</a> including Nicole Flack and Lauren Hughes from the College of Veterinary Medicine, along with Professor Christopher Faulk from the <a href="https://cfans.umn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Food, Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences</a>.



The research features contributions from students enrolled in Professor Faulk's animal science course.



"The genome is the basic blueprint for an animal and tells us what makes a species unique and also tells us about the health of a population," said Faulk. "My students worked together to produce the highest quality Przewalski's horse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-origin-of-horse-domestication-has-finally-been-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> in the world."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-a-reference-genome">Importance of a reference genome</h2>



With the genome now mapped, researchers have a crucial tool to make accurate predictions about gene mutations and their implications for the health and conservation of Przewalski's horses.



"Studying genes without a good reference is like doing a 3-billion-piece puzzle without the picture on the box. Przewalski's horse researchers studying mutations in an important gene need a good reference picture to compare their puzzle with," noted Flack.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-of-przewalski-s-horse">Genome of Przewalski's horse</h2>



The team used a blood sample from Varuschka, a 10-year-old Przewalski's mare at the Minnesota Zoo, to create a representative genetic map for the species. 



The Minnesota Zoo has been a long-time partner in Przewalski's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-domestic-horses-have-ancestors-in-russia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horse breeding</a> and management, with over 50 foals born since the 1970s.



"We were excited to partner with the University of Minnesota to preserve the genetic health of the species as their populations continue to recover, both in zoos and in the wild," said Anne Rivas, a doctor of veterinary medicine at the Minnesota Zoo. 



"We are thrilled to offer our community the opportunity to see the horse as the results of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>."



Interestingly, the genome sequencing was performed using cutting-edge technology, involving a portable device about the size of a soda can. This portability allows for potential future studies of wild Przewalski's horses in remote locations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-promising-applications-of-the-reference-genome">Promising applications of the reference genome</h2>



The newly mapped reference <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genome-mapping-completed-for-dozens-of-common-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> has several promising applications. It can be used to study genes that help the horse adapt to environmental changes, identify mutations associated with specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-domestic-horses-have-ancestors-in-russia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a> or diseases, and inform future breeding decisions to improve genetic diversity.



Given the extreme population bottleneck during the near-extinction of Przewalski's horses, understanding their genetic makeup is crucial for continued breeding and conservation efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interesting-facts-about-przewalski-s-horse">Interesting facts about Przewalski's horse</h2>



Przewalski's horse, the last surviving species of wild horse, has a distinct ancient lineage. After being declared extinct in the wild in the 1960s, successful reintroduction efforts have restored populations in Mongolia, China, and Kazakhstan. 



These horses are genetically unique, possessing 66 chromosomes - two more than domestic horses. They are smaller in stature, standing about 4 to 4.5 feet tall and weighing between 550 and 800 pounds.



Przewalski's horses live in small family groups with one dominant stallion and several mares. Their diet primarily consists of grasses, but they also eat leaves, bark, and fruit. They are tough survivors, capable of enduring extreme temperatures from scorching summers to freezing winters. 



These horses have a distinctive appearance with a stocky build, short legs, a thick neck, and a standing mane without a forelock. 



Przewalski's horses hold cultural significance for the Mongolian people as a symbol of their natural heritage and are seen as a conservation icon, representing hope for other endangered species.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/g3journal/advance-article/doi/10.1093/g3journal/jkae113/7683801?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">G3 Genes|Genomes|Genetics</a>.



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Saving Przewalski's horse, the last surviving species of wild horse

In a remarkable study, researchers have successfully mapped the complete...

We know the importance of pollinators like bees and butterflies for plant reproduction.&nbsp;But did you know that insects,&nbsp;both as pollinators and as pests,&nbsp;play a much bigger role in shaping the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-plants-genus-spread-farther-grow-faster-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant kingdom</a> and its evolution?&nbsp;



A remarkable study from the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a> has uncovered how the complex interplay between plants and insects can turbocharge plant evolution,&nbsp;with far-reaching implications for agriculture and biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-insect-interactions">Plant-insect interactions</h2>



Plants,&nbsp;like all living organisms,&nbsp;need to adapt to their environment to survive and thrive.&nbsp;One of the most fundamental aspects of a plant's environment is the soil it grows in.&nbsp;



Different soils vary in their nutrient content,&nbsp;water availability,&nbsp;and texture,&nbsp;requiring plants to evolve specialized traits to make the most of their specific soil conditions.&nbsp;This adaptation process can lead to the formation of distinct plant varieties,&nbsp;or ecotypes,&nbsp;each finely tuned to a particular soil type.



While scientists have long understood the importance of soil adaptation for plants,&nbsp;the University of Zurich study sheds new light on how interactions with insects can dramatically accelerate this process.&nbsp;



The research focused on two key types of insect interactions:&nbsp;pollination by bumblebees and herbivory by aphids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bumblebees-and-aphids-in-plant-evolution">Bumblebees and aphids in plant evolution</h2>



The study involved a multi-generational experiment with swede plants grown in a greenhouse under different pollination and herbivory conditions. Some plants were pollinated by bumblebees, while others were hand-pollinated. In addition, some plants were exposed to aphids, while others were kept aphid-free.



After ten generations,&nbsp;the researchers examined the plants to see how they had changed.&nbsp;The results were striking.&nbsp;Only the plants pollinated by bumblebees showed significant differences in their physical traits depending on the soil type they were grown in.&nbsp;This suggests that bumblebee pollination somehow helped the plants adapt more effectively to their specific soil conditions.



But the most surprising finding came when the researchers looked at the plants that had been both bumblebee-pollinated and exposed to aphids.&nbsp;



These plants showed the most remarkable adaptation to their soil types,&nbsp;far surpassing the other groups.&nbsp;This suggests that the combination of pollination and herbivory creates a powerful evolutionary cocktail,&nbsp;driving plants to evolve more rapidly and efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bumblebees-and-aphids-make-a-difference">Why bumblebees and aphids make a difference</h2>



"The results show that biotic interactions can have a strong influence on plants' ability to adapt to abiotic factors and that adaptation is most efficient when plants are exposed to a variety of interactions," said Florian Schiestl,&nbsp;the lead researcher of the study.



But why do bumblebees and aphids have such a profound impact on plant evolution?&nbsp;The answer likely lies in the complex interplay between these insects and the plants they interact with.



Bumblebees,&nbsp;as pollinators,&nbsp;play a crucial role in plant reproduction.&nbsp;By transferring pollen between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-of-life-created-for-flowering-plants-using-400-million-specimens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowers</a>,&nbsp;they help plants produce seeds and ensure genetic diversity.&nbsp;This diversity is essential for adaptation,&nbsp;as it provides the raw material for natural selection to act upon.



Aphids,&nbsp;on the other hand,&nbsp;are herbivores that feed on plant sap.&nbsp;While this may seem harmful,&nbsp;it can actually stimulate plant defenses and promote genetic changes that help plants better withstand environmental stresses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balance-in-plant-evolution-and-insects">Balance in plant evolution and insects</h2>



The intricate relationship between plants and insects is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-twist-in-the-evolution-of-plant-pollinator-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamic interplay</a> where each organism significantly influences the evolutionary path of the other.&nbsp;



This co-evolutionary process is highlighted by the University of Zurich study,&nbsp;which demonstrates how interactions with both pollinators like bumblebees and herbivores like aphids can drive plant adaptation to varying soil conditions.



The intricate dance between plants and insects is not merely a fascinating biological phenomenon but also holds critical implications for the broader ecosystem. 



Understanding the nuances of this relationship is essential for addressing the challenges posed by changing environmental conditions.&nbsp;By deciphering the mechanisms through which insects shape plant evolution,&nbsp;scientists can develop strategies to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-plants-on-earth-could-be-saved-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">safeguard biodiversity</a> and enhance the resilience of agricultural systems.



The study's findings underscore the importance of considering the entire ecological network rather than focusing solely on individual species.&nbsp;



The complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-complex-biochemical-communication-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interactions</a> between plants and insects are a microcosm of the larger interconnectedness of life on Earth,&nbsp;and appreciating this interconnectedness is crucial for sustainable environmental management and food production.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-49383-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Insects boost plant evolution in surprising ways

We know the importance of pollinators like bees and butterflies...

Summer solstice: A celebration of light and warmth

The summer solstice isn't just a date on the calendar;...

A team of scientists has identified previously unrecognized immune responses that explain why some individuals do not contract <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-breakthrough-infections-build-an-immunity-wall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19</a>. 



The experts utilized single-cell sequencing to investigate immune reactions to SARS-CoV-2 in healthy volunteers as part of the world's first COVID-19 human challenge study.&nbsp;



The research was led by researchers from <a href="https://www.sanger.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a>, <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> (UCL), <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a>, and the <a href="https://www.nki.nl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Netherlands Cancer Institute</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-immune-responses-nbsp-to-covid-19">Unique immune responses&nbsp;to COVID-19 </h2>



The study involved 36 volunteers exposed to the virus, with detailed monitoring revealing unique immune responses associated with resisting infection.



“This was an incredibly unique opportunity to see what immune responses look like when encountering a new pathogen - in adults with no prior history of COVID-19, in a setting where factors such as time of infection and comorbidities could be controlled,” said co-first author Rik Lindeboom, a researcher at the Netherlands Cancer Institute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-basis-for-new-treatments-nbsp">Basis for new treatments&nbsp;</h2>



“These findings shed new light on the crucial early events that either allow the virus to take hold or rapidly clear it before symptoms develop,” noted study senior author Marko Nikolić, a clinical scientist fellow at UCL.



“We now have a much greater understanding of the full range of immune responses, which could provide a basis for developing potential treatments and vaccines that mimic these natural protective responses.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-activation-of-protective-immune-cells">Activation of protective immune cells</h2>



Using single-cell sequencing, the researchers generated a dataset of over 600,000 cells. They discovered immediate virus detection responses, including activation of specialized mucosal immune cells and a reduction in inflammatory white blood cells.&nbsp;



Individuals who cleared the virus immediately showed unique innate immune responses, influenced by high pre-exposure activity of the gene HLA-DQA2. Those who developed sustained infections had a rapid blood immune response but a slower nasal response.



“As we’re building the <a href="https://www.humancellatlas.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human Cell Atlas</a> we can better identify which of our cells are critical for fighting infections and understand why different people respond to coronavirus in varied ways,” said Sarah Teichmann, co-founder of the Human Cell Atlas.



“Future studies can compare with our reference dataset to understand how a normal immune response to a new pathogen compares to a vaccine-induced immune response.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-insights-into-immune-responses-nbsp">Critical insights into immune responses&nbsp;</h2>



The study also identified patterns in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-cells-could-be-used-to-slow-down-or-even-reverse-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T cell</a> receptors, offering insights for targeted T cell therapies. 



Shobana Balasingam from Wellcome emphasized the value of human challenge models in understanding the body's response to infectious diseases, highlighting the need for such studies in low-resource settings to develop effective tools and treatments.



This research provides critical insights into immune mechanisms that allow some individuals to avoid COVID-19, offering potential pathways for improved therapeutic strategies and vaccine designs.&nbsp;



By understanding these natural protective responses, scientists can better inform the development of treatments and preventive measures for COVID-19 and other infectious diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-does-covid-invade-the-body">How does Covid invade the body?</h2>



COVID-19, caused by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pigs-are-highly-resistant-to-sars-cov-2-infection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SARS-CoV-2</a> virus, invades the body through a multi-step process. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-point-of-entry-nbsp">Point of entry&nbsp;</h3>



Initially, the virus enters the body primarily through the respiratory system, as people inhale droplets containing the virus from an infected person's coughs, sneezes, or speech. The virus can also enter through the eyes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasal-cells-protect-children-against-severe-covid-19/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nose</a>, and mouth. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-attachment-to-cells">Attachment to cells</h3>



Once inside, the virus targets specific cells in the respiratory tract by using its spike protein to bind to ACE2 receptors on the surface of these cells, which are abundant in areas such as the lungs, heart, kidneys, and intestines.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fusion-and-cell-entry">Fusion and cell entry</h3>



Upon binding to the ACE2 receptor, the virus's membrane fuses with the host cell membrane, allowing the viral RNA to penetrate the host cell.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-virus-replication-and-assembly">Virus replication and assembly</h3>



Inside the host cell, the viral RNA takes control of the cell's machinery, directing it to replicate the viral RNA and produce viral proteins necessary for creating new virus particles. These new viral particles are then assembled within the host cell.



Once assembled, the new viral particles are released from the host cell and proceed to infect neighboring cells, thereby spreading the infection throughout the body.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immune-response-nbsp">Immune response&nbsp;</h3>



The body's immune system responds to this invasion, often leading to inflammation and symptoms associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/low-iron-may-be-a-key-driver-of-long-covid/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19</a>, such as fever, cough, and difficulty breathing. 



In severe cases, this can result in complications like pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and multi-organ failure, as the immune system's response can cause significant tissue damage.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07575-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Some people have unique immune responses that block Covid

A team of scientists has identified previously unrecognized immune responses...

Imagine the moon as a center for soil manufacturing, construction, and even building human habitation. This concept, once relegated to science fiction, is now becoming a reality thanks to increased interest and investment in space exploration.



Researchers are working tirelessly to develop the necessary technologies to make the moon a viable home for humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-solutions-with-moon-soil">Innovative solutions with moon soil</h2>



One significant challenge in developing lunar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-plans-to-build-house-on-the-moon-by-2040/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infrastructure</a> on the moon is the need for building materials.



Transporting materials from Earth is costly and inefficient. This has led to research into utilizing raw materials found on the moon's surface. However, processing these lunar resources requires a substantial amount of power.



A team of researchers from the University of Waterloo's Laboratory for Emerging Energy Research (<a href="https://uwaterloo.ca/emerging-energy-research-laboratory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LEER</a>) is tackling this issue.



They are exploring how to process <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moon-dust-simulating-lunar-dirt-will-make-it-easier-to-collect/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar regolith</a>, the moon's top layer of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-soil-from-the-moon-be-used-to-construct-buildings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil</a> and dust, into usable materials for life support, energy generation, and construction. 



This includes using defunct satellite material as a fuel source when mixed with lunar regolith.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harnessing-the-power-of-moon-soil">Harnessing the power of moon soil</h2>



"Lunar regolith contains lots of metallic dust embedded with oxygen," explained Connor MacRobbie, a Ph.D. candidate supervised by professors Dr. John Wen and Dr. Jean-Pierre Hickey in Waterloo's Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering. 



"Because it already contains oxygen, we can utilize it, without the need for atmospheric oxygen, to produce thermal energy through a thermite reaction, which is particularly useful in space where oxygen is not readily available," MacRobbie continued.



The LEER team conducted experiments using simulant "lunar" regolith synthesized and supplied by NASA. 



They tested various fuel and oxidizer compositions and particle sizes to control the energy release rate of a space-based thermite reaction for heating or manufacturing purposes.



"The results demonstrate the viability of the moon's topsoil to power <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-aims-to-build-a-train-on-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar development</a>, enabling humans to explore and inhabit the moon's surface," said Dr. John Wen, the director of LEER.



The team is now focused on improving the extraction of metals and other useful materials from the regolith and designing automated processes to support in-situ resource utilization and the circular space economy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-space-debris-on-the-moon">Addressing space debris on the Moon</h2>



Another significant threat to humanity's future in space is the millions of bits of fast-moving debris between Earth and the moon's orbits. 



The European Space Agency (<a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>) compares a collision with a one-centimeter particle of space debris traveling at 10km/s to a small car crashing at 40 km/h.



The LEER research team is addressing this problem by recycling defunct satellite material into a fuel source for space development. 



"Defunct satellites have enormous potential value," said MacRobbie. "They're made up of many useful materials, including aluminum, which, when added to lunar regolith, can produce a thermite reaction and generate heat."



Using the thermite reaction to repurpose salvaged <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/what-really-happens-to-space-debris/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space debris</a> also provides materials for maintaining and developing solar satellite systems in space, ensuring power for further space exploration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-science-fiction-into-reality">Turning science fiction into reality</h2>



"Our research is turning science fiction into reality," said MacRobbie. "Our goal is to help build the infrastructure and technology that will allow sustainable human settlement on the moon—and beyond."



This important work by the LEER team represents a significant step toward making the moon a sustainable hub for human life and industry.



Through innovative use of lunar resources and recycling space debris, they are paving the way for humanity's future in space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-moon-soil-lunar-regolith">More about moon soil (lunar regolith)</h2>



Beyond the current research, lunar regolith offers several exciting possibilities for advancing space exploration. 



For instance, its use in 3D printing technology could revolutionize construction on the moon. By using regolith as a raw material for 3D printers, astronauts could fabricate complex structures and components on-site, drastically reducing reliance on Earth-supplied resources.



Moreover, lunar soil might play a crucial role in future Mars missions. Techniques developed for processing regolith on the moon could be adapted for similar applications on Mars, aiding in building infrastructure and supporting life on the Red Planet.



Lunar regolith could also contribute to scientific research, providing insights into the moon's history and the broader solar system. Its unique composition might reveal clues about the early solar system's formation and evolution.



Lastly, leveraging lunar resources could drive international cooperation in space exploration, uniting countries and space agencies in joint missions to harness and utilize extraterrestrial materials effectively.



Two studies were published by the International Astronautical Federation.



<a href="https://iafastro.directory/iac/archive/browse/IAC-23/D3/2A/77684/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The first can be found here...</a>



<a href="https://www.spacecanada.org/docs/2023-IAC-Second-Place-Paper.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The second can be found here...</a>



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Turning moon soil and space debris into building materials

Imagine the moon as a center for soil manufacturing, construction,...

Using NASA’s first two-way, end-to-end laser relay system, videos and photos of pets were transmitted to and from the International Space Station at a staggering rate of 1.2 gigabits per second - faster than most home internet speeds.



This unique demonstration aimed to showcase the power of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-receives-deep-space-laser-message-psyche-mission-140-million-miles-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">laser communications</a> while testing new networking techniques.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nasa-s-laser-communication">NASA's laser communication </h2>



<a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> astronauts Randy Bresnik, Christina Koch, and Kjell Lindgren, along with other agency employees, submitted photos and videos of their pets.



These transmissions allowed NASA’s Space Communications and Navigation (<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/space-operations/space-communications-and-navigation-scan-program/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SCaN</a>) program to highlight the capabilities of laser <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psyche-mission-paves-a-revolutionary-path-toward-deep-space-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communications</a>.



“The pet imagery campaign has been rewarding on multiple fronts for the ILLUMA-T, LCRD, and HDTN teams," noted Kevin Coggins, deputy associate administrator and SCaN program manager at NASA Headquarters in Washington.



"Not only have they demonstrated how these technologies can play an essential role in enabling NASA’s future science and exploration missions, but it also provided a fun opportunity for the teams to ‘picture’ their pets assisting with this innovative demonstration.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inspired-by-taters-the-cat">Inspired by Taters the Cat</h2>



This demonstration was inspired by "Taters the Cat," an orange feline whose video was transmitted 19 million miles over <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-received-laser-communication-from-10-million-miles-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">laser</a> links to the DSOC (Deep Space Optical Communications) payload on the Psyche mission.



The pet photo project involved NASA’s ongoing laser communications demonstrations: LCRD, DSOC, and ILLUMA-T.



The images and videos started on a computer at a mission operations center in Las Cruces, New Mexico. From there, NASA routed the data to optical ground stations in California and Hawaii. 



The data was modulated onto infrared light signals and sent to NASA’s LCRD (Laser Communications Relay Demonstration) in geosynchronous orbit, 22,000 miles above Earth. 



LCRD then relayed the data to ILLUMA-T (Integrated LCRD Low Earth Orbit User Modem and Amplifier Terminal), currently mounted on the space station.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-from-radio-to-laser">Evolution from radio to laser</h2>



Since the beginning of space exploration, NASA has relied on radio frequency communications to send data to and from space. 



Laser communications, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-data-transmission-speed-record-set-by-scientists-using-optical-cables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">optical communications</a>, use infrared light instead of radio waves. While both travel at the speed of light, infrared light can transfer more data in a single link due to its tighter wavelength.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-challenges-with-dtn-technology">Overcoming challenges with DTN technology</h2>



NASA tested a new networking technique to handle data transmission delays and potential disruptions. They developed Delay/Disruption Tolerant Networking (DTN), which uses a "store-and-forward" process to manage data. 



To enable DTN at higher data rates, NASA’s Glenn Research Center in Cleveland developed High-Rate Delay Tolerant Networking (HDTN). This technology allows data transfer at up to four times the speed of current DTN technology.



The HDTN implementation aggregates data from various sources, such as scientific instruments on the space station, and prepares it for transmission back to Earth. 



For the pet photo and video experiment, the content was routed using DTN protocols as it traveled from Earth to LCRD, then to ILLUMA-T on the space station. Upon arrival, an onboard HDTN payload reassembled the data into files.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-implications">Future implications </h2>



This optimized DTN technology aims to enhance NASA’s communications services, including improved security through encryption and authentication and network routing of high-definition multimedia. 



These capabilities are currently being tested on the space station with ILLUMA-T and LCRD.



As NASA’s Artemis campaign prepares to establish a sustainable presence on and around the Moon, SCaN will continue to develop groundbreaking communications technology to bring the scalability, reliability, and performance of Earth-based internet to space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nasa-s-laser-technology">NASA's laser technology</h2>



NASA's laser communication technology represents a significant advancement in space communications. Unlike traditional radio frequency (RF) systems, laser communications use infrared light, which offers a tighter wavelength. 



This allows for the transfer of more data at faster speeds. For instance, NASA's Laser Communications Relay Demonstration (LCRD) aims to revolutionize data transmission by offering speeds 10 to 100 times faster than RF systems.



One of the key advantages of laser communication is its ability to transmit large volumes of data over vast distances. 



This capability is crucial for future missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond, where high-definition video and large scientific datasets need to be sent back to Earth. The technology also supports more secure data transmission, with enhanced encryption and reduced signal interference.



NASA’s ongoing projects, such as the Deep Space Optical Communications (<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/deep-space-optical-communications-dsoc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DSOC</a>) and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/missions/illuma-t/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ILLUMA-T</a>, continue to refine and demonstrate these technologies, paving the way for more efficient and reliable space communication networks.



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NASA sent pet photos to the space station using lasers

Using NASA’s first two-way, end-to-end laser relay system, videos and...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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