Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

In a new study, experts have used artificial intelligence (AI) to investigate the world of infant learning. The researchers were specifically focused on when babies make the transition from random movements to purposeful exploration.



When infants kick their tiny feet in the air, it might just seem like random flailing. But what if there's a science to it?



Early movements might appear chaotic but believe it or not, these seemingly wild movements reveal patterns of interaction with the world around them. 



Yet, the understanding of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dads-can-recognize-the-scent-of-their-child/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a> intentionally engage with their surroundings remains somewhat cloudy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infants-control-their-feet-movements">Infants control their feet movements</h2>



Enter the baby-mobile experiment. What's that? Think of a colorful mobile gently tethered to an infant's foot. 



As our little hero kicks, the mobile moves – a cause-and-effect scenario that's music to the ears of researchers. This experiment, used since the swinging sixties, helps researchers understand babies' control over their movements and their quest to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disappearance-of-bats-linked-to-a-rise-in-infant-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influence their environment</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-infant-movement-with-ai">Decoding infant movement with AI</h2>



Now, what happens if we add a sprinkle of AI to this mix? At <a href="https://www.fau.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Atlantic University</a>, a team of researchers launched an investigation to see if AI tools could decode the intricate patterns of infant movement. 



They used a handy device called the Vicon 3D motion capture system to analyze infants’ actions, especially their reactions when the mobile moved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infant-movements-in-different-stages">Infant movements in different stages</h2>



The results? A resounding success! Published in the journal Scientific Reports, the study confirms the potential for AI to help us understand early infant development and interaction.



The machine and deep learning methods accurately classified five-second clips of infant movements as belonging to different stages of the experiment. Among these methods, one emerged as the star: the deep learning model named 2D-CapsNet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-foot-movement-patterns">Foot movement patterns</h2>



The most fascinating part of this discovery was that feet movements scored the highest accuracy rates. What does this mean?



Compared to other parts of the body, the foot movement patterns changed most dramatically across the experiment's stages.



Study co-author Dr. Scott Kelso is a Glenwood and Martha Creech Eminent Scholar in Science at the Center for Complex Systems and Brain Sciences in FAU's Charles E. Schmidt College of Science.



“Feet, as end effectors, are most impacted by interaction with the mobile. In other words, the way infants connect with their environment is most significant at the points of contact,” said Dr. Kelso. In plain English, we can say it all starts "feet first."



The study revealed that the 2D-CapsNet model achieved an impressive 86% accuracy when analyzing foot movements and could even capture detailed relationships between different body parts during movement.



Plus, foot movements proved to be the most accurate - about 20% higher than movements of the hands, knees, or the entire body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eager-to-engage-with-the-world">Eager to engage with the world</h2>



What else did the study uncover? Well, it seems losing the ability to control the mobile made <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-immune-systems-have-hidden-and-surprising-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">babies</a> more eager to interact with the world. 



“However, some infants showed movement patterns during this disconnected phase that contained hints of their earlier interactions. This suggests that only certain infants understood their relationship with the mobile well enough to hang onto those movement patterns,” explained Dr. Aliza Sloan.



Dr. Nancy Aaron Jones, a professor at FAU's Department of Psychology, emphasized the role of AI in studying infants - who, unlike adults, can't explain their actions.



“AI can help researchers analyze subtle changes in infant movements to gain insights into how they think and learn, even before they can speak,” said Dr. Jones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-infant-behavior">Understanding infant behavior </h2>



In the words of Dr. Scott Kelso, this study not only enhances our understanding of infant behavior but also opens up new possibilities.



Combining theory-based experiments with AI could lead to comprehensive assessments that take specific contexts into account, thus improving our ability to identify risks and treat disorders effectively.



So, the next time you see a baby's tiny toes kicking, remember this: There's a fascinating world of science behind those cute little feet!



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-66312-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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How do infants connect with the world? It all starts with the feet

In a new study, experts have used artificial intelligence (AI)...

Our world is becoming increasingly familiar with massive wildfires, aptly termed "megafires," which ravage landscapes and ecosystems with unprecedented force.



These destructive forces of nature are known for their immediate devastation, but recent studies reveal that their impacts stretch far beyond the scorched earth, ash-filled air, and charred forests they leave in their wake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoke-drains-the-energy-reserves-of-trees">Smoke drains the energy reserves of trees</h2>



One of the less-observable effects of megafires is the long-lasting damage they impose on orchard trees. According to researchers, these effects can significantly disrupt future yields and agricultural stability.



In a game-changing study conducted at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>, scientists discovered that the thick smoke produced by megafires can adversely affect the energy reserves of trees and result in a staggering 50% reduction of their nut harvest.



This startling fact places new importance on understanding the role of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/twenty-years-of-air-quality-improvement-erased-by-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a> and their smoke in both agricultural and natural ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-megafire-smoke-and-orchard-trees">Megafire smoke and orchard trees </h2>



The team at UC Davis had initially embarked on an assessment of how trees, specifically almond, pistachio and walnut varieties, handle heat and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drought-kills-trees-faster-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a> by storing energy in the form of carbohydrates. 



While their research was ongoing between 2018 to 2022, megafires in 2020 swept over 4.2 million acres across California. The fires produced a dense cover of smoke, ash, and particulate matter that lingered for weeks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effects-of-prolonged-smoke">Effects of prolonged smoke</h2>



This unexpected development presented a unique opportunity to observe how the prolonged and pervasive smoky conditions might influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oak-trees-use-carbohydrate-reserves-to-survive-insect-invasions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbohydrate levels in trees</a> and ultimately affect their growth and productivity.



Study lead author Jessica Orozco from the UC Davis Department of Plant Sciences elaborated on the potential impacts of megafire smoke on orchard trees. 



"<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Photosynthesis</a> produces carbohydrates, which are critical elements for tree survival," Orozco explained. "Trees need carbohydrates not just to grow but to store energy for when they’re under stress or when photosynthesis isn’t happening."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lingering-impacts-of-megafire-smoke">Lingering impacts of megafire smoke</h2>



The thick smoke altered light conditions, occluding some direct sunlight and casting a shadow over the orchards, while simultaneously creating a diffuse light effect that filtered through the smoke.



This diffusion could potentially aid trees in generating more carbohydrates. However, Orozco explained that the smoke was so dense that its increase probably didn't offset the loss of direct sunlight.



The researchers observed that megafire smoke didn't just diminish the carbohydrate reserves in trees but instigated lasting losses, which pressed on even after the fires had been extinguished. 



Notably, the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-wildfires-have-doubled-in-the-last-20-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">severe wildfire</a> activity often aligns with the period when trees begin to store carbohydrates to get through winter dormancy and fuel spring growth. The impact of smoke was far greater than anticipated. 



"We were expecting to see some impact especially in the months when the smoke was really dense, but we weren’t expecting the smoke to have such a lingering effect and result in a significant drop in yield,” said Orozco.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-megafire-smoke">Complexity of megafire smoke</h2>



The scientists are not yet sure which components of megafire smoke caused this drastic drop in tree carbohydrate levels, but the complexity of the smoke's composition presents several possibilities.



It's plausible that one or a combination of factors, such as reduced light availability, elevated ozone concentrations, and increased particulate matter levels - all known to interfere with photosynthesis - are to blame for the significant decline in energy storage within the trees.



The findings underline one thing very clearly; the risks posed by wildfires are not just immediate and visible - they have far-reaching and enduring consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-threat-to-agriculture">Growing threat to agriculture</h2>



The impact of megafires extends beyond the immediate damage to crops and soil. As climate change accelerates, scientists warn that the frequency and intensity of megafires will continue to rise, posing a growing threat to agricultural production.



Hotter temperatures and prolonged drought conditions create the perfect environment for these large-scale fires to ignite and spread. 



The increasing prevalence of megafires highlights the urgent need for solutions that can mitigate the long-term impacts of smoke on crops. 



Early-warning systems, innovative farming techniques, and fire-resistant plant varieties could become essential tools in preserving agriculture in fire-prone regions. 



As megafires become more frequent, understanding their effects will be crucial for developing effective adaptation strategies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-024-01819-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a>.



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Megafire smoke has long-lasting impacts on orchard trees

Our world is becoming increasingly familiar with massive wildfires, aptly...

Over the past 130,000 years, human activities have led to the extinction of hundreds of bird species. This has resulted in substantial reductions in avian functional diversity - the range of different roles and functions that birds perform in the environment.&nbsp;



While humans have been contributing to the global loss of species diversity for thousands of years, the impacts on other dimensions of biodiversity are not yet clear.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extinctions-impact-ecological-functions-nbsp">Extinctions impact ecological functions&nbsp;</h2>



New research led by the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a> highlights the severe implications of the ongoing biodiversity crisis and emphasizes the urgent need to identify the ecological functions being lost through extinction.



From the well-documented demise of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-the-dodo-bird-be-brought-back-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dodo</a> to the recent extinction of the Kauaʻi ʻōʻō songbird declared in 2023, scientists have evidence of at least 600 bird species having become extinct due to human activities since the Late Pleistocene, when modern humans began spreading across the world. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-species-extinctions-nbsp">Broader implications of species extinctions&nbsp;</h2>



Utilizing the most comprehensive dataset to date of all known bird extinctions during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene, the study examines the broader implications of these losses on the planet.



“Humans have been driving a global erosion of species richness for millennia, but the consequences of past extinctions for other dimensions of biodiversity - functional and phylogenetic diversity - are poorly understood,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



“In this work, we show that, since the Late Pleistocene, the extinction of 610 bird species has caused a disproportionate loss of the global avian functional space along with more than 3 billion years of unique evolutionary history.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chopping-off-a-branch-of-the-tree-of-life">Chopping off a branch of the tree of life</h2>



Study lead author Tom Matthews is an expert in global environmental change at the University of Birmingham.&nbsp;



Matthews noted that while the sheer number of bird species lost is a big part of the extinction crisis, what we also need to focus on is that every <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-100-bird-species-have-been-lost-for-over-a-decade/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> has a job or function within the environment and therefore plays a really important role in its ecosystem.



“Some birds control <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urgent-need-to-protect-earths-forests-from-non-native-pests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pests</a> by eating insects, scavenger birds recycle dead matter, others eat fruit and disperse the seeds enabling more plants and trees to grow, and some, like hummingbirds, are very important <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-pollination-can-be-advantageous-for-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>. When those species die out, the important role that they play (the functional diversity) dies with them,” said Matthews. 



“In addition to functional diversity each species also carries a certain amount of evolutionary history, therefore when that species becomes extinct, it’s basically like chopping off a branch of the tree of life and all of that associated phylogenetic diversity is also lost.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-billion-years-of-evolutionary-history-lost">Three billion years of evolutionary history lost</h2>



The researchers found that the extent of human-induced bird extinctions to date has resulted in the loss of approximately three billion years of unique evolutionary history and a 7% reduction in global avian functional diversity.



This is a significantly larger amount than expected based on the number of extinctions alone.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-post-extinction-aftershocks">Post-extinction aftershocks</h2>



Given the wide range of crucial ecological roles performed by birds, the loss of avian functional diversity likely has far-reaching implications.&nbsp;



These post-extinction aftershocks include reduced flower pollination, diminished seed dispersal, the breakdown of natural control over insect populations - including many pests and disease carriers - and increased disease outbreaks due to decreased consumption of carrion.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-extinctions-and-plant-diversity">Species extinctions and plant diversity</h2>



Moreover, the reduction in global bird populations documented in the research may affect the ability of many plant species to adapt to current and future climate change.



According to Matthews, these results are a timely reminder that the current extinction crisis is not just about species numbers.&nbsp;



“By identifying declines in avian functional and phylogenetic diversity driven by human actions, our findings highlight the urgent need to understand and predict the impacts of past anthropogenic extinctions on ecosystem function.”



This is needed, said Matthews,&nbsp; in order to prepare for the magnitude of expected future loss from the projected 1,000 bird species that are expected to die out completely over the next two centuries.



“This information is vital for setting effective targets for global conservation strategies, as well as ecosystem restoration and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/success-of-rewilding-efforts-depends-on-the-landscape/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rewilding</a> efforts.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk7898" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Bird species extinctions are far more impactful than we realized

Over the past 130,000 years, human activities have led to...

Playing a monotonous sound can stimulate the activity of a fungus that promotes plant growth, according to a recent study led by Flinders University. This finding raises the possibility that playing sounds or music could benefit crops and gardens.



The idea that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-that-listen-to-music-grow-faster-and-healthier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">music</a> might help plants grow has been debated for years. The popular U.S. TV show MythBusters even conducted an experiment on the topic, playing both death metal and classical music for plants. 



While the plants exposed to music grew slightly better than those left in silence, the results were deemed inconclusive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-and-plants-exploring-the-possibilities-nbsp">Music and plants: Exploring the possibilities&nbsp;</h2>



However, with mounting challenges to the plant world such as erosion, deforestation, pollution, and an extinction crisis, scientists are increasingly concerned about the future of global biodiversity and crop production.&nbsp;



According to a new study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0295" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>, the potential role of acoustic stimulation in aiding ecosystem recovery and sustainable food systems is still largely unexplored.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exposing-a-fungus-to-sound">Exposing a fungus to sound</h2>



Building on earlier research that exposed E. coli bacteria to sound waves, a team of Australian researchers aimed to assess the effect of sound on the growth and spore production of the fungus Trichoderma harzianum.&nbsp;



This fungus is commonly used in organic farming due to its ability to protect plants from pathogens, improve nutrient content in soil, and promote overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-grow-more-branches-and-become-bushy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant growth</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-white-noise-vs-silence-nbsp">White noise vs. silence&nbsp;</h2>



For the study, the researchers created small sound booths containing petri dishes full of the fungi. Instead of playing pop music, they chose a white noise sound known as “Tinnitus Flosser Masker at 8 kHz,” which is commonly used in YouTube videos intended to relieve tinnitus or help babies sleep.&nbsp;



The noise, described as resembling “the sound of an old-school radio in between channels,” was selected for experimental reasons, according to lead author Jake Robinson, a microbial ecologist at <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a>.



“We chose this monotone for controlled, experimental reasons, but it might be that a more diverse or natural soundscape is better,” Robinson said, adding that more research would be needed to explore this.



In the experiment, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-all-fungi-matter-not-just-mushrooms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a> were exposed to the sound at a level of 80 decibels for 30 minutes a day. After five days, the researchers observed that the fungi exposed to the sound had higher growth and spore production compared to those left in silence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-might-music-stimulate-plant-growth">How might music stimulate plant growth?</h2>



While the study’s results are not definitive, the researchers proposed several potential explanations.&nbsp;



One theory is that the acoustic waves might trigger the piezoelectric effect, which converts sound into an electrical charge that could stimulate fungal growth.&nbsp;



Another possibility involves tiny receptors on the fungi's membranes, known as mechanoreceptors. These receptors, similar to those in human skin that help with touch, might react to the sound waves, leading to a cascade of biochemical events that activate growth-related genes.



“It might be that sound waves stimulate these mechanoreceptors in the fungi, which then trigger a cascade of biochemical events that lead to genes being switched on or off - for instance, the kind of genes responsible for growth,” Robinson explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Robinson emphasized that while their preliminary research suggests fungi respond to sound, it is still unclear if this benefits plants.&nbsp;



The next step, he said, would be to explore whether playing sound could influence entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbial-life-soil-planet-warming-global-carbon-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial communities</a> in the soil or even accelerate soil restoration processes.



“Can we influence soil or plant microbial communities as a whole? Can we speed up the soil restoration process by stimulating the earth with natural soundscapes? What impact might this have on the soil fauna? There are many important questions to keep us busy,” Robinson said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-acoustic-stimulation-and-plant-growth">Acoustic stimulation and plant growth</h2>



According to the researchers, the results indicate that acoustic stimulation influences plant growth-promoting fungal growth and potentially facilitates their functioning.&nbsp;



“The mechanism responsible for this phenomenon may be fungal mechanoreceptor stimulation and/or potentially a piezoelectric effect; however, further research is required to confirm this hypothesis,” the experts noted.&nbsp;



“Our novel study highlights the potential of acoustic stimulation to alter important fungal attributes, which could, with further development, be harnessed to aid ecosystem restoration and sustainable agriculture.”



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Can music help plants grow? 

Playing a monotonous sound can stimulate the activity of a...

Each year on October 3rd, National Butterfly and Hummingbird Day is celebrated across the United States.&nbsp;



The goal is to raise awareness about the importance of hummingbirds and butterflies, which are indispensable to the health and survival of our ecosystems.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-significance-nbsp-of-butterflies-and-hummingbirds">Ecological significance&nbsp;of butterflies and hummingbirds </h2>



Both butterflies and hummingbirds contribute to plant reproduction by transferring pollen between flowers.



With their long beaks and tongues, hummingbirds are particularly important for pollinating tubular flowers that other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> cannot access. 



Butterflies tend to pollinate plants that bloom in daylight and have bright colors to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-prefer-flowers-with-large-bullseyes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attract</a> them. Butterflies are also drawn to a flat landing surface, which makes it easier to access nectar.



Thousands of plant species rely on pollination from butterflies and hummingbirds. Without these pollinators, many plants would struggle to survive.&nbsp;



The loss of unique plant species would have cascading impacts on the animals and insects that depend on them for food and shelter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-butterflies-and-hummingbirds-special">What makes butterflies and hummingbirds special?</h2>



Beyond their vital roles in pollination, butterflies and hummingbirds have some truly amazing qualities.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hummingbirds-the-masters-of-flight">Hummingbirds: The masters of flight</h3>



Hummingbirds are the only birds that can hover in place and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-hummingbirds-deal-with-their-need-for-flight-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fly</a> in all directions - forward, backward, and even upside down. Their wings beat at an incredibly fast rate, often between 50 to 80 beats per second, allowing them to hover with precision while feeding on nectar.



Hummingbirds have the highest metabolism of any warm-blooded animal. To support their high energy demands, they consume large quantities of nectar, sometimes feeding every 10 to 15 minutes. They also eat insects and spiders for protein.



Some species, like the ruby-throated hummingbird, migrate thousands of miles, often crossing large bodies of water like the Gulf of Mexico during their seasonal journeys.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extraordinary-transformation-of-butterflies">Extraordinary transformation of butterflies</h3>



Butterflies undergo one of the most extraordinary transformations in the animal kingdom. Their metamorphosis is not only fascinating but also allows <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-use-static-electricity-to-catch-pollen-without-touching/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> to occupy different ecological niches at each stage.



The vivid colors and intricate wing patterns of butterflies are not only beautiful but serve important functions. Some use bright colors for camouflage or warning predators that they are toxic, while others mimic more dangerous species to avoid being eaten.



Some butterfly species are known for long migrations. Monarchs, for example, travel thousands of miles from North America to Central Mexico to escape cold winters - a feat that is especially impressive given their delicate bodies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emphasis-on-conservation-efforts">Emphasis on conservation efforts</h2>



The biggest threats to hummingbirds and butterflies are habitat loss, climate change, and the widespread use of pesticides. They are also threatened by invasive species, light pollution, and diseases.&nbsp;



National Butterfly and Hummingbird Day aims to raise awareness about these challenges and encourages efforts to protect their habitats.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threatened-hummingbirds-nbsp">Threatened hummingbirds&nbsp;</h2>



Several species of hummingbirds are listed as threatened or endangered.&nbsp;In the United States, Allen's hummingbird is considered near-threatened due to habitat destruction in California, where urbanization and agricultural expansion are wiping out its natural range.



While it is not yet classified as endangered, the Rufous hummingbird has sharply declined in numbers, especially in the Pacific Northwest.



The situation is even more critical in Central and South America, where the diversity of hummingbirds is much higher. Species like the Esmeraldas Woodstar and the Santa Marta Sabrewing are listed as endangered due to habitat loss and fragmentation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vanishing-butterflies">Vanishing butterflies</h2>



In many parts of the world, butterfly populations are starting to vanish. Several factors contribute to their disappearance, with some species being more vulnerable than others.



Iconic species like the monarch butterfly have experienced significant population declines. In recent decades, the Western monarch population in the U.S. has decreased by over 90 percent.



The Miami Blue is a critically endangered butterfly that is native to South Florida. It is found mostly in coastal areas like the Florida Keys. Once common throughout its range, the Miami Blue has experienced a drastic decline due to habitat loss and degradation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taking-action-for-pollinators-nbsp">Taking action for pollinators&nbsp;</h2>



So, how can you make a difference? The best way to support butterflies, hummingbirds, and other pollinators is to create an environment where they can thrive. Here are some ideas:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-native-flowers-nbsp">Plant native flowers&nbsp;</h3>



Choose plants native to your region, as they provide the best food and habitat for local pollinators. Species like milkweed, bee balm, and echinacea are great for butterflies, while tubular flowers like salvia and columbine attract hummingbirds.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-create-pollinator-friendly-gardens">Create pollinator-friendly gardens</h3>



Include a variety of plants that bloom throughout the seasons to provide a steady food supply. Avoid using pesticides and herbicides, which can harm <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=Flowers&amp;start=0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-provide-water-sources-nbsp">Provide water sources&nbsp;</h3>



Place shallow dishes of water with rocks or marbles for butterflies to land on, and create birdbaths or shallow water areas for hummingbirds.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-offer-shelter">Offer shelter</h3>



Allow some areas in your garden to grow wild, with grasses and shrubs where pollinators can find shelter. You can also set up butterfly houses or nesting materials for hummingbirds.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduce-pesticide-use-nbsp">Reduce pesticide use&nbsp;</h3>



Avoid using chemicals in your garden, or opt for organic alternatives. Pollinators are sensitive to chemicals, and pesticides can reduce their populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-celebrating-national-butterfly-and-hummingbird-day">Celebrating National Butterfly and Hummingbird Day</h2>



There are unlimited ways to observe National Butterfly and Hummingbird Day, and that includes simply getting outside. Studies have shown that connecting with nature has significant mental health benefits. 



One particular <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9754067/#:~:text=Of%20the%2039%20included%20studies,%2C%20respectively%20(Figure%205)." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> published by the National Institutes of Health showed that 92% of relevant studies showed consistent improvements across any health outcome where individuals engaged with natural outdoor environments.



Watching butterflies and hummingbirds in a natural setting, for example, can reduce stress and promote mindfulness.



Whether you choose to plant a flower garden, take a nature walk, or simply just appreciate the beauty of life today, the most important thing is to recognize our connection to nature and the responsibility we have to protect the creatures that maintain it. 



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National Butterfly and Hummingbird Day: Celebrating the beauty of life

Each year on October 3rd, National Butterfly and Hummingbird Day...

Researchers studying Pluto's small moon, Charon, found something remarkable: carbon dioxide and hydrogen peroxide. This is the first time these chemicals have been discovered on the frozen surface of that particular moon.



A team of astronomers at the Southwest Research Institute, using the James Webb Space Telescope, recently confirmed this unexpected discovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-charon-a-very-special-moon">Charon: A very special moon</h2>



For a moon that's just floating around in the Kuiper Belt orbiting a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eris-and-makemake-icy-dwarf-planets-in-our-own-solar-system-may-support-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dwarf planet</a>, Charon is unique. How so? Well, it's the only object of its kind that we've managed to map geologically.



“Charon is the only midsized Kuiper Belt object, in the range of 300 to 1,000 miles in diameter, that has been geologically mapped, thanks to the SwRI-led New Horizons mission, which flew by the Pluto system in 2015,” said <a href="https://www.swri.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SwRI</a>’s Dr. Silvia Protopapa, lead author of a new Nature Communications paper and co-investigator of the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/new-horizons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Horizons mission</a>.



“Unlike many of the larger objects in the Kuiper Belt, the surface of Charon is not obscured by highly volatile ices such as methane and therefore provides valuable insights into how processes like sunlight exposure and cratering affect these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-faint-glow-of-the-universe-is-slowly-dimming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distant bodies</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-charon-and-carbon-dioxide">Webb, Charon, and carbon dioxide</h2>



<a href="https://webbtelescope.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Webb telescope</a> is a fantastic tool for inspecting Charon and other frosty bodies beyond Neptune's orbit.



In 2022 and 2023, the research team was able to get four different observations of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pluto-may-not-be-real-planet-but-has-real-big-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pluto-Charon system</a>, and that gave them a complete view of Charon's northern hemisphere. 



It's a bit like changing your angle of view to get a better look, and boy, did they see some fascinating stuff.



The extended observations made with Webb revealed the signatures of carbon dioxide on Charon. 



By comparing these observations with lab measurements and detailed spectral models of the surface, the team concluded that carbon dioxide primarily exists as a veneer on a subsurface rich in water ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-charon-s-carbon-past-and-future">Charon's carbon past and future</h2>



This carbon dioxide layer likely comes from Charon's interior, exposed through cratering events. It is potentially a remnant from the protoplanetary disk that gave birth to the whole <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pluto-got-its-heart-in-a-violent-collision/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pluto</a> system. 



It doesn't stop at carbon dioxide, though. 



The detection of hydrogen peroxide is particularly intriguing because it shows that Charon's water ice-rich surface undergoes change due to the UV light from the Sun and particles from the solar wind and galactic cosmic rays.



Hydrogen peroxide comes from oxygen and hydrogen atoms, which are products of water ice breaking up due to incoming ions, electrons, or photons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-of-charon-s-surface">Chemistry of Charon's surface</h2>



The discovery of carbon dioxide and hydrogen peroxide on Charon invites us to explore the complex chemistry occurring on its surface. 



The interactions between solar radiation, cosmic particles, and the moon's icy terrain create a dynamic environment. 



Understanding these chemical processes helps scientists infer the evolution and composition of Charon over time.



The presence of hydrogen peroxide, for instance, indicates oxidative stresses that involve radical reactions, significantly affecting the stability of surface compounds. 



This detailed chemical portrait enhances our comprehension of similar celestial bodies in the Kuiper Belt and beyond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The detection of these chemicals on Charon introduces intriguing astrobiological questions. 



While neither carbon dioxide nor hydrogen peroxide by themselves suggest life, they are components of the broader chemical processes that could impact any biological precursors.



Scientists speculate that the mechanisms observed on Charon might exist on other icy bodies, opening potential research avenues in the quest to understand the habitability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ceres-largest-asteroid-in-our-solar-system-used-to-be-an-ancient-ocean-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distant worlds</a>. 



These findings underscore the importance of Charon as a natural laboratory for examining prebiotic chemistry, further amplified by the pristine conditions of the outer solar system where it resides.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-art-of-synergy">Art of synergy</h2>



None of this discovery would be possible without the combination of Webb's observations, spectral modeling, and lab experiments. 



It's the triplet of these processes that allowed for new insights into the composition of Charon. And the same approach could work for other similar-sized objects beyond Neptune.



In conclusion, we're just scratching the surface of what we can learn from our outer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-objects-spotted-in-the-outer-solar-system-beyond-pluto/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a>. 



With tools like the Webb telescope and the brilliant minds working on this research, who knows what we'll uncover next?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-51826-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Carbon dioxide discovered on Pluto's moon Charon

Researchers studying Pluto's small moon, Charon, found something remarkable: carbon...

They've cropped up in food, infiltrated our drinking water, find their way into our bodies and now, they've staked a claim in the world's most extensive rainforest. We're talking about PFAS, known as "forever chemicals," infiltrating the previously pristine Amazon rainforest. 



PFAS stands for per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances, and they are notoriously known as "forever chemicals" because they last forever. 



But why should we be worried? And what exactly are these PFAS forever chemicals, anyway?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-pfas-forever-chemicals">What are PFAS forever chemicals?</h2>



PFAS are a class of human-made <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-now-trace-forever-chemicals-back-to-their-sources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemicals</a> used in a vast array of consumer products -- from non-stick pans to firefighting foam -- thanks to their potent oil and water repelling abilities. But this convenience comes at a hefty price.



PFAS have been linked to a host of health problems including infertility, behavioral disorders, and an assortment of cancers.



They're dubbed 'forever chemicals' -- and it's not because they're a symbol of eternal love -- they're designed to resist decomposition, sticking around indefinitely in our bodies and the environment at large.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pfas-forever-chemicals-in-the-amazon">PFAS forever chemicals in the Amazon</h2>



The study spearheaded by Dr. Ivan Kourtchev from <a href="https://www.coventry.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coventry University</a>'s research center for agroecology, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-filtration-system-removes-forever-chemicals-from-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water and resilience</a>, unearthed the presence of PFAS in the atmosphere surrounding the Amazonian trees.



The find was not only surprising but also deeply alarming. According to Dr. Kourtchev, the appearance of these 'forever chemicals' in the air above the seemingly untouched <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-40-of-climate-critical-amazon-rainforest-is-unprotected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon rainforest</a> was nothing short of 'shocking'.



"Precisely what you don’t want to hear when talking about one of Earth's most precious and diverse ecosystems, right? But here we are," he commented.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amazon-under-threat">Amazon under threat</h2>



Dr. Kourtchev and his team are now on a mission to understand the potential risk these chemicals pose to Amazon's flora. 



"The Amazon is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique ecosystem</a> teeming with rare, exotic species. Any imbalance caused by these PFAS can spell disaster for biodiversity and species survival," he warned.



With over 30 million people calling the Amazon home, the risk is not limited to the ecosystem alone. These residents could be inhaling PFAS, exposing their bodies to the toxic effects of these chemicals. 



"Our bodies can mistake these chemicals for hormones, leading to infertility. This hormonal mimicry could disrupt the reproduction of unique animals and vegetation in the region as well," Dr. Kourtchev explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-the-forever-chemicals-trail">Following the forever chemicals trail</h2>



In an extensive study, the research team collected air samples from the top of the Amazon Tall Tower Observatory, standing tall at a whopping 1,066-foot (approximately 325 meters), mirroring the stature of the renowned Eiffel Tower.



The sample analysis, conducted back at Coventry University, was steered by Dr. Kourtchev employing a sensitive technique he previously pioneered.



What the team found was stirring -- PFAS were not locally sourced. They were transported long-range, making their way from afar. 



This puzzle prompted Dr. Kourtchev and his team to examine how these forever chemicals were being trafficked.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-for-awareness-and-action">Call for awareness and action</h2>



According to the team's paper, published in Science of The Total Environment, this research marked the first measurement of forever chemicals in the atmosphere of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-mortality-is-pushing-the-amazon-to-a-tipping-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon rainforest</a>.



The prevalence of PFAS in various day-to-day products and their ability to contaminate drinking water turn them into a serious health menace.



Remember, PFAS don't just vanish. They linger inside our bodies, leading to severe health issues including fertility problems and developmental complications, especially in pregnant women and their newborns. 



It's high time we raised awareness about their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-microbes-discovered-destroys-pfas-forever-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">possible environmental implications</a>, pushing for informed choices and safer practices.



The Amazon is the green lung of our planet, a dynamic and vibrant ecosystem that deserves our protection. 



As we continue to study and understand the impact of forever chemicals in this region, it's crucial for all of us to realize that the wellbeing of the Amazon is interlinked with our own.



So, what's our role in this story? Well, it begins with awareness, carries on with responsible product choices and ends with spreading the word. After all, these 'forever chemicals' should not dictate our future or that of the Amazon.



The study is published in the journal <a class="" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004896972404066X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of The Total Environment</a>.&nbsp;



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Dangerous PFAS 'forever chemicals' found in the Amazon rainforest

They've cropped up in food, infiltrated our drinking water, find...

Hurricane Helene left a trail of destruction across the southeastern U.S., underscoring how a combination of natural forces, inadequate infrastructure, and human decisions can magnify the impact of disasters. 



The storm's severe flooding revealed just how vulnerable many communities are to these converging factors, calling attention to the urgent need for improved resilience and preparation.



According to Manoochehr Shirzaei, an associate professor of geophysics at <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a>: "The tragic flood event in the southeast U.S. is a poignant example of the confluence of multiple factors, including development in floodplains, inadequate infrastructure maintenance and management, and the specter of climate change, whose compounding effect can amplify the disaster."



The hurricane highlighted the growing necessity for better community readiness in the face of mounting environmental challenges. 



"Both observational data and climate models suggest that the frequency and intensity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-forecast-more-extreme-precipitation-ahead/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme precipitation</a> events have been increasing and are projected to continue rising," said Shirzaei.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deteriorating-infrastructure-a-ticking-time-bomb">Deteriorating infrastructure: A ticking time bomb</h2>



Aging infrastructure played a critical role in amplifying the destructive effects of Hurricane Helene. 



Shirzaei warned that legacy systems, including levees, dams, bridges, roads, and electrical grids, were not originally designed to endure the growing severity of hurricanes exacerbated by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-hurricanes-are-intensifying-faster-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. "As these structures deteriorate with time, their vulnerability to failure during extreme weather events increases."



The hurricane’s path of destruction also exposed the repercussions of insufficient infrastructure maintenance, which added to the disaster's devastation. 



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-becoming-more-difficult-to-predict/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather</a> events grow more frequent, addressing the condition of these aging systems becomes critical to reducing future disaster risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-settlements-amplifying-the-risk">Human settlements: Amplifying the risk</h2>



Human settlements in flood-prone areas have dramatically increased the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-and-severe-flooding-will-continue-to-intensify/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">severe flooding</a>. 



"Over the past few decades, the expansion of human populations into flood-prone areas has accelerated worldwide," noted Shirzaei.



Many communities are located in river valleys or downstream of dams, areas particularly susceptible to sudden water discharges and significant flooding.



Hurricane Helene's devastating impact on such regions serves as a stark reminder of the consequences of building in high-risk areas. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-destruction-and-tragic-loss-of-life">Destruction and tragic loss of life</h2>



Making landfall in Florida, the storm quickly turned northwest, soaking Georgia, the Carolinas, Tennessee, and Virginia, leaving behind widespread flooding, destruction, and tragic loss of life.



At least 190 people have been confirmed dead following the devastation caused by Helene. 



More than half of the fatalities occurred in North Carolina, where entire communities were swept away by several feet of fast-moving floodwaters. Hundreds remain missing, and authorities are facing challenges in identifying some of the victims.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-hurricane-helene">Lessons from Hurricane Helene</h2>



The lessons we learn from the aftermath of Hurricane Helene highlight the pressing need for more effective strategies for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-disasters-are-on-the-rise-but-hazard-plans-are-inadequate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disaster mitigation</a> and improved community resilience.



"The anomalously high precipitation linked to Hurricane Helene can be partially attributed to a warming atmosphere, which has an enhanced ability to retain moisture," said Shirzaei.



These increasingly frequent weather events make it clear that it's not just about combating climate change but also about rethinking our development practices and strengthening our infrastructure to withstand the growing severity of these storms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hurricane-helene-and-climate-change">Hurricane Helene and climate change</h2>



Hurricane Helene is more than just a single event; it offers a glimpse into how climate change is altering the behavior of storms worldwide. 



Scientific evidence has shown that warmer oceans and rising global temperatures contribute to the increasing frequency and intensity of hurricanes. 



As atmospheric moisture levels rise, storms like Helene can draw on additional energy, leading to stronger winds, heavier rainfall, and more widespread flooding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-driven-changes-and-vulnerable-communities">Climate-driven changes and vulnerable communities </h2>



Research indicates that the southeastern U.S., where Hurricane Helene struck, is especially vulnerable to these climate-driven changes. 



Warmer waters in the Atlantic, coupled with shifting atmospheric patterns, provide the ideal conditions for hurricanes to grow in both size and strength. 



The result is a greater risk of catastrophic damage to communities that are already vulnerable due to aging infrastructure and flood-prone development.



Hurricane Helene emphasizes the reality that climate change is no longer a distant threat but an immediate concern.



As weather extremes become more pronounced, the storm serves as a call to action for governments, scientists, and communities to address the root causes of climate change while developing more resilient strategies to cope with its consequences.



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Hurricane Helene: Aging infrastructure in a dangerous climate

Hurricane Helene left a trail of destruction across the southeastern...

Did you ever find yourself talking to your dog like they're a human, only to wonder how much of your chatter they actually understand? It turns out; the tempo of your speech is paramount to how well your dog comprehends you. 



What's more, it seems we naturally alter this tempo when we are speaking to our dogs, with remarkable outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rhythms-of-speech-for-dogs">Rhythms of speech for dogs</h2>



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Geneva</a> in Switzerland have recently brought to light some intriguing insights about how humans and dogs communicate. 



The study, led by Dr. Eloïse Déaux, reveals that the way we slow down speech when addressing dogs aligns with their receptive abilities. As a result, our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/typical-american-dog-knows-18-words-and-love-is-at-the-top-of-the-list/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> are able to better understand what we are communicating to them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-inter-species-communication">Unique inter-species communication</h2>



While dogs are unable to produce human sounds, they have been shown to respond to human speech. This responsiveness led the research team to further explore how these two species, so far apart on the evolutionary tree, manage to understand one another.



The experts set out to investigate this unique inter-species communication by analyzing the vocal sounds of 30 dogs and comparing them with the sounds of humans speaking to both other humans and to dogs.



The researchers uncovered something quite remarkable - humans, it seems, are much faster talkers than dogs. Humans generally convey about four syllables per second compared to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-learn-better-with-praise-and-petting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog's</a> two vocalizations per second. 



When the experts monitored conversations between humans and their dogs, they noticed that humans slow down their speech to around three syllables per second - a tempo change that seems to significantly aid our pups in comprehending our commands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vocal-processing-systems">Vocal processing systems</h2>



The researchers used electroencephalography (EEG) technology to examine the brain responses to speech in both humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-imitate-human-actions-from-2d-videos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>, leading to another fascinating revelation.



While humans respond to speech with a focus on faster theta rhythms, their loyal companions had a neural response focused more on delta rhythms. It's clear from these results that our species have different vocal processing systems. 



It seems our willingness to slow our speech when speaking to our four-legged best friends may have played a significant role in forging the bond shared between humans and dogs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tailoring-speech-for-dogs">Tailoring speech for dogs</h2>



While humans tailor their speech to aid dogs in understanding, it is equally fascinating to observe how dogs adjust their behaviors to communicate with humans. 



Dogs employ a wide array of vocalizations, body language, and facial expressions to express their needs and emotions. Barks, growls, yelps, and whines each carry specific meanings that are often context-dependent. 



For instance, a sharp, rapid bark might signal excitement or alert humans to an intruder, while a low growl could indicate discomfort or the need for caution. 



Body language, such as wagging tails or raised ears, further enriches their communicative repertoire, allowing dogs to send clearer signals. This dynamic exchange forms a feedback loop, enabling both species to adjust their communication for better mutual understanding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-significance">Evolutionary significance</h2>



The evolutionary trajectories of dogs and humans have intertwined for thousands of years, and this unique bond may have significantly influenced our shared communication techniques. 



The domestication of dogs, believed to have started over 15,000 years ago, set the stage for relational tweaking that enhanced mutual comprehension. Some scientists suggest that the ability to perceive and adapt to each other's communicative cues played a crucial role in the success of human-dog relationships.



As dogs became integral to human survival, assisting in hunting, herding, and companionship, the necessity for effective communication likely spurred evolutionary changes favoring dogs that could understand and respond appropriately to human vocalizations. 



This co-evolutionary journey highlights the profound and complex relationship that has evolved between these two species, cementing their status as humanity's oldest friends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-just-sound">More than just sound</h2>



"What's further interesting, is that while dogs use slow rhythm to process speech and contrary to popular beliefs, they need both content and prosody to successfully comprehend it," noted the researchers.



This discovery challenges the typical view that dogs only respond to tone or rhythm. It seems that in canine communication, content matters just as much as the way we deliver it.



In essence, talking to our dogs isn't just for our own pleasure. The thought processes we subconsciously adopt to better communicate with our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-simple-technique-instantly-reduces-heat-stress-in-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>, coupled with their remarkable ability to process this, are what makes our interspecies relationship with dogs so unique and endearing. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002789" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS Biology</a>.



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How human speech changes when we talk to dogs

Did you ever find yourself talking to your dog like...

Exciting revelations from the world of paleontology have come crashing in, confirming that the evolution of mammals and their jaws, was a bit more wild and wacky than we initially thought. This involves a couple of ancient mammals and some fossilized jawbones.



The research revolves around two fossils belonging to mammal-precursor species, Brasilodon quadrangularis and Riograndia guaibensis. 



These fossils have turned out to be goldmines of insight - revealing the developmental journey of the mammalian jaw and middle ear. 



The surprises come in the form of evolutionary experiments that occurred much earlier than previously realized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammals-and-their-unique-jaws">Mammals and their unique jaws</h2>



As we know, mammals have a distinct jaw structure and house three middle ear bones. This unique configuration separates them from earlier vertebrates, which had a single middle ear bone.&nbsp;



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammal-evolution-kicked-off-with-daring-experiments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammal ancestors</a>, referred to as cynodonts, have been the subject of fascination due to this transition. 



The recent study embarks on uncovering how these cynodonts evolved these distinctive features over a striking period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technology-to-the-rescue">Technology to the rescue</h2>



The power of technology is responsible for this thrilling turn in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammal evolution</a>. By wielding CT scanning, researchers could digitally reconstruct the jaw joint of these cynodonts.&nbsp;



A 'mammalian-style' contact between the skull and the lower jaw emerged, observed in Riograndia guaibensis. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/early-mammals_brazilian-fossils_Riograndia-guaibensis_jaw-bones_credit-Jorge-Blanco_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/early-mammals_brazilian-fossils_Riograndia-guaibensis_jaw-bones_credit-Jorge-Blanco_1s.webp" alt="CT Scan of Riograndia guaibensis skull with highlighted jaw bones. Credit: Jorge Blanco" class="wp-image-1946308"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">CT Scan of Riograndia guaibensis skull with highlighted jaw bones. Credit: Jorge Blanco</figcaption></figure>



Interestingly, this species existed a whopping 17 million years before the oldest known specimen showcasing this structure. 



Yet in Brasilodon quadrangularis, a species closer to our modern mammals, this feature was missing. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jaw-contact-in-mammal-evolution">Jaw contact in mammal evolution</h2>



Now, here's where the plot thickens: these findings imply that our mammalian ancestors were more adventurous than we gave them credit for.&nbsp;



They dabbled in different jaw functions, leading to the independent evolution of 'mammalian' traits across diverse lineages. The early evolution of mammals was, in fact, a rather complex and varied affair.



Leading the research was James Rawson, holding the helm at <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/earthsciences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bristol's School of Earth Sciences</a>.&nbsp;



"The acquisition of the mammalian jaw contact was a key moment in mammal evolution. What these new Brazilian fossils have shown is that different cynodont groups were experimenting with various jaw joint types, and that some features once considered uniquely mammalian evolved numerous times in other lineages as well,” Rawson stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-discovery">Implications of the discovery</h2>



This isn't just an intriguing tale for the history books. The history of jaws holds extensive implications for our understanding of the early stages of mammal evolution.&nbsp;



It illustrates that features like the mammalian jaw joint and middle ear bones evolved in a patchwork or mosaic pattern across different cynodont groups.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/early-mammals_brazilian-fossils_Brasilodon-quadrangularis_jaw-bones_credit-Jorge-Blanco_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/early-mammals_brazilian-fossils_Brasilodon-quadrangularis_jaw-bones_credit-Jorge-Blanco_1s.webp" alt="CT Scan of Brasilodon quadrangularis skull with highlighted jaw bones. Credit: Jorge Blanco" class="wp-image-1946306"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">CT Scan of Brasilodon quadrangularis skull with highlighted jaw bones. Credit: Jorge Blanco</figcaption></figure>



“Over the last years, these tiny fossil species from Brazil have brought marvelous information that enrich our knowledge about the origin and evolution of mammalian features. We are just at the beginning, and our multinational collaborations will bring more news soon,” adds Dr. Agustín Martinelli from the <a href="https://www.macnconicet.gob.ar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Museo Argentino de Ciencias Natural</a> of Buenos Aires.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jaw-fossils-in-understanding-mammal-evolution">Jaw fossils in understanding mammal evolution</h2>



Fossils, often termed as nature's historical archives, play a pivotal role in piecing together the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary puzzle of life</a> on Earth. 



They provide crucial evidence that allows scientists to trace morphological changes over millennia and understand the adaptations that occurred in response to environmental shifts. 



In the context of mammalian evolution, fossils like those of Brasilodon quadrangularis and Riograndia guaibensis have unveiled transformative stages in the development of features such as the jaw and middle ear.



These findings highlight not only the structural adaptations over time but also the experimental paths taken by diverse lineages. 



By continuing to study such fossils, we enrich our comprehension of the intricate tapestry of evolutionary history and the way ancient species shaped the biological characteristics of contemporary mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The revelations brought forth by the study of ancient fossils invite a plethora of questions and opportunities for further investigation. 



As scientists aim to delve deeper into the evolutionary lineage of mammals, emphasis will likely be placed on exploring additional fossil sites that might harbor remnants of similar significance. 



Advances in technology, such as more sophisticated imaging techniques and computational models, will undoubtedly enhance our ability to reconstruct extinct species and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-geographic-isolation-shaped-global-species-habitat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">simulate evolutionary pathways</a>. 



Collaboration between paleontologists, biologists, and technologists is essential to paint a more detailed picture of how features once perceived as uniquely mammalian arose through various evolutionary motifs. 



The field stands on the brink of exciting discoveries, with each new finding having the potential to reshape our understanding of mammalian ancestry and its complex narrative.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-for-more-discoveries">Hope for more discoveries</h2>



Our story doesn't end here. The research team is raring to dive deeper into the South American fossil record, which has proved to be a veritable treasure trove of information on mammalian evolution.&nbsp;



“Nowhere else in the world has such a diverse array of cynodont forms, closely related to the earliest mammals,” noted Professor Marina Soares of the Museu Nacional, Brazil.



By melding these new findings with prior data, scientists hope to enhance their comprehension of how the early jaw joints functioned and contributed to the development of the mammals.



Fossils and the secrets they harbor continue to lend fascinating insights into our own narrative.&nbsp;



“The study opens new doors for paleontological research, as these fossils provide invaluable evidence of the complex and varied evolutionary experiments that ultimately gave rise to modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ontocetus-posti-extinct-walrus-like-mammal-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a>,” Rawson aptly said.



Here's to embracing the unknown, and the promise of many more intriguing tales from the depths of the Earth's chronicles.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07971-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Jaw-dropping mammal evolution discovery fills in more blanks

Exciting revelations from the world of paleontology have come crashing...

Meandering between Mars and Jupiter, an asteroid named Psyche holds an estimated worth of a staggering $10,000 quadrillion. 



This giant space rock is so incredibly valuable that it dwarfs the entire global economy many times over. Understandably, this has sparked buzz among scientists and space enthusiasts alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psyche-mission-will-study-the-asteroid">Psyche Mission will study the asteroid</h2>



At the forefront of research to study the Psyche asteroid in depth is Dr. Katherine de Kleer from the California Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Caltech</a>).



Her research could potentially reshape our understanding of planetary cores and the early days of our cosmic neighborhood.



In October 2023, NASA, with the support of Dr. de Kleer and her team at Caltech, launched the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/psyche/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Psyche Mission</a>. 



This venture seeks to distinguish facts from fable about this unique asteroid, providing us with a peep into its enigmatic core and potentially solving astronomical conundrums that kept us stumped for centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-the-psyche-asteroid-so-valuable">Why is the Psyche asteroid so valuable?</h2>



So, why all the hullabaloo about Psyche? Primarily composed of metals -- mainly iron and nickel -- this asteroid stands out in a universe where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-chicxulub-caused-dinosaurs-extinction-event-traced-to-origin-kuiper-belt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">most asteroids</a> are made of rock or ice. 



This kind of composition signals that it could be an exposed core of a protoplanet, a core piece in the cosmic jigsaw puzzle that maps the formation of planets.



Spanning around 124 miles in diameter, Psyche resides <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-detects-water-on-asteroid-psyche/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in the asteroid belt</a>, an extensive ring teeming with over a million rocks orbiting the sun between Mars and Jupiter. 



Its metallic composition not only tickles scientific curiosity but also sets the cash-registers ringing, triggering discussions about the future of space exploration and resource utilization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-closer-look-at-psyche-s-surface">Closer look at Psyche's surface</h2>



To genuinely comprehend Psyche's surface, the research team had to go beyond the typical single-pixel infrared images obtained from Earth. 



That's where Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (<a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/alma/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ALMA</a>) based in Chile stepped in. Using ALMA's 66 radio telescopes, the team crafted a detailed temperature map offering a much clearer picture of Psyche's nature.



In the words of Saverio Cambioni, a researcher at Caltech, the high-resolution imaging revealed that "at least 30% of Psyche's surface is metal." 



The presence of metallic grains throughout its rocky surface was another significant finding. However, as Cambioni observes, differentiating between different types of landscapes on this asteroid remains a challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-existing-beliefs">Challenging existing beliefs</h2>



These discoveries have led to some intriguing questions, challenging the traditional belief that Psyche is purely made of metal. 



Dr. de Kleer ponders upon these findings saying, "We've known for many years that objects in this class are not, in fact, solid metal, but what they are and how they formed is still an enigma." 



The new data has now led scientists to consider alternative origins for Psyche, opening new pathways to comprehend the processes that shaped our solar system.



The analysis of Psyche's thermal inertia -- the rate at which it gains or loses heat -- bowled over the research team, revealing interesting tidbits about its surface properties. 



They found Psyche's thermal emission to be only 60% of what would be expected from a standard surface with a similar thermal inertia. 



This proposes that its surface is indeed dense or conductive, indicating a significant metallic presence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-goals-of-the-psyche-mission">Goals of the Psyche Mission</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psyche-will-use-mars-to-slingshot-itself-deeper-into-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Psyche spacecraft</a> is on its route, set to land on its destination in 2026. It carries an array of sophisticated tools designed to examine the asteroid's surface, composition, and magnetic field. 



Over 21 months, the mission aims to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-receives-deep-space-laser-message-psyche-mission-140-million-miles-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gather enough data</a> to determine if Psyche is indeed a planetary core or something entirely unprecedented.



Should Psyche prove to be the exposed core of a protoplanet, it would be akin to peeking into Earth's heart -- something we haven't been able to do till date. 



This can potentially fill in crucial gaps in our knowledge of how planets develop their layered structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-should-we-care">Why should we care?</h2>



The Psyche mission, using the most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psyche-mission-paves-a-revolutionary-path-toward-deep-space-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">advanced technology</a> that scientists currently have at their disposal, will answer questions like 'Could we one day mine asteroids for resources?' or 'What secrets does Psyche hide about our own planet?' not only push our scientific understanding but also ignite our imaginations.



Discovered by Italian astronomer Annibale de Gasparis in 1852 and named after the Greek goddess of the soul, Psyche could indeed touch the "soul" of planetary science by revealing secrets tucked away for eons.



Methods developed in the course of studying Psyche are already being put to test on other celestial objects. 



The team plans to use these techniques to study other large asteroids, potentially leading to new revelations about our solar system's building blocks. 



The exploration into Psyche has been facilitated by a related project led by Michael Shepard at <a href="https://www.commonwealthu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bloomsburg University</a>, combining data from different telescopes to pin down Psyche's size, shape, and orientation.



The findings from this mission could redefine our perception of planetary formation, chart the course for future explorations, and perhaps even provide a blueprint for the future utilization of space resources.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ac01ec" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Science Journal</a>.



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Asteroid Psyche is worth $10,000-quadrillion for whoever can mine it

Meandering between Mars and Jupiter, an asteroid named Psyche holds...

In the 1990s, NASA satellites designed to detect high-energy particles from celestial events like supernovas made an unexpected discovery - bursts of high-energy gamma radiation coming from thunderstorms on Earth.&nbsp;



Researchers quickly connected these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brightest-gamma-ray-burst-ever-recorded-had-a-rare-energy-peak/">gamma-ray bursts</a> to thunderstorms, but questions lingered about whether this was a common phenomenon. Satellites weren’t optimized to track gamma radiation from Earth, and they had to be in the right place at the right time to capture the events.



Now, thanks to a new approach, a group of scientists has been able to get a clearer picture. By retrofitting a NASA U2 spy plane to fly over thunderstorms, the team made some surprising discoveries.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thunderstorms-produce-gamma-radiation-nbsp">Thunderstorms produce gamma radiation&nbsp;</h2>



In two papers published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07893-0">Nature</a>, the experts have revealed that thunderstorms produce gamma radiation far more frequently than previously thought.&nbsp;



Additionally, the complex dynamics driving these radioactive particles have opened up a trove of new mysteries.



“There is way more going on in thunderstorms than we ever imagined,” said co-author Steve Cummer, a professor of engineering at <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a>. “As it turns out, essentially all big thunderstorms generate gamma rays all day long in many different forms.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physics-of-thunderstorm-radiation">Physics of thunderstorm radiation</h2>



The basic physics of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thunderstorms-are-becoming-more-intense-due-to-climate-change/">thunderstorms</a> create high-energy gamma radiation flashes isn’t entirely new. When thunderstorms build, rising air currents and swirling particles like water droplets, hail, and ice create electric charges.&nbsp;



These charges separate, with positive charges rising to the top of the storm and negative ones sinking to the bottom, forming an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-global-electric-field-discovered-equally-important-gravity-magnetic-fields/">electric field</a> strong enough to equal 100 million AA batteries stacked together.



If charged particles like electrons find themselves in this electric field, they accelerate. Once they hit air molecules at high speeds, they knock off more electrons, creating a chain reaction that eventually leads to nuclear reactions. This results in flashes of gamma rays, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gravitys-grasp-antimatter-behaves-like-regular-matter/">antimatter</a>, and other forms of radiation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radioactive-glow-in-thunderstorms">Radioactive glow in thunderstorms </h2>



But there’s more to the story. Aircraft flying near thunderstorms have detected a faint gamma radiation glow from the clouds - energy that’s strong enough to create gamma rays but lacks the explosive burst seen in more intense gamma events. It’s like a simmering pot, producing gamma radiation without the full blast.



“A few aircraft campaigns tried to figure out if these phenomena were common or not, but there were mixed results, and several campaigns over the United States didn’t find any gamma radiation at all,” Cummer said. “This project was designed to address these questions once and for all.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ultimate-observing-platform-for-gamma-rays">Ultimate observing platform for gamma-rays</h2>



To solve this mystery, the research team used a NASA ER-2 High-Altitude Airborne Science Aircraft, a retrofitted U2 spy plane. This plane, a relic of the Cold War, flies twice as high as commercial jets and about three miles above most thunderstorms. Its speed allowed the researchers to pinpoint the most promising storms for study.



“The ER-2 aircraft would be the ultimate observing platform for gamma-rays from thunderclouds,” said Nikolai Østgaard, a professor of space physics at the <a href="https://www.uib.no/en">University of Bergen </a>in Norway and the project’s lead investigator. “Flying at 20 km [12.4 miles], we can fly directly over the cloud top, as close as possible to the gamma-ray source.”



The team wasn’t sure what to expect. If gamma radiation was rare, they might not see much. But if it was common, they expected to find plenty. And they were not disappointed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radioactive-thunderstorms-are-common">Radioactive thunderstorms are common </h2>



Over a month of flights, the ER-2 flew over 10 major tropical storms south of Florida, detecting gamma radiation in 9 of those storms. The radiation came in more dynamic and varied forms than previously expected.



“The dynamics of gamma-glowing thunderclouds starkly contradicts the former quasi-stationary picture of glows, and rather resembles that of a huge gamma-glowing boiling pot both in pattern and behavior,” said Martino Marisaldi, a professor of physics and technology at the University of Bergen.



Tropical storms are much larger than storms at other latitudes, and the team now believes that more than half of all tropical thunderstorms are radioactive, with low-level gamma radiation simmering away like steam from a boiling pot.&nbsp;



This simmering effect may act as a pressure valve, releasing energy from the storm before it can reach a full gamma-ray explosion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lightning-may-trigger-the-radiation">Lightning may trigger the radiation</h2>



But the team also observed several intense, short bursts of gamma radiation. Some matched the kind of bursts first discovered by NASA satellites, occurring alongside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lightning-sparks-the-discovery-of-a-new-electromagnetic-wave/">lightning</a> discharges.&nbsp;



This suggests that lightning supercharges the electrons in the storm, triggering nuclear reactions that release gamma radiation. 



Yet, intriguingly, two other types of gamma bursts had never been seen before. One type lasts less than a thousandth of a second, while the other consists of a series of around 10 bursts, occurring over a tenth of a second.&nbsp;



“Those two new forms of gamma radiation are what I find most interesting,” said Cummer. “They don’t seem to be associated with developing lightning flashes.”



“They emerge spontaneously somehow. There are hints in the data that they may actually be linked to the processes that initiate lightning flashes, which are still a mystery to scientists.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-are-these-thunderstorms-dangerous">Are these thunderstorms dangerous?</h2>



For anyone worried about the potential dangers of gamma radiation during thunderstorms, Cummer offered some reassurance. The amount of radiation produced isn’t enough to pose a danger to people on the ground or in planes, unless they were extremely close to the source.



“The radiation would be the least of your problems if you found yourself there. Airplanes avoid flying in active thunderstorm cores due to the extreme turbulence and winds,” Cummer said. “Even knowing what we now know, I don’t worry about flying any more than I used to.”



This research has revealed just how much more there is to learn about thunderstorms and the radioactive gamma radiation they produce. With the new data in hand, scientists are eager to continue exploring the mysteries of these high-energy storms.



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Most tropical thunderstorms are radioactive

In the 1990s, NASA satellites designed to detect high-energy particles...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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