Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

The vibrant environment of the Florida Keys, long associated with the famous“Margaritaville” from Jimmy Buffett’s iconic song, has recently revealed yet another natural marvel. These tropical islands, which shelter the only living coral barrier reef in the continental US and host numerous unique animals, have now gifted the world with a bright yellow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slugs-and-snails-no-longer-classified-as-pests/">snail</a> named in a nod to Margaritaville.&nbsp;



Researchers have introduced this lemony snail and its lime-green counterpart from Belize in a recent study featured in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/">PeerJ</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worm-snails">Worm snails</h2>



While reminiscent of the common gastropods that leave trails in gardens, these marine snails have been dubbed “worm snails.” Their sedentary lifestyle distinguishes them from their garden-variety counterparts.&nbsp;



As Rüdiger Bieler, the study’s lead author and the curator of invertebrates at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> in Chicago, puts it, “I find them particularly cool because they are related to regular free-living snails, but when the juveniles find a suitable spot to live, they hunker down, cement their shell to the substrate, and never move again."



"Their shell continues to grow as an irregular tube around the snail’s body, and the animal hunts by laying out a mucus web to trap plankton and bits of detritus.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-treasure">Hidden treasure</h2>



Although Bieler has dedicated over 40 years to studying invertebrates in the Western Atlantic, these snails remained hidden. “We had to look very closely,” he said.&nbsp;



These newly discovered creatures share their lineage with the invasive “Spider-Man” snail, described by the same team in 2017 from the Vandenberg shipwreck off the Florida Keys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemon-yellow-snails-nbsp">Lemon-yellow snails&nbsp;</h2>



The discovery took place in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, where Bieler, along with Petra Sierwald, another curator from the Field Museum, stumbled upon the lemon-yellow snails. In Belize, they identified a similar snail with a lime hue.&nbsp;



“Many snails are polychromatic - within the same species, you get different colors,” Bieler explained. “I think they do it to confuse fish and not give them a clear target, and some have warning coloration.” However, DNA sequencing revealed a surprising difference between the lime and lemon variants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cayo-margarita">Cayo margarita</h2>



Taking cues from their DNA, Bieler and his colleagues categorized the snails under a new genus, Cayo, drawing inspiration from the Spanish term for a small island.&nbsp;



The bright yellow snail was christened Cayo margarita, echoing Jimmy Buffet’s “Margaritaville,” whereas the lime one was named Cayo galbinus, translating to “greenish-yellow.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warning-colors-nbsp">Warning colors&nbsp;</h2>



Interestingly, these Cayo snails share some similarities with another worm snail genus, Thylacodes. A species from Bermuda belonging to this genus was named Thylacodes bermudensis by the team.&nbsp;



Despite being only distantly related, Bieler observed a commonality: “Our thought is this is a warning color. They have some nasty metabolites in their mucus."&nbsp;



"That also might help explain why they’re able to have exposed heads - on the reef, everybody is out to eat you, and if you don’t have any defensive mechanism, you will be overgrown by the corals and sea anemones and all the stuff around you. It seems like the mucus might help deter the neighbors from getting too close.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



Highlighting the significance of this study, Bieler emphasizes the dire situation coral reefs face due to climate change.&nbsp;



“There have been increases in global water temperatures, and some species can handle them much better than others,” he said, suggesting the snails’ habitat preference for dead coral pieces might lead to their expansion with more coral deaths.&nbsp;



Bieler's concluding observations stress the vast, unexplored wonders of our environment: “This is in snorkeling depth in a heavily touristed area, and we’re still finding new things all around us.”



Image Credit: Photo by R. Bieler



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—-



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.

Bright yellow "margarita snails" discovered in Florida Keys

The vibrant environment of the Florida Keys, long associated with...

Palaeontologists at University College Cork (UCC) have found molecular evidence of phaeomelanin - the pigment responsible for ginger coloration - in fossilized frogs.&nbsp;



The study, led by Dr. Tiffany Slater and Professor Maria McNamara, adds a crucial layer to our understanding of ancient animal colors and the evolution of pigments in the animal kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



"Melanin pigments play a critical role in physiological processes and shaping animal behavior," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"Fossil melanin is a unique resource for understanding the functional evolution of melanin but the impact of fossilisation on molecular signatures for eumelanin and, especially, phaeomelanin is not fully understood."



The researchers collaborated with scientists from Fujita Health University (Japan), Linyi University (China), and Lund University (Sweden).&nbsp;



The team meticulously analyzed 10-million-year-old frog fossils, identifying molecular fragments of phaeomelanin, which is remarkable considering the pigment's toxicity to contemporary animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exciting-discovery-nbsp">Exciting discovery&nbsp;</h2>



“This finding is so exciting because it puts palaeontologists in a better place to detect different melanin pigments in many more fossils," said Dr. Slater.&nbsp;



“This will paint a more accurate picture of ancient animal color and will answer important questions about the evolution of colours in animals."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-mystery-nbsp">Evolutionary mystery&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Slater noted that scientists are still unraveling the mysteries of phaeomelanin, seeking to understand how and why this pigment, currently toxic to animals, evolved in the first place.&nbsp;



The newly discovered fossil evidence could play a pivotal role in solving this mystery.&nbsp;



Dr. Slater believes that this finding significantly empowers palaeontologists, enabling them to detect various melanin pigments across a broader range of fossils, thus providing more precise insights into the ancient creatures’ coloration and their evolutionary journey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossilization-experiments">Fossilization experiments </h2>



The experts conducted laboratory experiments on feathers of different colors (black, ginger, and white) to understand how phaeomelanin pigments undergo degradation during the fossilization process.&nbsp;



“Fossils are invariably altered by the ravages of heat and pressure during burial, but that doesn’t mean that we lose all original biomolecular information," said Professor McNamara.



"Our fossilization experiments were the key to understanding the chemistry of the fossils, and prove that traces of biomolecules can survive being cooked during the fossilization process."&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biochemical-evolution">Biochemical evolution</h2>



“There is huge potential to explore the biochemical evolution of animals using the fossil record, when we account for chemical changes during fossilization.”&nbsp;



This discovery by the UCC team marks a significant step forward in palaeontology, promising a richer and more accurate understanding of the color palette of ancient life and the evolutionary history of animal pigments.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-40570-w">Nature Communications</a>.



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—-



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.

Color evolution: Ginger pigment found in 10-million-year-old frogs

Palaeontologists at University College Cork (UCC) have found molecular evidence...

A new study from Vrije University has shown that running can be just as effective as antidepressants in treating depression.&nbsp;



The results of the research, recently presented at the <a href="https://www.ecnp.eu/congress2023/ECNPcongress/programme/programme?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIoLOqoqbcgAMVCc53Ch3kQQ6vEAAYASACEgIhmfD_BwE#!abstractdetails/0000524290" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ECNP conference</a> in Barcelona, highlight both the mental and physical benefits of exercise over antidepressants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-findings">Key findings</h2>



The study showed similar benefits in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-may-improve-mental-health-more-than-medication/">mental health</a> between the group that took antidepressants and the group that engaged in running.



“Both interventions helped with the depression to around the same extent," said Professor Brenda Penninx, who led the study.



"Antidepressants generally had a worse impact on body weight, heart rate variability and blood pressure, whereas running therapy led to an improved effect on general fitness and heart rate for instance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-improvements">Health improvements</h2>



Over a 16-week course, the running group showed improvements in weight, waist circumference, blood pressure, and heart function.



Conversely, the antidepressant group, who took Escitalopram for 16 weeks, exhibited a tendency towards a slight deterioration in these metabolic markers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The study was focused on 141 patients suffering from depression and/or anxiety. The individuals were given the choice between taking SSRI antidepressants for 16 weeks or joining a group-based running therapy for the same duration.&nbsp;



The majority, 96 participants, opted for running while 45 chose the antidepressants. This discrepancy in numbers indicates a clear preference for exercise over medication among the participants.



Professor Penninx noted that the individuals who chose the antidepressant route were slightly more depressed than those who opted for running.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adherence-to-treatment">Adherence to treatment</h2>



Despite the evident inclination toward running, the dropout rate for the exercise group was considerably higher.&nbsp;



Only 52 percent of the running group adhered to the recommended two to three supervised 45-minute group sessions per week for 16 weeks. The adherence rate for the antidepressant group was 82 percent.



The nature of each treatment might explain this difference. While taking antidepressants requires simple medication intake, running necessitates a more active approach, urging individuals to counter the sedentary lifestyles often associated with depression and anxiety disorders.&nbsp;



Running encourages individuals to go outdoors, set personal goals, enhance their fitness levels, and engage in group activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-room-for-both-therapies-nbsp">Room for both therapies&nbsp;</h2>



"It is important to say that there is room for both therapies in care for depression. The study shows that lots of people like the idea of exercising, but it can be difficult to carry this through, even though the benefits are significant," said Penninx.



"We found that most people are compliant in taking antidepressants, whereas around half of the running group adhered to the two-times-a-week exercise therapy."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exercise-therapy-nbsp">Exercise therapy&nbsp;</h2>



While the study shows that exercise provides additional physical health benefits, the challenge remains in ensuring that patients stick to their exercise regimen.



"Telling patients to go run is not enough. Changing physical activity behavior will require adequate supervision and encouragement as we did by implementing exercise therapy in a mental health care institution."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



Professor Penninx stressed the importance of this study as it gave patients a real-life choice between medication and exercise. She said the research aimed to assess the impacts of both treatments on overall health, not just mental well-being.



“Antidepressants are generally safe and effective. They work for most people. We know that not treating depression at all leads to worse outcomes; so antidepressants are generally a good choice," said Penninx.



"Nevertheless, we need to extend our treatment arsenal as not all patients respond to antidepressants or are willing to take them. Our results suggest that implementing exercise therapy is something we should take much more seriously, as it could be a good – and maybe even better – choice for some of our patients."



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—-



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.

Running is just as effective as drugs for treating depression

A new study from Vrije University has shown that running...

For the first time, scientists have successfully bioprinted fully functional skin. Researchers at the <a href="https://newsroom.wakehealth.edu/news-releases/2023/10/new-wound-healing-research-produces-full-thickness-human-bioprinted-skin#:~:text=The%20study%2C%20titled%20%22Bioprinted%20Skin,matrix%20remodeling%2C%20and%20provide%20optimism" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine</a> report that they have printed skin samples containing all six major cell types found in human skin.



The result is multi-layered, full-thickness <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-does-skin-become-leathery-after-too-much-uv-light-from-sun-exposure/">skin</a>, which includes all three layers present in normal human tissue: the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis.&nbsp;



"Bioprinting is a promising alternative method to generate skin substitutes because it can replicate the structural organization of the skin into biomimetic layers in vitro," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-for-treatment-options-nbsp">Breakthrough for treatment options&nbsp;</h2>



Bioprinted skin opens new possibilities for wound healing and severe burn recoveries, according to the experts.&nbsp;



“Comprehensive skin healing is a significant clinical challenge, affecting millions of individuals worldwide, with limited options,” said lead researcher Dr. Anthony Atala.



“These results show that the creation of full-thickness, human bioengineered skin is possible, and promotes quicker healing and more naturally appearing outcomes."



The significance of the bioprinted skin lies in its potential to not only promote quicker healing but also to yield more naturally appearing outcomes, enhancing the quality of life for patients in need.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-promising-results-nbsp">Promising results&nbsp;</h2>



The lab tests conducted on these bioprinted skin samples showed promising results, with the skin effectively forming blood vessels and skin patterns, and functioning as normal human tissue would.&nbsp;



Other recorded benefits include improved wound closure, reduced skin contraction, and increased collagen production, which collectively contribute to minimizing scarring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-skin-grafts-nbsp">Unique skin grafts&nbsp;</h2>



Published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.adf7547" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Translational Medicine</a>, the study highlights that the printed skin grafts are unique due to their triple-layer structure that provides full-thickness wound coverage. 



This advancement in skin graft technology addresses a crucial clinical challenge, as current graft options only possess some elements of normal skin, often resulting in a scarred appearance post-procedure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skin-grafting">Skin grafting</h2>



Skin grafting is a surgical procedure that transplants healthy skin to cover damaged or missing areas, often due to burns, injuries, or infections. This procedure plays a pivotal role in the treatment of skin-related medical conditions.&nbsp;



The transplanted skin typically begins developing blood vessels and connecting to the surrounding skin within a few days post-surgery.&nbsp;



Most skin graft procedures are successful on the first attempt. However, due to various factors including the patient’s overall health, graft size, and the surgical technique employed, the transplanted skin might not heal or “take” well, and additional grafting procedures are needed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-milestone-in-medical-science-nbsp">Milestone in medical science&nbsp;</h2>



The introduction of bioprinted skin presents a milestone in medical science, particularly for burn victims, wounded soldiers, and individuals suffering from skin disorders, as it offers an unprecedented opportunity for complete healing.&nbsp;



Through the Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine’s innovative approach, the prospect of crafting full-thickness, human bioengineered skin has transitioned from possibility to reality, setting a new standard in comprehensive skin healing and regeneration.



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—-



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.

Scientists have bioprinted fully functional human skin

For the first time, scientists have successfully bioprinted fully functional...

Researchers have discovered a vast reservoir of water deep within the sediment and rock of a buried volcanic plateau, equivalent to an entire sea.&nbsp;



Located two miles beneath the ocean floor off the coast of New Zealand, this discovery may provide answers to the mysterious phenomenon of slow-motion <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-1000-shallow-earthquakes-detected-in-california/">earthquakes</a>, known as slow slip events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-earthquakes">Unusual earthquakes</h2>



The colossal water reservoir was identified through 3D seismic imaging and is situated beneath New Zealand's North Island, close to a major earthquake fault known for its slow slip events.&nbsp;



Unlike typical earthquakes that release tectonic stress rapidly, these slow slip events release the pressure more gradually, spanning days or even weeks.&nbsp;



Despite their less destructive nature, the causes behind the frequent occurrences of these slow-motion earthquakes at certain faults have remained elusive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-water-reservoir-nbsp">Massive water reservoir&nbsp;</h2>



Many of these slow slip events, also known as "silent earthquakes," were believed to be associated with buried water. Nevertheless, the scale of the water reservoir in this specific fault near New Zealand was unprecedented.&nbsp;



"We can't yet see deep enough to know exactly the effect on the fault, but we can see that the amount of water that's going down here is actually much higher than normal," explained Dr. Andrew Gase, the lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-drilling">Ocean drilling</h2>



The research was based on seismic cruises and scientific ocean drilling led by the University of Texas Institute for Geophysics (UTIG) team.&nbsp;



Dr. Gase, currently a postdoctoral fellow at Western Washington University, is calling for deeper drilling to find where the water ends up so that researchers can determine whether it affects pressure around the fault. This is an important piece of information that could lead to more precise understanding of large earthquakes, he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-volcanic-terrain">Ancient volcanic terrain</h2>



The reservoir's site is a relic of a mammoth volcanic eruption that transpired around 125 million years ago when a colossal plume of lava, nearly the size of the United States, broke through the Pacific Ocean's surface.&nbsp;



This event ranks among the most significant volcanic eruptions in Earth's history, lasting several million years. 



Dr. Gase utilized seismic scans to reconstruct a 3D portrayal of this ancient volcanic terrain, identifying thick sediment layers enveloping dormant volcanoes. Subsequent lab tests on volcanic rock samples revealed that almost 50% of the rock volume was water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subterranean-water-pressure">Subterranean water pressure</h2>



According to Dr. Gase, regular oceanic crust of around 7 to 10 million years should have substantially lesser water content. However, the crust identified in these scans was a century older, yet significantly more hydrated.&nbsp;



The experts theorize that the initial shallow seas, where these eruptions occurred, weathered some of the volcanoes into porous formations capable of retaining water. Over millennia, these fragments morphed into clay, further encapsulating the water.



This insight is crucial, as it's widely believed that subterranean water pressure plays a pivotal role in engendering conditions conducive to slow slip earthquakes.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saturated-sediments">Saturated sediments</h2>



Typically, this transpires when sediments saturated with water are buried alongside the fault, confining the water below ground. However, the sediment composition of the New Zealand fault diverges from this norm.&nbsp;



Instead, the researchers propose that the ancient volcanic remnants and their subsequent transformation into clay are ushering significant water volumes downwards, as they are subsumed by the fault.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



Emphasizing the broader implications of this discovery, UTIG Director Demian Saffer suggested that earthquake faults worldwide might share similarities with this scenario.&nbsp;



“It’s a really clear illustration of the correlation between fluids and the style of tectonic fault movement - including earthquake behavior,” said Saffer.&nbsp;



“This is something that we've hypothesized from lab experiments, and is predicted by some computer simulations, but there are very few clear field experiments to test this at the scale of a tectonic plate.”



The research was funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation and research agencies in New Zealand, Japan and the United Kingdom.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adh0150">Science Advances</a>.



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—-



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.

Massive water reservoir may explain mysterious earthquakes in New Zealand

Researchers have discovered a vast reservoir of water deep within...

A few interesting theories exist about how the first humans found their way into North America after dispersing from Africa and Asia. But we may finally have some concrete evidence to make valid scientific claims and discard other assumptions. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-we-knew-before-now">What we knew before now</h2>



The most significant attempt at determining when humans first walked across North America was made a few years back. In 2021, a group of researchers <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abg7586" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published a study</a> with a stunning discovery that shed light on an intriguing mystery: When did humans first arrive in North America after migrating from Asia and Africa? 



In their findings, they discovered <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/ancient-footprints_new-mexico_23000-years_USGS_1medium-scaled.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossilized footprints</a> in New Mexico that indicate early humans were walking across North America around 23,000 years ago. The footprints were detected in a dry lake bed in White Sands National Park in 2009. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-exactly-were-humans-in-north-america">When exactly were humans in North America</h2>



To determine the approximate age of these footprints, scientists at the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Geological Survey</a> then analyzed the seeds stuck in them and stated the approximate age to be between 22,800 and 21,130 years. Based on the footprint sizes, the scientists noted that some were made by children and teenagers who were part of the last ice age population. 



"These findings confirm the presence of humans in North America during the Last Glacial Maximum, adding evidence to the antiquity of human colonization of the Americas and providing a temporal range extension for the coexistence of early inhabitants and Pleistocene megafauna," the study concluded.&nbsp;



However, these findings were met with skepticism in the scientific world.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-data-confirms-original-study">New data confirms original study</h2>



In what can be called a strong confirmation of the 2021 findings by the same researchers, a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adh5007" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a> has confirmed that humans indeed walked the landscape of North America much earlier than we previously believed. 



The study employed two additional dating approaches to confirm what was previously known about the age of the fossilized footprints discovered in New Mexico. Optically stimulated luminescence and radiocarbon dating techniques revealed that the footprints date to about 21,000 to 23,000 years ago. 



"Every dating technique has strengths and weaknesses, but when three different techniques all converge on the same age range, then the resulting ages are exceptionally robust," explained Jeff Pigati, a research geologist at the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in Denver and co-lead author of the paper. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-evidence-was-needed">More evidence was needed</h2>



The findings of their 2021 studies "were controversial," thus necessitating an independent evaluation of the seed ages to develop community confidence in them.&nbsp;



Using radiocarbon dating on conifer pollen isolated from the same sediment layers as the ditch grass seeds, the scientists found that the pollen age statistically matched the seed age. They also used optically stimulated luminescence dating to estimate the age of the quartz grains in the footprint-bearing sediments.&nbsp;



Matthew Bennett is a co-author of the study and a professor of environmental and geographical sciences at <a href="https://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bournemouth University</a> in England. He explained that "the work confirms the chronology set out in 2021 for the site using independent methods, labs, and approaches."



The new dates confirm the imagery of a once lush landscape at White Sands. Over 20,000 years ago, the area was home to giant sloths, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-largest-mammals-were-a-casualty-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammoths</a>, and camels living near a lake. The human footprints suggest that modern humans also lived in White Sands National Park during the last ice age. How they got there is still a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-next-steps">Implications and next steps</h2>



With the study further supporting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-arrived-in-the-americas-10000-years-earlier-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">presence of humans</a> in North America during the last ice age, the global scientific community can finally put other theories to rest. 



Cynthia Liuktus-Pierce, a Geologist at the <a href="https://www.appstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Appalachian State University</a>, shared similar sentiments. “This is exciting and will certainly have scientists rethinking how humans interacted with the North American environment during the [Last Glacial Maximum],” she remarked.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-last-ice-age">More about the last ice age</h2>



The last Ice Age, an era that grips the imagination, played a pivotal role in shaping the modern world. Let's dive into this frigid period and explore its features, causes, and lasting impact.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-did-it-happen">When did it happen?</h3>



Often called the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), it peaked around 21,000 years ago. During this period, vast ice sheets covered significant portions of North America, Europe, and Asia.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-triggered-the-ice-age">What triggered the ice age?</h3>



Several factors contributed to the onset of the Ice Age. Orbital changes, known as Milankovitch cycles, altered the amount and distribution of solar energy reaching Earth's surface. 



These factors impacted global temperatures, initiating periods of cooling. Additionally, volcanic activity, shifting ocean currents, and fluctuations in greenhouse gas levels played roles in driving the Earth into a prolonged cold phase.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-during-the-ice-age">Life during the ice age</h3>



Life adapted to these chilly conditions. Woolly mammoths, saber-toothed cats, and giant ground sloths roamed the icy landscapes. 



Humans, too, showed resilience. They crafted specialized tools, developed new hunting strategies, and wore animal skins to stave off the cold. These adaptations not only ensured survival but also fostered innovation and creativity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-did-it-end">How did it end?</h3>



The Ice Age didn't end abruptly. As Earth's orbit began to allow more sunlight to hit the northern hemisphere, temperatures slowly rose. 



The ice sheets began to retreat, carving valleys, forming lakes, and reshaping landscapes in the process. The meltwater also contributed to rising sea levels, creating the coastlines we recognize today.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lasting-impact">Lasting impact</h3>



The Ice Age left an indelible mark on the planet. Glacial valleys, moraines, and fjords showcase the power and movement of these ancient ice masses. The melting glaciers also filled basins, creating the Great Lakes of North America. Moreover, as humans migrated and adapted to changing environments, new cultures and ways of life emerged.



---



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



---



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.

Ancient footprints prove humans were in North America 23,000 years ago

A few interesting theories exist about how the first humans...

A recent study suggests an uncertain future for coral reefs, as their growth struggles to match the pace of rising sea levels.&nbsp;



The study, which investigated 9,000 years of coral growth, highlights a discernible decrease in coral growth rates.&nbsp;



The research was focused on the analysis of 22 drill cores collected from the Belize barrier reef and atolls. The drill cores measured a total of 215 meters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dwindling-accretion-rates">Dwindling accretion rates</h2>



The team used radioisotope dating to estimate the age of the coral fragments. This method allows scientists to infer the age of a material through the decay rates of radioactive samples.



Next, the researchers calculated the distances between the samples in the drill cores to estimate growth rates.&nbsp;



“Our data show that coral accretion rates in Belize decreased during the Holocene. While at 3.36 millimeters per year, the average accretion rates of reef margins are in the same range as other regions in the western Atlantic, they are somewhat lower than those in the Indo-Pacific," explained Professor Eberhard Gischler of Goethe University.



This discrepancy has significant implications for tropical island-nations that depend on or are protected by coral reefs and is particularly noteworthy in light of ongoing climate change discussions.



“The growth rates are at the lower end of the United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) predictions of future sea-level rise until 2100," said Gischler.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shift-in-coral-composition">Shift in coral composition</h2>



The study corroborates the observed decline in live corals in the Caribbean. Today, many reefs in the region are not dominated by corals, but rather by fleshy algae and generalistic weedy taxa.



Older sections of the reef, as noted by Gischler and colleagues, predominantly feature stress-tolerant, reef-building corals.&nbsp;



“At the base of our cores, directly overlying Pleistocene reef limestone, Pseudodiploria brain corals and Orbicella star corals are most common, illustrating that members of the stress-tolerant taxa are clearly dominating,” said Gischler.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-centennial-scale-growth-gaps">Centennial-scale growth gaps</h2>



The drill cores revealed intriguing centennial-scale gaps in the fossil records of the fast-growing Acropora palmata, or elkhorn coral.&nbsp;



These gaps, occurring approximately 2,000, 4,000, and between 5,500-6,000 years ago, might be indicative of environmental shifts such as higher temperatures, increased storm activity, or altered nutrient supply.



The 4,000-year-old gap coincides with a potential mass mortality event affecting grazing echinoids in the region.&nbsp;



The researchers propose that this could have led to increased abundance of fleshy algae or may be related to the 4.2 k-event, a significant climatic shift thought to have caused mid-latitude droughts and warmer sea surface temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



"Studying the drill cores enables us to develop both detailed and systematic reconstructions of the environmental conditions that prevailed during the Holocene, based on which previous ecological and environmental conditions can be reconstructed, allowing us to determine whether the current coral and coral reef declines are in fact unprecedented,” explained Gischler.&nbsp;



Coral reefs are already under threat due to global warming, ocean acidification, water quality deterioration, and diseases.&nbsp;



These latest results suggest that tropical coral reefs may become one of the first victims of climate change as they fail to grow fast enough to keep up with rising sea levels.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-38118-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—-



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.

Coral growth cannot keep pace with rising sea levels

A recent study suggests an uncertain future for coral reefs,...

A recent study into the mammalian family tree across multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-predict-a-new-mass-extinction-that-will-wipe-out-humans-and-all-mammals/">mass extinctions</a> reveals unexpected traits among the survivors, challenging the long-held belief that generalist or “boring” mammals primarily endured such catastrophic events.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-of-the-unspecialized-nbsp">Survival of the unspecialized&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers discovered that the mammals which persisted through mass extinctions possessed unique and advanced traits for their respective eras. This contradicts the notion of the “survival of the unspecialized.”



“The idea of the ‘survival of the unspecialized’ goes back to the 1800s, and the conventional wisdom is that generalized animals are the least likely to go extinct. But we found that the ones that survived more often only seemed generalized in hindsight, when compared with their later descendents," explained study senior author Ken Angielczyk of the Field Museum.



"They were actually pretty advanced animals for their time, with new traits that might have helped them survive and provided evolutionary flexibility."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



This revelation was supported by a massive family tree of synapsids, constructed by study co-lead author Spencer Hellert of Columbia College Chicago. Synapsids are a group of animals whose only surviving members are mammals.



“What’s been thought previously is that every time a new group of mammals evolves, you start out with a small generalist animal, since when disaster strikes, those are the guys that keep on trucking - they can hide anywhere, they can eat whatever is around,” said study co-lead author Spencer Hellert. “The kind of mammal that survives a mass extinction won’t be a specialist like a panda bear that can only eat bamboo.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-radiations-nbsp">Evolutionary radiations&nbsp;</h2>



Hellert’s extensive family tree, one of the largest of its kind, incorporated data from all previously established family trees for synapsids, providing a comprehensive and rigorous approach to summarizing information from various sources.&nbsp;



The research team examined the evolutionary radiations in synapsids over time, focusing on the species’ diets and body sizes, and discovered that the pattern of survival was not solely reliant on generalist characteristics. At certain points, larger synapsids and not just generalist insect-eaters were among the survivors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-initiated-nbsp">How the research was initiated&nbsp;</h2>



Study co-lead author David Grossnickle, assistant professor at the Oregon Institute of Technology, published a study in 2019 that highlighted how small, insect-eating mammals are often the lineages that survive challenging times. He approached Hellert and Angielczyk to see if this trend may also apply to earlier mammals and their ancestors.



“We were pretty surprised - it’s pretty well-established that those mammal radiations go from these small insectivores into the bigger taxa repeatedly, so I was kind of expecting to see that as we went back into synapsid history. And when we went back, that pattern starts to disappear,” said Grossnickle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-novel-characteristics-nbsp">Novel characteristics&nbsp;</h2>



Upon closer analysis, the researchers found that some survivor species, initially perceived as unspecialized, actually bore novel characteristics.&nbsp;



For instance, certain mammals from the dinosaur era possessed advanced teeth designed not just for cutting into prey but also for grinding, akin to a mortar and pestle. This “fancier” tooth structure might have offered a significant advantage during times of food scarcity, allowing these mammals to consume a broader range of foods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-specialized-animals-nbsp">Specialized animals&nbsp;</h2>



However, the study’s findings should not be interpreted as suggesting that specialized animals, such as pandas with their bamboo-exclusive diet, are less prone to extinction than generalist species like raccoons.&nbsp;



Instead, the research highlights that the species making it through mass extinctions possessed traits that were far from generic.



“Animals with novel traits like new tooth features, or jaws that work a little better at breaking down different food items, don’t really take over ecologically until the incumbent, older lineages go extinct,” said Grossnickle.&nbsp;



“You often need an extinction event like the one that killed the dinosaurs to knock out some of those older groups, and then it allows those fancier animals to persist and diversify.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



According to the researchers, the results of their study have broader implications for scientists’ understanding of how evolution works.&nbsp;



"We don't really know if there is a consistent set of features typically possessed by the ancestors of evolutionary diversifications," said Angielczyk.&nbsp;



"The fact that we see this complexity in the diversifications of mammals and their ancient relatives means we need to examine other groups to see if the situation in mammals is an exception, or business as usual."



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02200-y">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—-



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.

Evolutionary flexibility: Unique traits help mammals survive mass extinctions

A recent study into the mammalian family tree across multiple...

Scientists at <a href="https://www.ljmu.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Liverpool John Moores University</a> have uncovered a fascinating link between our sense of smell and our perception of colors. According to the study, the presence of different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crabs-are-losing-their-sense-of-smell-and-vanishing-due-to-ocean-acidification/">odors</a> can directly influence how humans perceive color.



The research illuminates the unconscious “crossmodal” associations that our brain establishes among different senses, affecting our interpretation of the surrounding world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multisensory-information-nbsp">Multisensory information&nbsp;</h2>



Our five senses are constantly bombarding us with information, and one way our brain makes sense of this is by combining information from two or more senses, explained the researchers.



"Our brain constantly combines multisensory information from our surrounding environment," wrote the study authors. "Odors for instance are often perceived with visual cues; these sensations interact to form our own subjective experience."&nbsp;



"This integration process can have a profound impact on the resulting experience and can alter our subjective reality."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-color-perception-nbsp">Color perception&nbsp;</h2>



Lead author Dr. Ryan Ward said the study demonstrates that the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-variations-smell-differently/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different odors</a> influences how humans <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-perceive-colors-biology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perceive color</a>.



“In a previous study, we had shown that the odor of caramel commonly constitutes a crossmodal association with dark brown and yellow, just like coffee with dark brown and red, cherry with pink, red, and purple, peppermint with green and blue, and lemon with yellow, green, and pink,” he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-sense-of-smell">Studying the sense of smell</h2>



For the current investigation, 24 adult participants, aged between 20 and 57 years, were tested for their association strength between specific odors and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/language-categorize-objects-colors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colors</a>.&nbsp;



To ensure a controlled environment, participants were placed in a sensory-deprived room that was free of any unwanted stimuli.&nbsp;



With the absence of deodorants, perfumes, or any ambient odors, the researchers introduced one of six distinct odors: caramel, cherry, coffee, lemon, peppermint, or odorless water (as a control).



The individuals were then shown a square of random color on a screen. They were tasked with adjusting two sliders, one corresponding to the spectrum of yellow to blue and the other from green to red, to turn the color to neutral grey. Each odor was presented five times in random order.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intriguing-results">Intriguing results</h2>



The study revealed that when certain scents such as coffee were introduced, participants perceived the color grey as having a more red-brown hue than its true shade. Similarly, with the smell of caramel in the air, they perceived a blue-enriched color as grey.



When the smell of peppermint was presented, the participants’ choice of hue was different from the typical crossmodal association demonstrated for the other odors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-next-steps">Implications&nbsp;and next steps</h2>



“These results show that the perception of grey tended towards their anticipated crossmodal correspondences for four out of five scents, namely lemon, caramel, cherry, and coffee,” said Dr. Ward.



“This 'overcompensation' suggests that the role of crossmodal associations in processing sensory input is strong enough to influence how we perceive information from different senses, here between odors and colors.”



The researchers emphasized the need to investigate the extent of these crossmodal associations before making conclusions about our sense of smell and color perception.



“We need to know the degree to which odors influence color perception," said Dr. Ward. "For example, is the effect shown here still present for less commonly encountered odors, or even for odors encountered for the first time?”



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1175703" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Psychology</a>.



---



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



---



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.

Our sense of smell can change our perception of colors

Scientists at Liverpool John Moores University have uncovered a fascinating...

Scientists from Queen Mary University of London have discovered that people may suffer from persistent symptoms, or "long colds," following acute respiratory infections.



The study suggests that there could be long-lasting health impacts following a non-COVID respiratory infections, such as a cold or the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-killed-hundreds-of-seals-in-new-england-last-year/">flu</a>, that are currently going unrecognized.



This phenomenon is similar to "long Covid," a condition in which individuals experience lingering symptoms after their initial recovery. However, it is not yet clear whether the symptoms of long colds have the same severity or duration as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-covid-linked-to-persistent-inflammation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long Covid</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lasting-effects-of-respiratory-infections-nbsp">Lasting effects of respiratory infections&nbsp;</h2>



“Our findings shine a light not only on the impact of long Covid on people’s lives, but also other respiratory infections. A lack of awareness - or even the lack of a common term - prevents both reporting and diagnosis of these conditions," said study lead author Giulia Vivaldi.&nbsp;



“As research into long Covid continues, we need to take the opportunity to investigate and consider the lasting effects of other acute respiratory infections.



“These ‘long’ infections are so difficult to diagnose and treat primarily because of a lack of diagnostic tests and there being so many possible symptoms. There have been more than 200 investigated for long Covid alone.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-symptoms-of-a-long-cold">Symptoms of a long cold</h2>



The experts analyzed data from 10,171 UK adults collected by <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/covidence/about-the-covidence-uk-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVIDENCE UK</a>, Queen Mary University of London’s national study of COVID-19.&nbsp;



The researchers identified common symptoms of the long cold, including coughing, stomach pain, and diarrhea persisting for over four weeks post the initial infection.&nbsp;



The researchers found that the severity of the initial illness plays a crucial role in determining the risk of developing long-term symptoms.&nbsp;



More research is needed to clarify why some individuals suffer from prolonged symptoms while others recover quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The team compared the prevalence and the severity of long-term symptoms occurring after COVID-19 infections with those manifesting post non-COVID-19 respiratory infections.&nbsp;



The results showed that individuals recovering from COVID-19 were notably more prone to experiencing light-headedness, dizziness, and problems with taste and smell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-implications-for-long-colds">Future implications for "long colds"</h2>



“Our findings may chime with the experience of people who have struggled with prolonged symptoms after having a respiratory infection despite testing negative for COVID-19 on a nose or throat swab," explained Professor Adrian Martineau, chief investigator of COVIDENCE UK.



“Ongoing research into the long-term effects of COVID-19 and other acute respiratory infections is important because it can help us to get to the root of why some people experience more prolonged symptoms than others. Ultimately this could help us to identify the most appropriate form of treatment and care for affected people.”



Victoria King is the director of Funding and Impact at Barts Charity, an organization dedicated to supporting transformative healthcare research.



“Barts Charity swiftly supported COVIDENCE UK in response to the outbreak of COVID-19 to help inform of its risk factors and impacts. These findings highlight not only the long-term symptoms experienced by people after Covid infection, but by people after other acute respiratory infections as well," said King.&nbsp;



"As we learn more about long Covid symptoms and their possible treatments, studies like this help to build greater awareness around other prolonged respiratory infections that may be going unrecognized.”&nbsp;



---



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



---



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.

Scientists find possibility of "long colds" alongside "long Covid"

Scientists from Queen Mary University of London have discovered that...

Watermeal, Earth's tiniest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-true-survivors-flowering-plants-lived-through-the-dinosaur-extinction/">flowering plant</a>, may become an essential astronaut food source and an efficient oxygen generator for space missions, according to a recent report from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Space_Engineering_Technology/Hypergravity_odyssey_of_Earth_s_tiniest_plant">European Space Agency</a> (ESA).



Mahidol University researchers in Thailand have tested watermeal’s space potential by subjecting the minuscule plant to 20 times Earth's normal gravity on the Large Diameter Centrifuge (LDC).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hypergravity">Hypergravity</h2>



The LDC, located at ESA’s ESTEC technical center in the Netherlands, is a four-arm centrifuge which allows researchers to expose materials to hypergravity for extended periods.&nbsp;



The project, facilitated through HyperGES, is a collaboration under the <a href="https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/access2space4all/index.html">Access to Space for All</a> initiative, backed by both the ESA and the United Nations Office of Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA).



The centrifuge, capable of reaching up to 67 revolutions per minute, houses six gondolas along its arms, which are each able to hold 80 kilograms.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The Mahidol University team, led by Tatpong Tulyananda, placed samples of watermeal in boxes equipped with LED lights simulating natural sunlight, within these gondolas.&nbsp;



Watermeal, a tiny plant floating on Thai and Asian water bodies, does not possess roots, stems, or leaves, and has been under study using clinostats to observe its reaction to microgravity.



“We became interested in watermeal because we wanted to model how plants respond to changing gravity levels. Because watermeal doesn’t have any roots, stems or leaves, it is basically just a sphere floating on a body of water. That means we can focus directly on the effects that gravity shifts will have on its growth and development," said Tulyananda.



“In addition, it produces a lot of oxygen through photosynthesis. And watermeal is also a good protein source, which has been consumed in our country for a long time – used with fried egg to soup, or eaten as part of a salad. You consume 100% of the plant when you eat it, so it holds promise in terms of space-based agriculture.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valuable-insights-nbsp">Valuable insights&nbsp;</h2>



The research team observed minimal differences in the plant’s growth between 1g and simulated microgravity. The short-lived nature of watermeal, with a life cycle ranging between five to ten days, allows for the examination of its entire life cycle in a short span.&nbsp;



The experiment yielded two generations of watermeal, the analysis of which Tulyananda believes will provide valuable insights into the plant’s hypergravity response.



“So far, we have seen little to no difference between plant growth at 1g and simulated microgravity, but we want to extend our observations to get an idea of how the plants react and adapt across the whole range of gravity environments," explained Tulyananda.



"Another advantage of watermeal is that it is quite a short-lived plant, so we can study its entire life cycle within five to 10 days."



“Our two weeks of experimentation give us access to two generations of watermeal overall. What we do next is examine the plants directly, then render extracts into a solid pellet form that we will take home to study. Then we can put these samples through detailed chemical analysis to gain insights into the broad spectrum of watermeal’s hypergravity response.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-watermeal-nbsp">More about watermeal&nbsp;</h2>



Watermeal, scientifically known as Wolffia, is recognized as the smallest flowering plant on Earth. Belonging to the duckweed family (Lemnaceae), this tiny plant is aquatic, predominantly floating on the surface of water bodies.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-and-appearance-nbsp">Size and appearance&nbsp;</h3>



Each individual watermeal plant is extremely small, roughly the size of a pinhead. It has a simple, globular, and rootless structure, often appearing like minute green grains on the water. Unlike typical plants, watermeal lacks stems, leaves, and roots.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



Watermeal thrives in quiet, nutrient-rich freshwater environments like ponds, lakes, and marshes.



The plant is found globally, with a significant presence in Asia and Thailand.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nutritional-value">Nutritional value</h3>



Watermeal is known to be a rich source of protein, making it a nutritious foodstuff. It has been a part of the diet in some countries, consumed in various forms like in soups, salads, or with fried eggs.



Because you consume 100% of the plant when you eat it, it offers maximum nutritional benefits per serving.



Image Credit: ESA



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—-



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.

Watermeal may become an essential food for astronauts

Watermeal, Earth's tiniest flowering plant, may become an essential astronaut...

The presence of space aliens up there in the cosmos is one of the biggest scientific fictions. But in reality, we have higher chances of finding extrasolar microbial life first than these legendary aliens. The question is, how soon?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbial-life-is-closer-than-we-think">Microbial life is closer than we think</h2>



Scientists have previously reported the existence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-exoplanet-k2-18-have-the-right-conditions-to-support-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earth-like exoplanets</a> around sun-like stars, and also the possible existence of life on these planets. But we may now be able to estimate how near we can find them.



According to a new research by Piero Madau, a renowned professor of astrophysics at the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Santa Cruz</a>, earthlike planets orbiting G and K spectral-type stars may serve as home to microbial life within 326 light-years of the sun.



"Within 326 light years of the Sun, there may be as many as 10,000 rocky planets in the habitable zone--the region around a star where conditions are right for liquid water on a world's surface, also called 'temperate terrestrial planets' or TTPs," Madau said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-star-formation-and-microbial-life">Early star formation and microbial life</h2>



We can break the formation of TTPS in the solar vicinity into different events. The first was a burst of star formation about 10-11 billion years ago. This was followed by another event that peaked about 5 billion years ago, giving rise to the solar system.&nbsp;



With three documented incidents where the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_Dwarf_Spheroidal_Galaxy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sagittarius dwarf spheroidal galaxy</a> entered the Milky Way's stellar disk, we can say that our own solar system was formed due to the first passing of the Sagittarius.



Madau also observed in his paper, which is appearing in <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2309.11927" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>, that although most TTPs are older than 4.5 billion years (older than the solar system), it remains unclear what part of these planets could support microbial life.&nbsp;



"If microbial life did arise as soon as it did on Earth in greater than 1 percent of TTPs around K spectral type stars, then the closest ‘life-harboring Earth-like planet’ would be 65 light years away," he added.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frequency-of-abiogenesis-is-crucial">Frequency of abiogenesis is crucial</h2>



We can define abiogenesis as the origin of life from non-living matter. If we assume that abiogenesis is fast and we ultimately record simple life in every existing temperate terrestrial planet, then Madau's population study predicts that we are just 16 light years away from the closest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-discover-earth-sized-exoplanet-covered-in-volcanoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earth-like planet</a> where life exists.



While this is a mere prediction, the failure to discover biosignatures at this volume in the future may necessitate the reassessment of these assumptions. However, Madau suggests some "cautious optimism" in the quest to unmask habitability markers and biosignatures using next-generation technologies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drake-s-equation-and-madau-s-approach">Drake's equation and Madau's approach&nbsp;</h2>



If there is one thing the renowned <a href="https://www.seti.org/drake-equation-index" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frank Drake's 1961 equation</a> has achieved, it is providing probabilistic parameters on the number of intelligent civilizations that might exist and relate over interstellar distances.&nbsp;



But Madau believes Drake's equation is not the full story. This is why he is proposing a mathematical model that he believes can answer questions about when the TTPs in the local neighborhood were formed, the abundance of microbial life, and whether it arrived before or after the birth of life on Earth.



If we can obtain better stats from near-term ground- and space-based telescopes, we may be closer than ever to detecting the presence of nearby extraterrestrial intelligent life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-temperate-terrestrial-planets-ttps">More about temperate terrestrial planets (TTPs)</h2>



Temperate terrestrial planets, often hailed as the best candidates for finding life outside our solar system, captivate astronomers and space enthusiasts alike. As mentioned previously, these worlds are similar in size and composition to Earth. They also lie within a star's habitable zone where conditions might just be right for liquid water -- a key ingredient for life as we know it.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-location-matters">Location matters</h3>



The term "habitable zone" refers to the range of distances from a star where a planet's surface can potentially maintain liquid water. Planets too close to their star boil away any surface water, while those too far freeze solid. Temperate terrestrial planets reside within this 'Goldilocks' zone, making them prime targets for study.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composition-and-atmosphere">Composition and atmosphere</h3>



Like Earth, these planets primarily consist of rocky materials. They might have iron cores, silicate mantles, and a solid or liquid water surface. Their atmospheres, if present, play a crucial role in regulating their climate. While Earth's atmosphere contains oxygen and nitrogen, temperate terrestrial planets might have different atmospheric compositions, influencing their potential to support life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-search-and-discovery">Search and discovery</h3>



Telescopes like the Kepler Space Telescope revolutionized our search for these distant worlds. By monitoring the brightness of stars, astronomers detect the minute dimming when a planet transits in front of its star. This transit method, combined with other techniques like radial velocity, has unveiled numerous temperate terrestrial planets in recent years.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-and-future-exploration">Significance and future exploration</h3>



Finding these planets doesn't only boost our hopes of discovering extraterrestrial life. They also offer insights into planetary formation, evolution, and the intricacies of planetary atmospheres and climates. As technology advances, new missions like the James Webb Space Telescope aim to further scrutinize the atmospheres of these worlds, searching for bio-signatures or other markers of habitability.



In summary, temperate terrestrial planets represent some of the most promising locales in our quest to find life beyond Earth. Every discovery brings us one step closer to answering the age-old question: Are we alone in the universe?



---



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



---



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.

Microbial life that's 8 billion years old may exist on nearby exoplanets

The presence of space aliens up there in the cosmos...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



-----

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

News coming your way