In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp;



Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-the-heart-with-light">Controlling the heart with light</h2>



The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest.



The external controller detects abnormal rhythms and sends light through the body to activate the pacemaker and restore heartbeat. The study demonstrates the device’s effectiveness across animal and human donor hearts.&nbsp;



The development of the pacemaker was led by John A. Rogers, a professor of material science, biomedical engineering, and neurological surgery at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>.&nbsp;



“We have developed what is, to our knowledge, the world’s smallest pacemaker,” said Professor Rogers.



“There’s a crucial need for temporary pacemakers in the context of pediatric heart surgeries, and that’s a use case where size miniaturization is incredibly important. In terms of the device load on the body - the smaller, the better.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solution-designed-for-newborns">Solution designed for newborns</h2>



Though the light-activated pacemaker can function in patients of all sizes, its miniaturized design was motivated by the needs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infant-speech-is-driven-by-heart-rate-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>. 



Igor Efimov is a co-leader of the study and experimental cardiologist at Northwestern.&nbsp;



“About 1% of children are born with congenital heart defects. The good news is that these children only need temporary pacing after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surgery</a>. In about seven days or so, most patients’ hearts will self-repair. But those seven days are absolutely critical," said Efimov.



Traditional pacemakers require surgery and have wires sticking out of the chest to connect to an external device. When they are no longer needed, the wires are removed - risking bleeding, tissue damage, or even death.



“Wires literally protrude from the body, attached to a pacemaker outside the body,” Efimov explained. “When the pacemaker is no longer needed, a physician pulls it out. The wires can become enveloped in scar tissue. That’s actually how Neil Armstrong died.”



The new injectable pacemaker addresses these risks. All of its components are biocompatible and bioresorbable, meaning they safely dissolve in the body’s fluids without needing surgical removal. Once the device has served its purpose, it simply disappears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-the-light-activated-pacemaker">Refining the light-activated pacemaker</h2>



This innovation builds on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41587-021-00948-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier work</a> by Rogers and Efimov, who developed a quarter-sized dissolvable pacemaker in 2021. Surgeons asked for a smaller version to allow easier placement and suit the smallest patients.&nbsp;



The original device used near-field communication (NFC), but its antenna limited how small the device could be made. To overcome this, the team replaced the NFC system with a novel light-based mechanism.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1s.webp" alt="The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University" class="wp-image-1964846"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Click image to enlarge. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University</figcaption></figure>



“Instead of using the radio frequency scheme for wireless control, we developed a light-based scheme for turning the pacemaker on and delivering stimulation pulses to the surface of the heart. This is one feature that allowed us to dramatically reduce the size,” said Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powered-by-the-body-s-own-fluids">Powered by the body’s own fluids</h2>



The engineers also reimagined how to power the tiny pacemaker. Rather than requiring a battery or external power source, the device uses a simple galvanic cell - a chemical battery formed by two different metals as electrodes.&nbsp;



When the device is inside the body, surrounding biofluids act as the electrolyte, allowing electrical current to flow and stimulate the heart.



“A very tiny light-activated switch on the opposite side from the battery allows us to turn the device from its ‘off’ state to an ‘on’ state upon delivery of light that passes through the patient’s body from the skin-mounted patch,” explained Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-trauma-and-risk">Reducing trauma and risk</h2>



Using infrared light, which can safely penetrate deep into the body, the wearable controller detects when a patient’s heart rate falls too low. It then triggers a light-emitting diode (LED) to flash on and off at the desired pacing rhythm.&nbsp;



“Infrared light penetrates very well through the body,” Efimov said. “If you put a flashlight against your palm, you will see the light glow through the other side of your hand. It turns out that our bodies are great conductors of light.”



Despite its microscopic size - just 1.8 mm wide, 3.5 mm long, and 1 mm thick - the pacemaker delivers stimulation on par with traditional devices. “The heart requires a tiny amount of electrical stimulation,” Rogers said.&nbsp;



“By minimizing the size, we dramatically simplify the implantation procedures, we reduce trauma and risk to the patient, and, with the dissolvable nature of the device, we eliminate any need for secondary surgical extraction procedures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-heart-care">A new era of heart care</h2>



Because these light-activated pacemakers are so small and wireless, doctors could one day deploy multiple units on different parts of the heart to create more advanced pacing systems. 



Each device could be controlled independently using different light wavelengths, enabling personalized and precisely timed stimulation across the heart’s surface.



“We can deploy a number of such small pacemakers onto the outside of the heart and control each one,” Efimov said. “Then we can achieve improved synchronized functional care.”



Professor Rogers noted that because it’s so small, the pacemaker can be integrated with almost any kind of implantable device.



“We also demonstrated integration of collections of these devices across the frameworks that serve as transcatheter aortic valve replacements to address complications that can occur during a patient’s recovery process," said Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bioelectronic-medicine">Future of bioelectronic medicine</h2>



While this breakthrough has clear implications for pediatric heart care, the technology could pave the way for a new generation of bioelectronic medicine.&nbsp;



These tiny, dissolvable devices could one day be adapted to promote nerve and bone regeneration, manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain</a>, support wound healing, and more.



Northwestern engineers shrank the device and removed risks by making it dissolve after use. In doing so, they’ve created a tool that could reshape how doctors care for the heart - from the tiniest patients to adults.



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Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/j_0hZ8cUwgo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video interview...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08726-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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World's smallest pacemaker is set to revolutionize heart health

In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp; Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries. Controlling the heart with light The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest. The external controller detects...

For the first time, aquaculture has overtaken wild fisheries in aquatic animal production, marking a significant milestone in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/better-refrigeration-could-significantly-reduce-global-food-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global</a> food security.



A recent report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (<a href="https://www.fao.org/home/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAO</a>) highlights this shift and underscores the growing importance of sustainable aquaculture in meeting the world's food needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-aquaculture">What is aquaculture?</h2>



Aquaculture, often referred to as fish farming, is the practice of breeding, rearing, and harvesting aquatic organisms like fish and seaweed in controlled environments.



Unlike traditional wild fisheries that depend on capturing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-small-fish-whole-reduces-cancer-risk-in-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> from natural bodies of water, aquaculture involves cultivating these species in tanks, ponds, or ocean enclosures.



This method allows for greater control over growing conditions, such as water quality, feed, and breeding cycles, which can lead to more efficient and sustainable production. 



Aquaculture plays a crucial role in supplementing wild fish stocks, reducing pressure on overfished populations, and contributing to global food security. It also supports livelihoods in coastal and rural areas by providing jobs and economic opportunities.



By producing high-quality protein with lower environmental impact compared to some land-based farming practices, aquaculture presents a promising solution to meet the increasing global demand for nutritious and sustainable seafood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rise-of-aquaculture-for-food">Rise of aquaculture for food</h2>



In 2022, aquaculture reached a significant milestone by producing 94.4 million tons of aquatic animals. This impressive output accounted for 51 percent of the total aquatic production globally.



Even more noteworthy is that 57 percent of this production was specifically intended for human consumption. This achievement underscores the growing importance of aquaculture in meeting the world's food needs.



The increase in aquaculture production is crucial as the global demand for aquatic foods continues to rise. As populations grow and dietary preferences shift towards healthier and more diverse options, the need for reliable sources of aquatic foods becomes more pressing. 



The FAO highlights the importance of sustainable production practices in aquaculture. Ensuring that aquaculture operations are environmentally friendly and resource-efficient is vital for maintaining the health of our ecosystems. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aquaculture-and-food-security">Aquaculture and food security</h2>



"Aquatic systems are increasingly recognized as vital for food and nutrition security," the report states. This sentiment was echoed by experts who recently gathered in Costa Rica to discuss ocean conservation.



Due to their diversity and capacity to provide ecosystem services, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-foods-could-help-address-global-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aquatic food</a> systems offer a promising solution to enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-food-system-must-change-if-nations-hope-to-reduce-greenhouse-gas-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global food</a> security and nutrition.



Despite the steady production levels of wild fisheries over the past decades, aquaculture has seen a 6.6 percent increase since 2020. However, the sustainability of wild fishery resources remains a significant concern. 



The proportion of marine stocks fished within biologically sustainable levels dropped to 62.3 percent in 2021, down from 64.6 percent in 2019. The report calls for urgent action to accelerate the conservation and rebuilding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/without-strong-action-global-fish-stocks-could-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishery stocks</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investment-and-challenges">Investment and challenges</h2>



With the global population projected to reach 8.5 billion by 2030, significant investments are necessary to ensure adequate food, nutrition, and livelihoods. The report highlights the potential of aquaculture, particularly in Africa, where it remains largely untapped.



Currently, over 40 percent of the global population cannot afford a healthy diet, making the role of aquaculture even more critical. Aquatic products are among the most traded food commodities, generating a record $195 billion in 2022 - a 19 percent increase from pre-pandemic levels.



Despite these achievements, the sector faces significant challenges, including climate change, water scarcity, pollution, and biodiversity loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-efforts-to-support-aquaculture">Global efforts to support aquaculture</h2>



The report's release coincides with a meeting in San Jose, Costa Rica, where country representatives, scientists, and international experts are preparing for the third UN Ocean Conference in France in 2025. 



United Nations Under-Secretary-General for Social Affairs, Li Junhua, emphasized the urgency of protecting the ocean, stating that it is "not an option but an imperative."



Costa Rica's President Rodrigo Chaves, hosting the two-day meeting, warned that failing to act would jeopardize the future of humanity. Participants are debating critical issues, including the ocean's capacity to absorb carbon dioxide, the need for sustainable fishing practices, and tackling marine pollution.



In conclusion, the shift from wild fisheries to aquaculture marks a pivotal moment in global food security. Sustainable aquaculture offers a viable solution to meet the growing demand for aquatic foods, but it requires significant investment and concerted global efforts to overcome the challenges posed by climate change and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/90-percent-of-the-worlds-aquaculture-faces-substantial-risk-from-human-induced-environmental-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental</a> threats.



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Aquaculture now produces more food than wild fishing

For the first time, aquaculture has overtaken wild fisheries in...

Wildfires have always been a terrifying spectacle of nature's raw power. But a remarkable study from <a href="https://www.ucr.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Riverside</a> reveals a chilling twist: smoke from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-breaking-wildfire-years-are-just-getting-started/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a> may be stoking the very conditions that feed their growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfire-smoke-signals">Wildfire smoke signals</h2>



We've all seen the towering plumes of smoke rising from wildfires, but these aren't just a sign of destruction. They're a key factor in a dangerous feedback loop.



"Fires emit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-has-affected-almost-every-lake-in-north-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smoke</a> with black carbon, or soot. Since it is very dark, the soot absorbs sunlight more readily than bright or reflective things," noted James Gomez, the lead author of the study.



This soot, a type of aerosol, acts like a heat-trapping blanket. It soaks up the sun's energy, raising temperatures and creating a hotter, drier environment. This, in turn, makes the perfect recipe for more fires to ignite.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vicious-cycle-in-northern-california">Vicious cycle in Northern California</h2>



Northern California,&nbsp;with its abundant and dense vegetation,&nbsp;is particularly vulnerable to the self-perpetuating nature of wildfires.&nbsp;The region's landscape,&nbsp;rich in flammable plant matter,&nbsp;provides ample fuel for fires to spread and intensify.&nbsp;



The study's findings reveal that the impact of wildfires in Northern California is amplified by an average daily temperature increase of 1 degree Celsius (33.8 degrees Fahrenheit) during active fire periods.&nbsp;



This heightened temperature,&nbsp;a direct consequence of the fire itself, further dries out vegetation and creates a more conducive environment for fire to propagate,&nbsp;exacerbating the already destructive nature of these events.



"It appears these fires are creating their own fire weather," said Gomez. This chilling statement paints a picture of wildfires fanning the flames of their own growth, creating a vicious cycle that's difficult to break.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-double-edged-sword-of-wildfire-smoke">Double-edged sword of wildfire smoke</h2>



The story of aerosols in our atmosphere is a complex one. Some, like sulfate aerosols from fossil fuels, act as a shield, reflecting sunlight and cooling the environment. However, recent research suggests that efforts to improve air quality by reducing these aerosols may have an unintended consequence: an increase in wildfires.



On the other hand, black carbon from wildfires does the opposite. It traps heat, dries out the atmosphere, and discourages cloud formation. "What I found is that the black carbon emitted from these California wildfires is not increasing the number of clouds. It's hydrophobic," said Gomez.



This means fewer clouds and less rain, a dire prospect for drought-prone regions already struggling with water scarcity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-we-break-the-cycle">Can we break the cycle?</h2>



The situation may seem grim, but there's hope. Gomez believes that mitigating CO2 emissions and implementing better land management practices can help reduce the number of large wildfires.



"There is a buildup of vegetation here in California. We need to allow more frequent small fires to reduce the amount of fuel available to burn," said Gomez. "With more forest management and more prescribed burns, we could have fewer giant fires. That is in our control."



This research isn't just a wake-up call about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-in-siberia-are-a-growing-global-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dangers of wildfires</a>. It's a reminder that the Earth's systems are interconnected in complex ways. 



Our actions have consequences, both intended and unintended. And as we continue to grapple with the challenges of climate change, understanding these connections is more important than ever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-wildfire-research">Future of wildfire research</h2>



The UC Riverside study is a significant step forward in our understanding of wildfires and their impact on the environment. However, it's just the beginning. There's still much to learn about the complex interplay between fire, weather, and climate change.



Future research will likely delve deeper into the role of aerosols, both from natural and human-made sources. 



Scientists will also continue to explore the effectiveness of various fire management strategies, with the goal of reducing the frequency and intensity of wildfires.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-burning-issue-of-wildfire-smoke">Burning issue of wildfire smoke</h2>



The issue of wildfires is a burning one, both literally and figuratively. It's a problem that affects us all, whether we live in fire-prone areas or not. The smoke from wildfires can travel thousands of miles, impacting air quality and public health far from the source of the flames.



As we continue to face the challenges of a changing climate, the research from UC Riverside serves as a stark reminder that we must act now to prevent the worst-case <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-uncover-effects-of-wildfires-on-soil-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scenarios</a> from becoming a reality. The future of our planet, and our own well-being, depends on it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/24/6937/2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics</a>.



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Wildfire smoke creates conditions that favor more fires

Wildfires have always been a terrifying spectacle of nature's raw...

Cumulative culture is a fundamental aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human evolution</a>, a story of continuous cultural and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/400000-year-old-stone-tools-show-technological-adaptations-of-prehistoric-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">technological advancements</a> passed down through countless generations.



This accumulation of knowledge has set humans apart from other primates, enabling us to adapt to a wide range of environments. 



But when did our ancestors start to build on each other's knowledge, creating what we now call cumulative culture?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-cumulative-culture">Understanding cumulative culture</h2>



Cumulative culture refers to the way humans build upon the knowledge and innovations of previous generations. This unique aspect of human societies allows us to continuously improve tools, technologies, and ideas over time. 



Unlike animals, which may learn behaviors through imitation, humans enhance and refine these behaviors, creating more complex solutions to problems. 



This process has enabled humans to adapt to a wide variety of environments and challenges, from creating sophisticated tools to developing advanced social systems.



For example, the development of agriculture allowed early humans to settle in one place, leading to the growth of communities and civilizations. 



Over generations, these societies developed new farming techniques, tools, and social structures, continuously improving their way of life.



Similarly, advancements in medicine, transportation, and communication have all resulted from cumulative culture, where each generation builds on the discoveries and innovations of the past. This ongoing process is fundamental to human progress and development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beginning-of-the-culture">Beginning of the culture</h2>



Pinpointing the exact time when this phenomenon began during hominin evolution has been challenging. A recent study by researchers from <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a> sheds light on this pivotal development.



According to study co-authors Charles Perreault and Jonathan Paige, humans began to rapidly accumulate technological knowledge through social learning around 600,000 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-culture-and-human-adaptability">Cumulative culture and human adaptability</h2>



“Our species, Homo sapiens, has been successful at adapting to ecological conditions - from tropical forests to arctic tundra - that require different kinds of problems to be solved," explained Perreault.



"Cumulative culture is key because it allows human populations to build on and recombine the solutions of prior generations and to develop new complex solutions to problems very quickly."



"The result is, our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-innovative-40000-year-old-culture-found-in-china/">cultures</a>, from technological problems and solutions to how we organize our institutions, are too complex for individuals to invent on their own.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-cumulative-culture">Origins of cumulative culture </h2>



To trace the origins of cumulative culture, Paige and Perreault analyzed the complexity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-humans-hunted-elephants-with-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tool</a> manufacturing techniques over the past 3.3 million years. 



They used nonhuman primate technologies and experimental flintknapping by inexperienced humans as baselines for comparison.



The researchers found that between 3.3 and 1.8 million years ago, stone tool manufacturing sequences were relatively simple, involving 1 to 6 procedural units (PUs).



From 1.8 million to 600,000 years ago, the complexity increased slightly to 4 to 7 PUs. However, after 600,000 years ago, there was a rapid increase in complexity, with sequences involving 5 to 18 PUs.



“By 600,000 years ago or so, hominin populations started relying on unusually complex technologies, and we only see rapid increases in complexity after that time as well," said Paige. "Both of those findings match what we expect to see among hominins who rely on cumulative culture."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-tool-assisted-foraging">Role of tool-assisted foraging</h2>



Tool-assisted foraging likely played a crucial role in the early evolution of cumulative culture. 



Early hominins, between 3.4 and 2 million years ago, used tools for tasks like accessing meat and marrow, which may have driven changes in brain size, lifespan, and biology, setting the stage for cumulative culture. 



While other forms of social learning may have influenced tool-making, rapid increases in technological complexity are evident only from the Middle Pleistocene onward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-from-the-middle-pleistocene">Evidence from the Middle Pleistocene</h2>



The Middle Pleistocene epoch, around 600,000 years ago, shows consistent evidence of advanced technologies, such as controlled use of fire, hearths, and domestic spaces. These innovations likely played essential roles in the development of cumulative culture.



Additionally, wooden structures constructed with hafted tools - stone blades affixed to wooden or bone handles - also emerged during this period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emergence-of-cumulative-culture">Emergence of cumulative culture</h2>



This research suggests that cumulative culture began near the start of the Middle Pleistocene, possibly before the divergence of Neanderthals and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-genes-still-influence-modern-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humans</a>.



By understanding the origins of cumulative culture, we gain insight into the unique evolutionary path that has enabled humans to thrive across diverse environments and challenges.



Through continued research, we can further unravel the complexities of human evolution and the cultural developments that have shaped our history.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2319175121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Humans started "cumulative culture" around 600,000 years ago

Cumulative culture is a fundamental aspect of human evolution, a...

We all know that time is a fundamental part of life. It governs our daily routines, dictates our schedules, and allows us to make sense of the world around us. But have you ever wondered how your brain and cells actually perceive and process <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">time</a>? 



Researchers at the <a href="https://healthcare.utah.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Utah Health</a> have recently made a remarkable discovery that sheds light on this mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-s-inner-clock-time-cells">Brain's inner clock: Time cells</h2>



Scientists have identified a special group of neurons in the brain called "time cells," which act like the second hand on a clock, firing in sequence to measure short periods of time.



“Time cells are supposed to be active at specific moments during the trial,” said Dr. Hyunwoo Lee, co-first author of the study. “But when the mice made mistakes, that selective activity became messy.”



While previous research suggested that time cells merely tracked time like a stopwatch, the new findings reveal a far more intricate role. These cells play a crucial part in learning complex behaviors that rely on precise timing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-and-morse-code">Mice and morse code</h2>



To understand how time cells function, the researchers designed an experiment where mice had to learn a simplified version of Morse code using different patterns of odor stimuli. 



By observing the activity of individual time cells before and after the learning process, they discovered a fascinating phenomenon.



Initially, the time cells responded uniformly to all odor patterns. However, as the mice mastered the differently timed patterns, the time cells developed unique activity patterns for each sequence. It was like watching the brain create a personalized code for time!



“The MEC isn’t acting like a really simple stopwatch that’s necessary to track time in any simple circumstance,” said Erin Bigus, co-first author of the study. “Its role seems to be in actually learning these more complex temporal relationships.”



When the researchers temporarily deactivated the brain region containing these time cells, the mice could still <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-perception-we-see-the-world-based-on-what-we-expect-to-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perceive</a> and anticipate the timing of events, but they struggled to learn new time-related tasks. 



This suggests that time cells are not just responsible for keeping track of time but are also essential for learning intricate temporal relationships.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-space-and-time">New perspective on space and time</h2>



The study's findings challenge our conventional understanding of how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-perception-changes-with-our-walking-rhythm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain processes time</a> and space. 



The region where time cells are found, known as the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC), was previously thought to be primarily involved in spatial learning and the formation of mental maps. 



However, the researchers observed striking similarities between the brain activity patterns associated with time-based and spatial learning.



This intriguing connection raises the possibility that the brain processes both space and time using similar mechanisms. It's like a hidden link between two seemingly distinct dimensions of our experience.



“We believe that the entorhinal cortex might serve a dual purpose, acting both as an odometer to track distance and as a clock to track elapsed time,” said Dr. James Heys, senior author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-alzheimer-s-disease">Implications for Alzheimer's Disease</h2>



The researchers believe that their findings could significantly impact the field of neurodegenerative disease diagnostics, particularly for Alzheimer's disease.&nbsp;



Given that the MEC is among the initial brain regions affected by Alzheimer's,&nbsp;the observed correlation between MEC function and complex timing tasks suggests a potential avenue for early detection.&nbsp;



By developing diagnostic tools that assess an individual's ability to perform complex time-based tasks,&nbsp;clinicians may be able to identify subtle cognitive impairments associated with early-stage Alzheimer's disease.&nbsp;



This could lead to earlier interventions and potential treatments,&nbsp;ultimately improving patient outcomes and quality of life.



“These are the first areas of the brain to be affected by neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s. We are interested in exploring whether complex timing behavior tasks could be a useful way to detect the early onset of Alzheimer's disease," said Dr. Heys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-time-research">Future of time research</h2>



The study of time cells is still in its early stages,&nbsp;but the potential implications are vast.&nbsp;Researchers are eager to explore the complex mechanisms by which these cells interact with other brain regions and contribute to our overall perception of time.&nbsp;



They are also investigating how disruptions in time cell activity may contribute to various neurological and psychiatric disorders.&nbsp;



As technology advances,&nbsp;we can expect even more sophisticated tools for studying time cells and their role in the brain.&nbsp;This could lead to new insights into the fundamental nature of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-experiences-alter-time-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">time</a> itself and how it shapes our lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-time-cells">Significance of time cells</h2>



The next time you become aware of the passage of time,&nbsp;consider the complex neural processes underlying this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-dreams-influence-our-perceptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perception</a>.&nbsp;



The discovery of time cells and their essential role in learning and adaptation highlights the intricate relationship between our brains and our experience of time.&nbsp;



Ongoing research into time perception promises to reveal even more about how our brains construct our understanding of the world,&nbsp;potentially leading to breakthroughs in fields like neurology and cognitive science.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-024-01683-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Neuroscience</a>.



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"Time cells" in the brain act like a stopwatch for complex tasks

We all know that time is a fundamental part of...

Ever wondered why your morning cup is non-negotiable,&nbsp;while others can easily skip it?&nbsp;Or maybe you've pondered the endless debate:&nbsp;is coffee a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/molecule-in-coffee-trigonelline-keeps-muscles-young/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health hero</a> or villain?&nbsp;Recent research suggests the answer to both questions might be entwined with your genes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-in-daily-lives">Coffee in daily lives</h2>



Coffee,&nbsp;a beloved beverage enjoyed worldwide,&nbsp;is made from the roasted seeds of the Coffea plant.&nbsp;Originating in Ethiopia,&nbsp;coffee beans are now <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-plants-fight-climate-change-with-a-genetic-weapon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultivated</a> in various regions across the globe,&nbsp;with popular varieties like Arabica and Robusta offering distinct flavors and aromas.



Coffee plays a significant role in many people's lives,&nbsp;serving as a morning ritual,&nbsp;a social catalyst,&nbsp;and a source of energy due to its caffeine content.



Whether enjoyed black,&nbsp;with cream and sugar,&nbsp;or in elaborate specialty <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dedicated-coffee-drinkers-have-lower-blood-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinks</a>,&nbsp;coffee holds a special place in cultures around the world,&nbsp;fostering connection and providing a much-needed boost to start the day or overcome afternoon slumps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-craving-genes">Coffee craving genes</h2>



The factors influencing an individual's coffee consumption extend beyond personal taste preferences or a desire for caffeine.&nbsp;Emerging research suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-genome-adapted-to-climate-changes-over-millennia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic predispositions</a> play a significant role in shaping coffee habits.&nbsp;



This means that an individual's inclination towards specific types of coffee,&nbsp;such as a double espresso or black coffee,&nbsp;could be partly influenced by their inherited genetic traits.&nbsp;



These findings challenge the conventional understanding of coffee consumption as solely a matter of choice,&nbsp;suggesting a deeper biological basis for this widespread habit.



This fascinating revelation comes from a recent study published in&nbsp;Neuropsychopharmacology,&nbsp;where researchers delved into massive databases from 23andMe and the UK Biobank.&nbsp;They sought to unravel the link between our genes and our caffeine cravings.



"We had good reason to suspect from earlier papers that there were genes that influence how much coffee someone consumes," noted Dr. Abraham Palmer,&nbsp;a professor at <a href="https://medschool.ucsd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC San Diego School of Medicine</a> and a lead researcher on the study.



"In other words, the particular gene variants that you inherit from your parents influence how much coffee you're likely to consume."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-consumption-beyond-genes">Coffee consumption beyond genes</h2>



The research expanded beyond the genetic influences on coffee consumption to explore the broader question of coffee's impact on health.&nbsp;This involved investigating whether coffee consumption is associated with positive or negative health outcomes.&nbsp;



This added layer of inquiry aimed to address the ongoing debate about the potential benefits and risks of coffee consumption,&nbsp;providing a more comprehensive understanding of its role in overall well-being.



“The second is something that coffee lovers are really keen on learning," said Dr. Sandra Sanchez-Roige. "Is drinking coffee good or bad? Is it associated with positive health outcomes or not?” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-genes-and-risks">Coffee genes and risks</h2>



The study's findings regarding coffee's impact on health were multifaceted and surprising.&nbsp;Initial analysis revealed consistent positive genetic associations between coffee and harmful health outcomes, such as obesity and substance use.&nbsp;



The research yielded potentially positive outcomes concerning psychiatric conditions like anxiety, depression,&nbsp;and bipolar disorder.&nbsp;However, the results were complex and varied across the different datasets used in the study. 



The findings suggest a more nuanced relationship between coffee consumption and mental health than previously understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surveys-on-coffee-consumption">Surveys on coffee consumption</h2>



So,&nbsp;what explains these puzzling differences?&nbsp;The researchers suspect it might have to do with how the surveys about coffee consumption were conducted.&nbsp;The questions asked in the 23andMe and UK Biobank surveys differed,&nbsp;potentially influencing the results.



"We know that in the U.K., they have generally higher preference for instant coffee, whereas ground coffee is more preferred in the U.S," noted Dr. Hayley H.A. Thorpe,&nbsp;the lead author of the study.



Beyond just the type of coffee,&nbsp;the surveys didn't account for how coffee is prepared or consumed,&nbsp;leading to a potential mismatch in data.&nbsp;Plus,&nbsp;other caffeinated drinks like tea weren't considered,&nbsp;potentially skewing the results,&nbsp;especially for the UK population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-environment-and-a-cup-of-coffee">Genes, environment, and a cup of coffee</h2>



So,&nbsp;what's the final verdict?&nbsp;As with many things in science,&nbsp;it's not a simple answer.&nbsp;The research highlights a complex interplay between genetics and the environment when it comes to our coffee habits and their potential health impacts.



"Unlike height, where your behavior doesn't really have much to do with it, your behavior and the choices you're making in your environment play out in various ways. So the interaction between genotype and environment complicates the picture," said Dr. Sanchez-Roige.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-coffee-research">Future of coffee research</h2>



This study serves as a reminder that the relationship between our genes and our daily choices is a captivating puzzle.&nbsp;It also underscores the importance of considering cultural and environmental factors when studying health and behavior.



So,&nbsp;the next time you reach for your favorite mug,&nbsp;remember:&nbsp;your genes might be playing a part in that craving.&nbsp;



And whether coffee is a health boon or bane?&nbsp;The answer might be as unique as your genes and the way you take your coffee.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tips-for-coffee-consumers">Tips for coffee consumers</h2>



Regular coffee consumers must keep the following in mind:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-don-t-fight-your-genes">Don't fight your genes</h3>



If you have a strong craving for coffee,&nbsp;it might be partly due to your genetic makeup.&nbsp;Don't feel guilty about enjoying your daily cup(s) in moderation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consider-your-mental-health">Consider your mental health</h3>



If you have a history of anxiety,&nbsp;depression,&nbsp;or bipolar disorder,&nbsp;it might be wise to monitor your coffee intake and observe how it affects you.&nbsp;



While the research is mixed,&nbsp;some studies suggest a potential link between coffee consumption and these conditions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quality-over-quantity-nbsp">Quality over quantity&nbsp;</h3>



Focus on enjoying high-quality coffee rather than consuming large amounts.&nbsp;The study didn't distinguish between different types of coffee,&nbsp;but opting for freshly ground beans and avoiding sugary additives might be a healthier choice.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listen-to-your-body">Listen to your body</h3>



Pay attention to how coffee makes you feel.&nbsp;If you experience negative side effects like jitters, anxiety,&nbsp;or sleep disturbances,&nbsp;it might be a sign to cut back.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-variety-is-key">Variety is key</h3>



Explore different types of coffee, preparation methods, and even other caffeinated beverages like tea. This can help you discover what works best for your body and preferences.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41386-024-01870-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuropsychopharmacology</a>.



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Is coffee good for you? It may depend on your genes

Ever wondered why your morning cup is non-negotiable,&nbsp;while others can...

Colliding,Of,Two,Quasars,Galaxies,With,Black,Hole,In,Centrum

Let us transport ourselves back in time to an era when the universe was a mere 900 million years old, a period known as the "Cosmic Dawn."



Amidst this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-map-of-supermassive-black-holes-unveiled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of our universe, astronomers have made an extraordinary discovery: a pair of merging quasars, each powered by a supermassive black hole, locked in a gravitational dance of immense scale and energy.



This observation offers a rare glimpse into the dynamic processes that shaped the early universe and its structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supermassive-hearts-of-merging-quasars">Supermassive hearts of merging quasars</h2>



Before delving into this celestial phenomenon, it's essential to understand the key players. Quasars are exceedingly luminous astronomical objects that often outshine entire galaxies. 



This immense energy output is generated by a supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-black-holes-and-quasars-grew-faster-than-their-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a> residing at the core of the quasar.



These black holes, millions or even billions of times more massive than our Sun, exert a gravitational pull so powerful that it draws in surrounding matter.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/merging-quasars_cosmic-dawn_NOIRlab_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/merging-quasars_cosmic-dawn_NOIRlab_1s.jpg" alt="Merging quasars from the 'Cosmic Dawn' reveal how the universe was formed. Credit: NOIRlab/NSF" class="wp-image-1936883"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Merging quasars from the 'Cosmic Dawn' reveal how the universe was formed. Credit: NOIRlab/NSF</figcaption></figure>



As this matter spirals towards the black hole, it forms an accretion disk, a swirling vortex of gas and dust. 



Within this disk, intense frictional and gravitational forces generate extreme temperatures, causing the matter to emit vast amounts of radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum.



This radiant energy is what makes quasars some of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quasar-j0529-4351-brightest-object-ever-seen-eats-one-star-per-day/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brightest objects</a> in the observable universe. The study of quasars provides valuable insights into the evolution of galaxies and the behavior of matter under extreme gravitational conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-dawn">Cosmic dawn</h2>



The early universe, a period known as the Cosmic Dawn, was a time of immense change. Roughly 50 million years after the Big Bang, the first stars and galaxies began to form, marking a pivotal shift from darkness to light. 



This emergence of luminous objects initiated the Epoch of Reionization, a transformative phase in cosmic history.



During the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-discovers-what-powered-the-reionization-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Epoch of Reionization</a>, the universe's abundant neutral hydrogen gas was bombarded with intense ultraviolet radiation emitted by these nascent stars and galaxies. 



This radiation had enough energy to strip electrons from the hydrogen atoms, a process known as ionization.



The ionization of hydrogen fundamentally altered the properties of the universe, making it transparent to certain wavelengths of light and paving the way for the formation of the complex structures, such as galaxies and galaxy clusters, that we observe in the universe today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-merging-quasars-discovered">Merging quasars discovered</h2>



Enter Yoshiki Matsuoka, an astronomer at <a href="https://www.ehime-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ehime University</a> in Japan, and his astute team. While meticulously examining images captured by the <a href="https://www.naoj.org/Projects/HSC/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hyper Suprime-Cam</a> on the <a href="https://subarutelescope.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subaru Telescope</a>, they noticed a curious pair of red dots nestled closely together. 



"The discovery was purely serendipitous," Matsuoka remarked, unaware of the remarkable implications this chance observation held.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/merging-quasars_cosmic-dawn_Subaru-telescope_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/merging-quasars_cosmic-dawn_Subaru-telescope_1s.jpg" alt="Subaru telescope captures two quasars merging in the early universe. Credit: NOIRLab/NSF" class="wp-image-1936878"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Subaru telescope captures two quasars merging in the early universe. Credit: NOIRLab/NSF</figcaption></figure>



Upon closer inspection, these red dots were revealed to be quasars, each harboring a colossal black hole exceeding 100 million solar masses. 



Astoundingly, these quasars were separated by a mere 10,000 light-years, a distance comparable to the width of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-chimney-venting-found-heart-milky-way-galaxy-sagittarius-a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>.



This close proximity was no mere coincidence but a telltale sign of a cataclysmic merger in progress. The host galaxies of these quasars were locked in a gravitational embrace, their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermassive-black-holes-are-very-messy-eaters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a> spiraling towards an inevitable collision.



This merger will ultimately give birth to a single, even more monstrous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>, forever altering the cosmic landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaseous-bridge">Gaseous bridge</h2>



The Gemini Near-Infrared Spectrograph (<a href="https://www.gemini.edu/instrumentation/gnirs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GNIRS</a>) on <a href="https://www.gemini.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gemini North</a> played a crucial role in confirming the identity of these merging quasars and uncovering the secrets of their host galaxies.



“What we learned from the GNIRS observations was that the quasars are too faint to detect in near-infrared, even with one of the largest telescopes on the ground," Matsuoka revealed.



This faintness indicated that a portion of the observed light originated not from the quasars themselves but from the intense star formation occurring within their merging galaxies. 



Furthermore, the GNIRS observations detected a bridge of gas connecting the two quasars, providing compelling evidence of their impending merger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glimpse-into-the-early-universe">Glimpse into the early universe</h2>



This monumental discovery offers a rare glimpse into a period of the universe that has long remained elusive. 



By studying these distant objects, astronomers can unlock valuable insights into the processes that shaped the early universe and laid the foundation for the magnificent cosmic structures we marvel at today.



The discovery of this merging quasar pair marks a significant milestone in our understanding of the cosmos. 



As astronomers venture deeper into the universe's mysteries, they anticipate uncovering more of these enigmatic objects, gradually piecing together the intricate puzzle of the early universe's evolution.



The highly anticipated Vera C. Rubin Observatory's Legacy Survey of Space and Time (<a href="https://kipac.stanford.edu/research/projects/vera-rubin-observatorys-legacy-survey-space-and-time" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LSST</a>) is poised to revolutionize quasar research. 



With its unparalleled ability to peer into the depths of space, the LSST is expected to detect millions of quasars, ushering in a new era of discovery and unveiling the secrets of these cosmic powerhouses.



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Merging quasars from the 'Cosmic Dawn' reveal how the universe was formed

Let us transport ourselves back in time to an era...

Groundwater temperatures are one of the things affected as our planet's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-deja-vu-oceans-may-slow-down-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> warms due to the increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> extends beyond what we see in the air and ocean. It influences the Earth's surface, including soil and groundwater, which absorb and store heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-of-groundwater">Temperature of groundwater</h2>



Groundwater is the water found beneath the Earth's surface, stored in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand, and rock. It is a critical source of drinking water, irrigation for agriculture, and industrial processes. 



Groundwater comes from precipitation that infiltrates the ground, moving through the soil and rock layers until it reaches an area it can no longer penetrate, forming aquifers.



The temperature of groundwater is important because it influences water quality and the health of ecosystems. Warmer groundwater can increase the concentration of harmful substances like arsenic and manganese, posing health risks. It can also disrupt aquatic life, biogeochemical processes, and the thermal regimes of rivers. 



Additionally, higher groundwater temperatures can promote the growth of pathogens in water distribution networks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-projecting-groundwater-temperature-changes">Projecting groundwater temperature changes</h2>



Understanding and managing groundwater temperature is crucial for ensuring safe drinking water, preserving ecosystems, and mitigating the impacts of climate change.



Recent research from the <a href="https://www.ipf.kit.edu/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing</a> and the <a href="https://www.agw.kit.edu/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Applied Geosciences</a> has begun to address this knowledge gap.



“To close this gap, we have simulated the projected changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-depletion-is-accelerating-but-it-is-not-inevitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global groundwater</a> temperatures through 2100,” explained Dr. Susanne Benz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varying-temperatures-at-different-depths">Varying temperatures at different depths</h2>



The study, which involved Dr. Kathrin Menberg and Professor Philipp Blum, provides detailed maps showing how groundwater temperatures will vary at different depths across the globe. 



The findings indicate that areas with shallow groundwater tables or significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-some-lakes-resist-the-heat-of-atmospheric-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric warming</a> will experience the highest rates of groundwater warming.



The projections are based on two climate scenarios: SSP 2–4.5 and SSP 5–8.5. These scenarios represent different pathways for future socioeconomic development and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/measuring-greenhouse-gas-emissions-from-ponds-improves-climate-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a> concentrations.



SSP 2–4.5 is a middle-range scenario, while SSP 5–8.5 represents a high-end, worst-case scenario.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-groundwater-temperatures-forecast-and-implications">Groundwater temperatures: Forecast and implications</h2>



The study forecasts a significant rise in groundwater temperatures by 2100. The results suggest an increase of 2.1 degrees Celsius under SSP 2–4.5 and 3.5 degrees Celsius under SSP 5–8.5.



“There are already about 30 million people living in regions where the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-sea-levels-threaten-groundwater-global-cities-underground-infrastructure/">groundwater</a> exceeds the strictest drinking water guidelines for temperature. This means the water might not be safe to drink without treatment," noted Dr. Benz. By 2100, this number could swell to hundreds of millions, depending on the scenario.



Estimates range from 77 to 188 million people for SSP 2–4.5 and 59 to 588 million for SSP 5–8.5. The variations are due to differences in regional climate change impacts and population trends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-and-health-impacts">Ecological and health impacts</h2>



Groundwater temperature is a critical factor in water quality, affecting chemical, biological, and physical processes. 



“Rising groundwater temperatures can increase the concentrations of harmful substances like arsenic or manganese, posing health risks, especially if the groundwater is used for drinking,” said Dr. Benz.



Warmer groundwater also disrupts ecosystems, impacting aquatic life, biogeochemical processes, geothermal energy potential, and thermal regimes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drought-conditions-amplify-river-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-distribution-networks">Water distribution networks </h2>



Increased groundwater temperatures can lead to exceeding critical thresholds in water distribution networks, potentially promoting the growth of harmful pathogens such as Legionella which presents a direct threat to human health. 



Fish species, particularly salmon, are also at risk if their groundwater-dependent spawning grounds become too warm.



“Our results highlight the importance of taking action to protect groundwater and finding sustainable solutions to mitigate the negative impacts of climate change on groundwater,” said Dr. Benz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-impacts-of-climate-change">Addressing the impacts of climate change</h2>



As the Earth's climate warms, understanding and addressing the impacts on groundwater is crucial. This research highlights the need for proactive measures to protect this vital resource. 



Rising groundwater temperatures can degrade water quality, making it unsafe for drinking without treatment. 



It also disrupts ecosystems, affecting aquatic life and biogeochemical processes. By taking action now, we can ensure safe drinking water and preserve ecosystems for future generations. 



Protecting groundwater from the impacts of climate change is essential for sustaining both human health and the environment.



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Groundwater temperatures are rising due to climate change

Groundwater temperatures are one of the things affected as our...

A major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquakes-have-long-lasting-impacts-on-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earthquake</a> 2,500 years ago caused a dramatic course change in one of the world's largest rivers, the Ganges, in what is now Bangladesh, a densely populated area still susceptible to significant seismic activity.&nbsp;



The experts found that this previously undocumented earthquake rerouted the main channel of the Ganges River.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-river-course-change">Massive river-course change</h2>



While river-course changes, known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-will-cause-catastrophic-river-avulsions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">avulsions</a>, have been documented before, this one stands out due to its scale.&nbsp;



“I don’t think we have ever seen such a big one anywhere,” said co-author Michael Steckler, a geophysicist at the <a href="https://lamont.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory</a>. According to Steckler, such an event could have flooded the surrounding area, posing a significant threat to any inhabitants.



“It was not previously confirmed that earthquakes could drive avulsion in deltas, especially for an immense river like the Ganges,” said lead author Liz Chamberlain, a geophysicist at&nbsp; <a href="https://www.wur.nl/en.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wageningen University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ganges-river-system">The Ganges River system</h2>



The Ganges River, originating in the Himalayas, flows approximately 1,600 miles and merges with other significant rivers such as the Brahmaputra and the Meghna, forming a complex system of waterways that empty into the Bay of Bengal. This system is the world's second-largest river system by discharge, after the Amazon.



Rivers in major deltas often change course over time due to sediment buildup, causing the river bed to rise and eventually breach, redirecting the flow.&nbsp;



Typically, these changes happen gradually through successive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">floods</a> over years or decades. However, an earthquake-induced avulsion, as Steckler explains, can occur almost instantaneously.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ancient-main-channel-nbsp-of-the-ganges">The ancient main channel&nbsp;of the Ganges </h2>



The researchers identified what they believe to be the ancient main channel of the river, located about 100 kilometers south of Dhaka, Bangladesh's capital. This area, now used primarily for rice cultivation, is prone to frequent flooding.&nbsp;



During fieldwork in 2018, Chamberlain's team discovered vertical dikes of light-colored sand cutting through horizontal layers of mud in a freshly excavated pond. These features, known as seismites, indicate past earthquake activity. The seismites were 30 to 40 centimeters wide, extending through three to four meters of mud.



Further analysis showed that the seismites formed around 2,500 years ago, coinciding with the abandonment and infilling of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/river-colors-are-shifting-from-blue-to-yellow-and-green/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">river</a> channel. Similar findings were observed 85 kilometers downstream.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avulsion-caused-by-an-earthquake">Avulsion caused by an earthquake</h2>



The researchers concluded that this was a significant avulsion caused by an earthquake, likely of magnitude seven or eight.



The potential sources of the quake are twofold: a subduction zone to the south and east, or giant splay faults at the base of the Himalayas. Both zones are accumulating stress and could produce similar earthquakes in the future, as evidenced by a <a href="https://www.earth.columbia.edu/articles/view/3336" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2016 study</a> led by Steckler.&nbsp;



The last comparable quake occurred in 1762, generating a deadly tsunami that reached Dhaka, with another possible event around 1140 CE.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-risks-of-river-avulsion">Modern risks of river avulsion</h2>



The 2016 study estimated that a modern recurrence of such a quake could impact 140 million people.&nbsp;



“Large earthquakes impact large areas and can have long-lasting economic, social and political effects,” said Syed Humayun Akhter, vice-chancellor of <a href="https://www.bou.ac.bd/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bangladesh Open University </a>and co-author of both studies.



The Ganges is not alone in facing these risks. Other rivers in tectonically active deltas include China’s Yellow River, Myanmar’s Irrawaddy, several rivers off the U.S. West Coast, and the Jordan River, which spans the borders of Syria, Jordan, the Palestinian West Bank, and Israel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-ganges-river-nbsp">More about the Ganges River&nbsp;</h2>



The Ganges River is one of the most significant and sacred rivers in the world. It originates from the Gangotri Glacier in the Indian Himalayas. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-extent-of-microplastic-contamination-in-the-ganges-river/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">river</a> is revered in Hinduism, with millions of devotees considering its waters to be purifying and holy.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cradle-of-civilization-nbsp">Cradle of civilization&nbsp;</h3>



Historically, the Ganges has been a cradle of civilization, supporting agriculture and sustaining major cities along its banks, such as Varanasi, Haridwar, and Kolkata.&nbsp;



The fertile plains of the Ganges basin have been vital for India's food production, particularly in growing rice and wheat.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-threats-nbsp">Environmental threats&nbsp;</h3>



However, the river faces significant environmental challenges, including pollution from industrial waste, sewage, and religious offerings, which threaten its ecosystem and the health of those who depend on its waters.



Efforts to clean and conserve the Ganges have been ongoing, with government initiatives like the National Mission for Clean Ganga aiming to reduce pollution and restore its ecological balance.&nbsp;



Despite these challenges, the Ganges remains a symbol of life, spirituality, and resilience for millions of people.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-47786-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Massive earthquake changed the course of the Ganges River

A major earthquake 2,500 years ago caused a dramatic course...

A unique celestial "lunar standstill" event will be observed at Stonehenge this week, with a live stream available on YouTube at 21:30 BST (16:30 EST) on Friday, June 21. 



The famous monument is known for its alignment with the sunrise on the summer solstice, which occurs this year on Thursday, June 20. 



This year, however, there is an added phenomenon: one of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-weekends-strawberry-moon-is-the-sweetest-of-the-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">southernmost moonrises</a> during a rare lunistice, or “major lunar standstill.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-lunar-standstill-nbsp">Rare lunar standstill&nbsp;</h2>



In addition to the sun rising behind Stonehenge's Heel Stone on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/summer-solstice-midsummer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">summer solstice</a>, the moonrise on the same day will also be significant due to the major lunar standstill.&nbsp;



Occurring every 18.6 years, this event happens when both Earth and the moon are at their maximum tilts. This results in the moon rising and setting at its most extreme positions on the horizon.



According to <a href="https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/stonehenge/things-to-do/major-lunar-standstill/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">English Heritage</a>, the four Station Stones at Stonehenge align with the direction of the southernmost moonrise during the major lunar standstill.&nbsp;



“Stonehenge’s architectural connection to the Sun is well known, but its link with the moon is less well understood,” said Clive Ruggles, emeritus professor of archaeoastronomy at the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a>.&nbsp;



“The four Station Stones align with the moon’s extreme positions, and researchers have debated for years whether this was deliberate, and - if so - how this was achieved and what might have been its purpose.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-the-moon-aligns-with-stonehenge">When the moon aligns with Stonehenge </h2>



The major lunar standstill is challenging to capture because the extreme points of moonrise do not coincide conveniently with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-weekends-strawberry-moon-is-the-sweetest-of-the-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">full moons</a> but occur randomly during various moon phases from 2024 into 2025.&nbsp;



The most extreme points are near the equinoxes, not the solstices, making this week’s near-full moonrise on the solstice a rare and dramatic event.



Scientists will be stationed at Stonehenge throughout the “standstill season” to document the moon's alignments with the Station Stones. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-minor-lunar-standstills">Minor lunar standstills</h2>



A minor lunar standstill is a similar astronomical event that occurs approximately halfway between two major lunar standstills, which happen every 18.6 years. During a minor lunar standstill, the Moon's monthly path swings less far north and south in the sky compared to a major lunar standstill.



This phenomenon occurs because the Moon's orbit is tilted by about 5 degrees relative to the Earth's equator. As the Earth rotates around the Sun, the direction of the Moon's orbital tilt gradually shifts over a period of 18.6 years. 



Halfway through this cycle, or about 9.3 years after a major lunar standstill, the Moon's orbit aligns in such a way that its monthly declination range is at its minimum, resulting in a minor lunar standstill.



During a minor lunar standstill, the Moon still rises and sets at different points on the horizon throughout the month, but the range of these positions is smaller than during a major lunar standstill.



 As a result, the Moon's path in the sky appears less extreme, and it does not rise or set as far north or south as it does during a major standstill.



Astronomers and sky enthusiasts observe minor lunar standstills to better understand the complex motion of the Moon and its relationship to the Earth and the Sun. 



While minor lunar standstills may not be as visually striking as major ones, they still offer opportunities to witness the Moon's unique behavior in the sky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experiencing-the-extreme-moonrise-nbsp">Experiencing the extreme moonrise&nbsp;</h2>



“Unlike the Sun, tracking the Moon’s extremes isn’t straightforward, requiring specific timing and weather conditions,” said Amanda Chadburn from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>’s Kellogg College.&nbsp;



“We want to understand something of what it was like to experience these extreme moonrises and sets and to witness their visual effects on the stones - for example, patterns of light and shadow - and consider modern influences like traffic and trees, and to document all of this through photography for future study,” she concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-stonehenge-nbsp">More about Stonehenge&nbsp;</h2>



Stonehenge is an ancient prehistoric monument located in Wiltshire, England. It's composed of a ring of standing stones, each around 13 feet high, seven feet wide, and weighing approximately 25 tons.&nbsp;



Archaeologists believe that Stonehenge was constructed from 3000 BC to 2000 BC. The site is part of a larger complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in the area, including several hundred burial mounds.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-purpose">Mysterious purpose</h3>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stonehenge-has-a-mysterious-connection-with-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">purpose</a> of Stonehenge remains a topic of debate among scholars, with theories ranging from its use as an astronomical observatory to a ceremonial site for ancient rituals.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origin-of-the-stones">Origin of the stones</h3>



The stones are thought to have been transported from long distances, with the smaller bluestones originating from the Preseli Hills in Wales, about 150 miles away.&nbsp;



This feat would have required significant human effort and ingenuity, highlighting the organizational skills of the ancient builders.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-construction-nbsp">Construction&nbsp;</h3>



Stonehenge's construction occurred in several stages, beginning with a circular earthwork enclosure in 3000 BC.&nbsp;



The iconic stone circle we see today was erected in the late Neolithic period, around 2500 BC. Subsequent modifications continued into the Bronze Age, reflecting the site's ongoing importance to successive cultures.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-heel-stone-nbsp">The Heel Stone&nbsp;</h3>



The alignment of Stonehenge's stones has fascinated many, as some align with the movements of the sun.&nbsp;



For example, during the summer solstice, the sun rises over the Heel Stone, situated outside the main circle. This alignment has led to theories that Stonehenge served as a solar calendar or a place of sun worship.



Today, Stonehenge is a UNESCO World Heritage site, attracting over a million visitors annually.&nbsp;



Despite extensive research, it continues to hold many secrets, captivating the imagination of people worldwide with its mysterious origins and purpose.



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Rare lunar standstill will illuminate Stonehenge this week

A unique celestial "lunar standstill" event will be observed at...

The migratory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-dramatically-increases-the-threat-of-desert-locusts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">locust</a>, Locusta migratoria, a notorious crop pest, has long been known for its devastating swarms that threaten agriculture and food security, particularly in Africa and Asia. 



Recent research by scientists at the <a href="https://www.ice.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology</a> has revealed the unique olfactory brain structure of these locusts. 



Unlike other insects, migratory locusts have over 2,000 glomeruli in their antennal lobe, compared to 20-300 in most insects. This distinctive feature enables complex odor processing in the locusts, crucial for their behavior and swarming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-odor-processing">Complex odor processing </h2>



Migratory locusts’ antennal lobes, essential for odor processing, exhibit a complex neuronal architecture. This complex structure, with more than 2,000 spherical functional units known as glomeruli, differs significantly from the much lower number of glomeruli found in other insects.&nbsp;



This unique configuration has puzzled scientists for decades. Now, the experts aimed to decode how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-nose-is-a-clever-smell-prediction-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odors</a> are encoded within this extensive network of glomeruli.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-brain-activation-in-locusts">Mapping brain activation in locusts</h2>



The introduction of CRISPR/Cas9 was a game-changer for the researchers, enabling the development of the first transgenic migratory locusts expressing GCaMP, a genetically encoded calcium sensor. This sensor fluoresces upon binding calcium, released when cells are active.&nbsp;



Using functional 2-photon calcium imaging, the team could map spatial activation patterns in the locusts’ antennal lobes for a variety of ecologically relevant odors across all six developmental stages.



“Our results reveal an unusual functional ring-shaped organization of the antennal lobe,” explained Silke Sachse, head of the Olfactory Coding Research Group at Max Planck.&nbsp;



This structure consists of specific glomerular clusters consistently present throughout the locust's development, from nymph stages to adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-research-nbsp">Challenging research&nbsp;</h2>



Achieving gene transformation in migratory locusts, which are not standard model organisms like Drosophila melanogaster, was particularly challenging.&nbsp;



The large brain volume of locusts further complicated imaging and data analysis. “We are the first group in the world to successfully apply the site-specific knock-in method to locusts,” Jiang said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spatial-odor-coding-in-locusts-nbsp">Spatial odor coding in locusts&nbsp;</h2>



Interestingly, the locust’s spatial odor coding reflects the chemical structure of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-the-smell-of-fear-to-control-garden-pests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odors</a> rather than their valence. This is unlike flies, where the valence (pleasant or repulsive) is represented in the antennal lobe. 



“We have observed that odors of certain chemical classes evoke a certain pattern: For example, aromatic compounds with similar chemical structure but opposite behavioral significance evoke stronger responses in the peripheral regions of the antennal lobe,” noted co-lead author Bill Hansson, Director of the Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology at Max Planck.



“We conclude that the representation of odor valence is not encoded in the antennal lobe, but in higher brain centers such as the mushroom body and the lateral horn.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-odor-perception-in-locusts-nbsp">Understanding odor perception in locusts&nbsp;</h2>



The unique ring structure of the olfactory code in migratory locusts raises questions about its advantages or disadvantages compared to other insects. Future studies aim to investigate if other locust species exhibit similar coding patterns.&nbsp;



Understanding odor perception and processing in locusts is crucial for comprehending their ecological interactions and could aid in developing better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pest-control-product-nemaslug-could-harm-beneficial-snails/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pest control</a> strategies. 



“We believe that a better understanding of the odor coding mechanisms in the primary olfactory center of the locust brain will significantly deepen our knowledge of the neuronal modulation underlying olfaction-mediated behaviors, such as the formation of locust swarms,” Hanssen concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sense-of-smell-in-migratory-locusts-nbsp">Sense of smell in migratory locusts&nbsp;</h2>



Migratory locusts possess a highly developed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense of smell</a>, which plays a crucial role in their survival and behavior. Their olfactory system allows them to detect and respond to a variety of chemical cues in their environment. 



Their sophisticated sense of smell helps the locusts locate food sources, identify suitable habitats, and communicate with other locusts.&nbsp;



The antennae of migratory locusts are equipped with numerous sensory receptors that can detect specific chemical compounds, enabling them to navigate and make decisions critical for their migration and swarming behavior.&nbsp;



Their ability to sense pheromones also facilitates the coordination of mass movements and the formation of large swarms, which are characteristic of migratory locusts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2024.05.036" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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Locusts have brains built for complex odor processing 

The migratory locust, Locusta migratoria, a notorious crop pest, has...

As life on Earth dramatically expanded over 500 million years ago during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-explosion-fossil-sponges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian explosion</a>, tectonic plate activity began to significantly shape the planet, according to a recent study. The collision of these plates caused mountains to form and initiated a sequence of events that led to a mass extinction known as the “Sinsk event.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tectonic-activity-and-rapid-climate-change">Tectonic activity and rapid climate change</h2>



These tectonic movements allowed magma to reach the surface, releasing large amounts of greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere and triggering rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-change-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. This catastrophic event wiped out various animal groups, such as archaeocyathids and hyoliths.



“It's unusual to point to a tectonic cause for an extinction event, but the evidence is compelling,” said study co-author John Goodge, a professor emeritus at the <a href="http://d.umn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Minnesota Duluth</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sinsk-event-extinction-nbsp">Sinsk event extinction&nbsp;</h2>



According to the study authors, the Sinsk event extinction was triggered by initial Ross/Delamerian supracrustal contraction along the edge of Gondwana, which caused a cascading series of geodynamic, paleoenvironmental, and biotic changes.&nbsp;



These changes included loss of shallow marine carbonate habitats along the Gondwanan margin, tectonic transformation within the Gondwanan interior, and the extrusion of the Kalkarindji large igneous province.



There was also a release of large volumes of volcanic gases and rapid climate change, including incursions of marine anoxic waters and collapse of shallow marine ecosystems, noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-records-of-mountain-building">Records of mountain building</h2>



Goodge and his colleagues discovered the connection to plate tectonics by comparing field notes from Antarctica and southern Australia. These two regions, once part of the supercontinent Gondwana near the equator, showed nearly identical records of mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-mountains-form-new-theories-for-an-age-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">building</a> just before the extinction event.



The research, which began in the 1990s, has recently been published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adl3452" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>. Goodge and other scientists set up camps on a glacier in Antarctica, traveling by helicopter and snowmobile to the Holyoake Range. 



The experts examined fossils from carbonate reef structures to trace the timeline of the extinction. A separate team found similar evidence in Australia in 2011.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-series-of-cascading-events">A series of cascading events</h2>



“You never know when something you did decades ago is going to come together in a new way,” Goodge said.



Thus, as the author concluded, tectonic movements during mountain building “caused a series of cascading environmental processes that resulted in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-sediments-predict-the-impacts-of-ocean-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean warming</a>, reduced oceanic turnover, widespread bottom-water anoxia in marginal and epicontinental seas, and, ultimately, the Sinsk extinction.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-mountain-building-nbsp">More about mountain building&nbsp;</h2>



Mountain building, also known as orogeny, is a complex geological process that involves the formation of mountain ranges. This phenomenon primarily results from the movement of tectonic plates, which are massive slabs of Earth's lithosphere.&nbsp;



As these plates interact, they can converge, diverge, or slide past each other, leading to various geological activities.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-mountain-ranges">Formation of mountain ranges</h3>



When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-volcanic-events-linked-to-the-slowing-of-tectonic-plates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tectonic plates</a> converge, one plate may be forced over another, causing the crust to crumple and fold. This is how many of the world's major mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas, were formed. 



The immense pressure and heat generated during this process can also cause the rocks to undergo metamorphism, further contributing to mountain formation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-activity-nbsp">Volcanic activity&nbsp;</h3>



Another mechanism of mountain building is volcanic activity. When magma from the Earth's mantle rises to the surface, it can build up layers of lava and ash, creating volcanic mountains.&nbsp;



The Andes in South America are a prime example of mountains formed by the subduction of an oceanic plate beneath a continental plate, leading to significant volcanic activity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-mountain-ranges-nbsp">Dynamic mountain ranges&nbsp;</h3>



Erosion and weathering also play a crucial role in shaping mountains. Over time, these forces can wear down the peaks and ridges, redistributing the material to form valleys and other features.&nbsp;



This ongoing interaction between tectonic activity and surface processes ensures that mountain ranges are dynamic and continually evolving.



Overall, mountain building is a multifaceted process driven by the movement of tectonic plates and volcanic activity, with subsequent modification by erosion and weathering. These forces combine to create and reshape the majestic mountain ranges that define Earth's topography.



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Mountain building triggered a mass extinction event

As life on Earth dramatically expanded over 500 million years...

In the depths of the East Pacific Rise, a unique environment of extreme temperatures, intense pressures, and toxic carbon compounds, thrives Riftia pachyptila, a giant hydrothermal vent tubeworm.



Growing up to 6 feet tall with a striking deep-red plume, Riftia tubeworm lacks a digestive system and relies on a symbiotic relationship with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-simplest-organisms-like-worms-have-unique-personalities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> within its body.



These bacteria convert carbon dioxide into sugars, sustaining both themselves and the tubeworm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-fixation-in-riftia-tubeworms">Carbon fixation in Riftia tubeworms</h2>



Unlike most autotrophic organisms that use a single carbon fixation pathway, Riftia pachyptila’s bacterial symbionts utilize two: the Calvin-Benson-Bassham (CBB) cycle and the reductive tricarboxylic acid (rTCA) cycle. 



Until recently, scientists had limited understanding of how these pathways function and integrate with other metabolic processes.



New research from Harvard University’s Department of <a href="https://oeb.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Organismic and Evolutionary Biology</a> has uncovered how these two pathways are coordinated, revealing a sophisticated adaptation that allows Riftia's symbionts to thrive.



The study, published in Nature Microbiology, involved collecting tubeworms from the East Pacific Rise and mimicking their natural environment in the lab, including pressures of 3,000 PSI and near-toxic sulfur levels. 



“This paper is really a tour de force of going from studying living organisms and measuring their metabolic rates and allying them directly to transcripts in a way that allowed the research team to show that the pathways are very likely being run in parallel,” said senior co-author, professor of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Peter Girguis. 



“The paper shows that the dual pathways are biased by the environmental conditions, and that there are other metabolic systems in orbit around each of these two.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-sea-carbon-fixation-mechanics">Deep-sea carbon fixation mechanics</h2>



Carbon fixation, the process of converting carbon dioxide to sugars, is essential for sustaining life. 



While photosynthetic organisms like plants use sunlight for this process, Riftia pachyptila’s chemoautotrophic symbionts use energy from hydrogen sulfide.



By varying the experimental conditions for Riftia, the research team identified how environmental changes influence the coordination of the two carbon pathways.



“This is the most in-depth analysis of bacteria that has two carbon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nitroplast-discovery-first-nitrogen-fixing-organelle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fixation</a> pathways, the rTCA and CBB,” said lead author and postdoctoral scholar Jessica Mitchell.



“This is also the first network analysis done on a hydrothermal vent symbiosis and the first network analysis done on a dual carbon fixation pathway system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tubeworms-metabolic-insights">Tubeworms metabolic insights </h2>



Network analysis allowed the team to detect patterns in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crown-of-thorns-starfish-gene-expression-may-help-protect-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene</a> expression data, providing a comprehensive view of the system.



They identified metabolic hub genes crucial for maintaining and regulating the complex network of metabolic reactions within cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-roles-in-metabolic-function">Distinct roles in metabolic function</h2>



The study found significant differences in the transcriptional patterns of the rTCA and CBB cycles in response to varying geochemical conditions. 



The rTCA cycle is linked with hydrogenases and dissimilatory nitrate reduction, crucial for processing hydrogen and nitrates without oxygen, indicating its key role under low-energy conditions.



In contrast, the CBB cycle is associated with sulfide oxidation and assimilatory nitrate reduction, vital processes in the sulfide-rich environment of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/five-new-hydrothermal-vents-discovered-in-the-pacific-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrothermal vents</a>.



This linkage allows the symbionts to utilize available chemical energy to fix carbon effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complementary-carbon-pathways">Complementary carbon pathways</h2>



One of the study’s most intriguing findings is the complementary nature of the two pathways in the tubeworm.



The rTCA cycle is particularly important under conditions where sulfide and oxygen are limited, highlighted by the role of a Group 1e-hydrogenase. 



This flexibility gives the tubeworms a significant advantage, enabling them to thrive in the variable conditions of hydrothermal vents.



The high carbon fixation rates measured during the study support Riftia pachyptila’s rapid growth and survival. 



The dual carbon fixation pathways, each optimized for different environmental conditions, help maintain metabolic stability during environmental shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-tubeworms-and-carbon-capture">Understanding tubeworms and carbon capture</h2>



This research opens new avenues for understanding biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turning-plants-into-carbon-capture-machines-with-cyanobacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon capture</a> and basic biochemistry.



The findings could have practical applications in biotechnology, where these pathways might be harnessed to develop more efficient systems for carbon fixation. 



“This study really paves the way for future studies, and understanding how these dual pathways are enabling this organism to fix this amount of carbon,” Mitchell said.



By uncovering the mechanisms behind Riftia pachyptila's extraordinary ability to thrive in such a hostile environment, this research deepens our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-deep-sea-worm-discovered-off-costa-rica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea</a> ecosystems and has the potential to inform advancements in sustainable technologies and our knowledge of life's adaptability.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-024-01704-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Microbiology</a>.



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How giant tubeworms survive on deep-sea hydrothermal vents

In the depths of the East Pacific Rise, a unique...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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