<p>Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.</p>



<p>This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



<p>In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.</p>



<p>For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. </p>



<p>If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. </p>



<p>The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.</p>



<p>In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



<p>Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. </p>



<p>Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.</p>



<p>In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<p><a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. </p>



<p>They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.</p>



<p>About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. </p>



<p>"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



<p>Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. </p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.</p>



<p>With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. </p>



<p>Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.</p>



<p>"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.</p>



<p>Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



<p>Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. </p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. </p>



<p>"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.</p>



<p>Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. </p>



<p>All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.</p>



<p>The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. </p>



<p>This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



<p>Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. </p>



<p>They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.</p>



<p>The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



<p>"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."</p>



<p>Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. </p>



<p>Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.</p>



<p>Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Forest Ecology and Management</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

<p>In a groundbreaking discovery, scientists have identified a new extinct species of small penguins that lived in New Zealand three million years ago. These creatures, described as "ridiculously cute," are ancestors of little penguins that continue to thrive today along the coasts of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand.</p>



<p>After careful examination of two fossilized skulls - one belonging to an adult, the other to a juvenile - the researchers named the new species Wilson's little penguin. The study was published last month in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-paleontology/article/pliocene-fossils-support-a-new-zealand-origin-for-the-smallest-extant-penguins/A722D072F8EE3B5FC194A33EF7DBC47F"><em>Journal of Paleontology</em></a>.</p>



<p>According to Bob Yirka of Phys.org, the newly discovered species represents the oldest-known extinct little penguin. Given that the researchers have only the skulls of the extinct animals at their disposal - not their entire skeletons - certain details about the Wilson's little penguins remain uncertain.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-evolution-of-little-penguins">Evolution of little penguins&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The researchers speculate that the size of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diving-birds-face-a-greater-risk-of-extinction/">birds</a> may have paralleled that of contemporary little penguins, standing approximately 13.5 inches tall and weighing around two pounds. </p>



<p>Notably, the experts found that the extinct penguins had somewhat narrower skulls compared to their modern counterparts.</p>



<p>The discovery of this ancient species broadens our understanding of the lineage and evolution of little penguins. The data suggest that we can trace back the origins of this avian group to New Zealand, or Aotearoa.</p>



<p>The relatively static nature of this penguin lineage, which has remained virtually unchanged despite significant environmental shifts over millions of years, is particularly intriguing. </p>



<p>Paleontologist Daniel Ksepka, a co-author of the study, discussed this surprising constancy in a recent <a href="https://fossilpenguins.wordpress.com/2023/06/26/a-tiny-fellow-joins-the-march-of-the-fossil-penguins/">blog post</a>.</p>



<p>Study co-author Daniel Thomas, a zoologist at New Zealand’s Massey University, emphasized the importance of this research in understanding the biodiversity and evolution of Aotearoa. </p>



<p>"This is important when thinking about the origins of these penguins, the evolution of the seabird diversity of Aotearoa, and the dynamic environment in which they live,” he stated. </p>



<p>Thomas drew attention to the changing climate throughout the penguins' long history, emphasizing that "this lineage has been robust to those changes."</p>



<h2 id="h-climate-concerns">Climate concerns</h2>



<p>The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) categorizes today's little penguins as a species of "least concern," estimating that around 470,000 of these birds are still in existence.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, there are indications that climate change may be beginning to impact these hardy creatures. Instances of mass mortality events, such as the discovery of hundreds of starved or hypothermic little penguins on northern New Zealand coasts last summer, hint at a shifting balance.</p>



<p>Scientists link these fatalities to rising ocean surface temperatures, which drive fish - the penguins' primary food source - into deeper, cooler waters. Little penguins, despite being competent swimmers, are limited by their diving depth of 100 feet. This unfortunate limitation leaves them at risk of starvation.</p>



<p>Concerned about the impact of escalating global warming, researchers are studying past climate change patterns to predict the potential consequences for Zealandia's flora and fauna. The skulls of Wilson's little penguins are set to play a vital role in this investigation.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-biodiversity-forecast">Biodiversity forecast&nbsp;</h2>



<p>A team led by Alan Tennyson, the vertebrate curator at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa and a study co-author, will examine these fossils to gather data on the species that existed in warmer climates in the region's distant past.</p>



<p>This analysis forms the foundation for what Thomas describes to NZ Herald's Jamie Morton as a "biodiversity forecast." The researchers plan to use this ancient data to project potential future changes to the ecosystem as temperatures continue to rise.</p>



<p>"With millions of years of environmental change now being compressed into just a few human lifetimes, rising temperatures are enabling tropical animals to expand their ranges, leading to potentially irrevocable changes in wildlife communities in Aotearoa and other higher latitude locations,” Thomas told the NZ Herald.</p>



<p>The same research team recently made another significant discovery: they unearthed evidence of the largest-known penguin species on Earth. These colossal birds, weighing in at 340 pounds, roamed New Zealand approximately 50 million years ago.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-little-penguins">More about little penguins</h2>



<p>Little penguins, also known as blue penguins or fairy penguins, are native to the coastlines of southern Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. In New Zealand, they are also known by the Maori name kororā. They are particularly well-known residents of Phillip Island in Victoria, Australia, where a popular tourist attraction, the Penguin Parade, allows visitors to observe their nightly return to shore from the sea.</p>



<p>Little penguins are monogamous and usually mate for life. They build their nests in burrows, under shrubs, or in crevices on the coastal mainland and islands. In these nests, they typically raise one to two chicks at a time, feeding them a diet of small fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans.</p>



<p>As nocturnal creatures, little penguins spend their days at sea hunting for food, and they come ashore after sunset. Despite their small size, they are surprisingly good swimmers and can dive up to about 100 feet deep when foraging for food.</p>



<p>While the discovery of the Wilson's little penguin has provided scientists with an invaluable glimpse into the evolutionary history of these charming birds, it also underscores the need for ongoing research and conservation efforts to ensure their survival in a rapidly changing world.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Little penguins that once lived in New Zealand were ridiculously cute

In a groundbreaking discovery, scientists have identified a new extinct...

Global,Warming,-,The,City,,Barren,Land,And,Green,Meadow,

<p>Our cities are facing a hidden peril – a danger that has gone unnoticed and unstudied until now. It’s called underground climate change. This phenomenon is literally causing the ground beneath our urban areas to shift and deform, leading to significant damage in our infrastructure.</p>



<p>An unsettling study from <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> reveals the existence of this lurking, silent hazard. As the earth beneath our cities heats up, it morphs and transforms.</p>



<p>This leads to unexpected and excessive movements in building foundations and the surrounding ground. It can even result in cracking.</p>



<p>The implications of this are profound, affecting the long-term operational performance and durability of our structures. It's becoming increasingly clear that previous building damages may have been caused by such rising temperatures. </p>



<p>Worryingly, this is not a problem that's going away. These issues are expected to persist and possibly even worsen in the coming years.</p>



<p>But, the study suggests, there could be a silver lining. While these underground temperature changes pose a threat to our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-infrastructure-found-in-most-key-biodiversity-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban infrastructure</a>, they also present a potential opportunity.</p>



<p>Waste heat from below ground level, given off by transportation systems, parking garages, and basement facilities, could be harnessed. This could help mitigate the impacts of underground climate change and simultaneously provide an untapped resource of thermal energy.</p>



<p>This groundbreaking study will be published on July 11, in the <a href="https://www.nature.com/commseng/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Portfolio journal Communications Engineering</a>. This is the first-ever research to quantify the ground deformations caused by subsurface heat islands and their effect on civil infrastructure.</p>



<p>Leading the study is <a href="https://sites.northwestern.edu/rottaloria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alessandro Rotta Loria</a>. He is an assistant professor of civil and environmental engineering at Northwestern's <a href="https://www.mccormick.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McCormick School of Engineering</a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-is-underground-climate-change">What is underground climate change?</h2>



<p>Loria explains the significance of this discovery, saying, “Underground climate change is a silent hazard. The ground is deforming as a result of temperature variations, and no existing civil structure or infrastructure is designed to withstand these variations."</p>



<p>He further notes that many cities, including Chicago, are facing an unseen threat due to this phenomenon.</p>



<p>"As a result of temperature increases underground, many foundations downtown are undergoing unwanted settlement, slowly but continuously,” says Loria. “In other words, you don’t need to live in Venice to live in a city that is sinking — even if the causes for such phenomena are completely different.”</p>



<p>Urban areas worldwide are facing a heating issue. Heat diffuses from buildings and underground transportation, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humidity-increases-urban-heat-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming the ground</a> at an increasingly fast rate. Previous researchers have found that the shallow subsurface beneath cities warms by 0.1 to 2.5 degrees Celsius per decade.</p>



<p>This phenomenon, known as “underground climate change” or “subsurface heat islands,” is not only an ecological issue but also a health concern. However, the impact of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-the-best-option-to-reduce-the-urban-heat-island-effect/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">underground heating</a> on our civil infrastructure has, until now, been largely overlooked.</p>



<h2 id="h-using-chicago-to-study-underground-climate-change">Using Chicago to study underground climate change</h2>



<p>Over the past few years, Rotta Loria and his team have been collecting temperature data using a wireless network of more than 150 temperature sensors across <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Geological-layers-beneath-the-Chicago-Loop_Credit-Northwestern-University.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chicago's Loop</a>. They compared these findings to the temperatures beneath Grant Park, a green space located away from buildings and transportation systems.</p>



<p>The results were startling, with temperatures beneath the Loop often being 10 degrees warmer. This heat diffusion places enormous stress on materials, causing them to expand and contract with the changing temperatures.</p>



<p>Based on their data, the researchers built a 3D computer model to simulate how ground temperatures have evolved since 1951. The findings were consistent with the field measurements.</p>



<p>The simulation was also used to predict how temperatures might change by the year 2051. Ground deformations in response to increasing temperatures were also modelled. The results showed that while some materials contract when heated, others expand.</p>



<h2 id="h-our-buildings-are-slowly-sinking">Our buildings are slowly sinking</h2>



<p>The simulation revealed that warmer temperatures could cause the ground to swell upward by as much as 12 millimeters or sink downward by as much as 8 millimeters.</p>



<p>Rotta Loria warned of the implications of these changes: “It’s very likely that underground climate change has already caused cracks and excessive foundation settlements that we didn’t associate with this phenomenon because we weren’t aware of it.”</p>



<p>He also suggested potential strategies to combat this issue. "The most effective and rational approach is to isolate underground structures in a way that the amount of wasted heat is minimal,” Rotta Loria said. </p>



<p>“If this cannot be done, then geothermal technologies offer the opportunity to efficiently absorb and reuse heat in buildings."</p>



<p>The researchers' work shines a light on an issue that's been literally underground, but the impact on our infrastructure could be profound. This "silent hazard" is one we need to acknowledge and address as we continue to build and evolve our cities.</p>



<p>With careful planning and innovative strategies, the threats posed by underground climate change can be mitigated, potentially offering new opportunities for energy efficiency.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-underground-climate-change">More about underground climate change</h2>



<p>Underground climate change is also known as "subsurface heat islands." It is a relatively new field of study that focuses on the impact of human activities on the temperature of the ground beneath urban areas.</p>



<p>This term is an extension of the more commonly known phenomenon of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/urban-heat-island/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban heat islands</a>, where urban regions are significantly warmer than their rural surroundings due to human activities.</p>



<p>The ground underneath cities absorbs and retains heat from various sources, including buildings, transport systems, industrial processes.</p>



<p>It also includes waste heat from basements and other subterranean facilities. Over time, the accumulation of this heat can lead to an increase in subsurface temperatures.</p>



<p>Here's what we know so far about underground climate change:</p>



<h3 id="h-causes">Causes</h3>



<p>Urbanization and industrialization have increased the amount of heat that is introduced into the subsurface environment.</p>



<p>Heat is generated by human activities such as transportation, manufacturing, heating, and cooling systems, and even simple daily tasks like cooking. It's also a result of the thermal properties of common construction materials which can absorb, store, and gradually release heat into the ground.</p>



<h3 id="h-effects-on-the-environment-and-infrastructure">Effects on the environment and infrastructure</h3>



<p>As the ground heats up, it expands, causing ground deformations. This can lead to instability in building foundations, causing them to crack or move. Over time, these changes can significantly affect the durability and operational performance of buildings and infrastructure. </p>



<p>In addition, the heating can change the characteristics of the soil and rock. These can affect underground water resources and lead to other environmental issues.</p>



<h3 id="h-health-and-ecological-impacts">Health and ecological impacts</h3>



<p>Subsurface heat islands can contribute to the overall urban heat island effect, exacerbating heatwaves in cities which can have serious health implications, such as heat stroke and respiratory problems. </p>



<p>The increase in temperature can also lead to ecological issues. These include changing the conditions for subterranean ecosystems and possibly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-ways-to-prevent-flooding-caused-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contaminating groundwater sources</a>.</p>



<h3 id="h-potential-for-energy-harnessing">Potential for energy harnessing</h3>



<p>Despite its threats, underground climate change also presents an opportunity. The heat generated can be captured and used as a source of geothermal energy. By harnessing this waste heat, it's possible to reduce the impact of underground climate change while providing a sustainable source of energy.</p>



<h3 id="h-solutions">Solutions</h3>



<p>Strategies to mitigate the impact of underground climate change can include urban planning measures to minimize heat generation, using materials with lower thermal conductivity in urban construction, improving the insulation of buildings, and capturing and using the waste heat.</p>



<p>Research into underground climate change is still relatively new, and much is still being discovered about its full impacts and potential mitigation strategies.</p>

Underground climate change: Silent hazard is destroying our buildings from beneath

Our cities are facing a hidden peril – a danger...

<p>In 2009, a secluded group of scientists embarked on a monumental task. This task, ordered by Earth's geological chronology authorities, was to answer three crucial questions concerning the Anthropocene - a proposed geological epoch characterized by humanity's enormous impact on Earth.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Today, the experts finally reveal their findings, including the exact location deemed ground-zero for the Anthropocene epoch.</p>



<h2 id="h-escalation-in-human-influence">Escalation in human influence&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The initial query was hypothetical yet profound: In a million years, would extraterrestrial beings examining Earth's sediment and layered rocks distinguish a uniquely human signature that signified a clear geological boundary?&nbsp;</p>



<p>Following their comprehensive investigation, the <a href="http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/working-groups/anthropocene/">Anthropocene Working Group</a> affirmed that human activities have indeed propelled the planet out of the stability of the Holocene epoch, which originated around 11,700 years ago with the termination of the last ice age.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to the experts, the planet is growing disturbingly warm, and its life-support systems are increasingly malfunctioning.</p>



<p>The researchers propose that the commencement of the "epoch of humans," a concept first introduced by Chemistry Nobel laureate Paul Crutzen in 2002, should be identified in the mid-20th century.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This era marked a dramatic escalation in various indicators of human influence, such as greenhouse gas concentrations, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-are-exposed-to-microplastics-before-theyre-even-born/">microplastic</a> pollution, invasive species, and radioactive traces from atomic bomb testing. Collectively, these human-induced changes have been recognized by scientists as the Great Acceleration.</p>



<h2 id="h-the-golden-spike">The golden spike</h2>



<p>A significant part of the Working Group's findings revolved around identifying the "golden spike" - a geological repository of evidence, such as a lake deposit, coral reef, or ice core, that most profoundly exemplifies the Anthropocene epoch.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The final decision on the location of this "golden spike" will be announced in a joint press conference on Tuesday at the Max Planck Society in Berlin and at a gathering of the Working Group scientists in Lille, France.</p>



<p>However, these conclusions are just recommendations at this stage. Their legitimacy will be scrutinized by the stern, skeptical scientists of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) and the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). Many involved in the study believe the chances of their findings gaining acceptance are quite slender.</p>



<p>Some geologists argue that the Anthropocene epoch does not meet the technical criteria for inclusion in the International Chronostratigraphic Chart, the official 4.6-billion-year timeline of the planet. This is despite their acknowledgement of a significant deviation from historical geological patterns.</p>



<h2 id="h-a-paradigm-shift">A paradigm shift&nbsp;</h2>



<p>This proposed shift from the Holocene to the Anthropocene epoch is an invitation for us to critically examine humanity's devastating impact on the planet. </p>



<p>For the first time in Earth's history, a single species has managed to not only dramatically alter the planet's morphology, chemistry, and biology - but also to recognize the extent of these changes.</p>



<p>Paul Crutzen, who was awarded a Nobel prize for identifying the human-made chemicals that have been decimating the Earth's protective ozone layer, anticipated that the conception and reality of the Anthropocene epoch would concentrate attention on the challenges that lie ahead. "It could well be a paradigm shift in scientific thinking," Crutzen noted at a symposium in 2011.</p>



<p>Today, many scientists who explore the intersectionality of the Earth's systems echo Crutzen's thoughts. </p>



<p>"It's the recognition that, 'Oh my God, we have tipping points. Oh my God, the Holocene is the only state that can support us,'" says Johan Rockstrom, head of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research. "The paradigm shift is the realization that we're leaving the Holocene and entering the Anthropocene."</p>



<h2 id="h-still-up-for-debate">Still up for debate</h2>



<p>However, several scientists remain unconvinced, including influential decision-makers lobbying against the formal acceptance of the Anthropocene epoch. </p>



<p>Phil Gibbard, Secretary of the ICS, has proposed calling the Anthropocene an "event" encompassing millennia of human environmental alterations, as he believes the conditions prompting glaciation haven't changed.</p>



<p>Jan Zalasiewicz, who led the Anthropocene Working Group through a maze of evidence and a minefield of resistance for over a decade, believes this classification is inadequate. </p>



<p>If the concept is not formally accepted, he argues, it suggests that the Holocene conditions, which allowed human civilization to thrive, are still intact. "Clearly they are not," says Zalasiewicz.</p>



<p>If the term "Anthropocene" continues to signify different things to different people, it risks losing its significance and eventually fading into oblivion. </p>



<p>Ultimately, as Zalasiewicz explains, we must follow the evidence. "Science is basically trying to establish what's real as opposed to what's not," he says. "And the Anthropocene is real."</p>



<h2>More about geological epochs</h2>



<p>Earth's dynamic geological history spans billions of years. It organizes into a hierarchical system of eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages, telling the story of the planet's transformation over time. </p>



<p>Among these, geological epochs — subdivisions of periods in the geologic time scale — yield fascinating insights into the Earth's development. We will delve into the details of these epochs, spotlighting their defining characteristics and major events.</p>



<h3>The Precambrian</h3>



<p>Encompassing nearly 90% of Earth's history, is not officially divided into epochs. But it sets the stage for the creation of an environment hospitable for life. It marks the birth of our planet, its cooling down, the formation of its crust, and the emergence of simple life forms.</p>



<h3>The Cambrian epoch</h3>



<p>The Cambrian ushered in the Paleozoic era, an era of dramatic evolutionary innovation. It marks the appearance of most major animal phyla and a significant rise in atmospheric oxygen, a period famously known as the "Cambrian explosion."</p>



<h3>Ordovician epoch</h3>



<p>During this time, marine life diversified, and the first primitive plants emerged on land. The epoch concluded with a mass extinction event, resulting from drastic climate change and a drop in sea levels.</p>



<h3>The Silurian epoch</h3>



<p>Here we witness the first evidence of life on land, with jawed and bony fish dominating the oceans, and primitive plants and arthropods beginning to colonize land.</p>



<h3>The Devonian epoch</h3>



<p>Also called the "Age of Fish," the Devonian featured the rise of fish diversity. It saw the emergence of the first amphibians, the rise of trees, and the formation of the first forests.</p>



<h3>The Carboniferous epoch</h3>



<p>This period is split into the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian in North America. It fostered extensive swampy forests, leading to the formation of extensive coal deposits. The first winged insects and amniote vertebrates emerged during this epoch.</p>



<h3>The Permian epoch</h3>



<p>This was the last of the Paleozoic era. During this period, diversification occurred of early amniotes into the ancestral groups of mammals, turtles, lepidosaurs, and archosaurs. This epoch ended in the largest mass extinction event in Earth's history, wiping out nearly 96% of marine species.</p>



<h3>The Triassic epoch</h3>



<p>The Triassic marked the dawn of the Mesozoic era, also known as the "Age of Dinosaurs." The first true mammals and dinosaurs appeared during this epoch. The Triassic epoch concluded with another mass extinction event.</p>



<h3>The Jurassic epoch</h3>



<p>This period featured a world dominated by dinosaurs. It saw the first birds and a diversification of dinosaurs. The continental drift gathered pace, breaking the supercontinent Pangaea apart.</p>



<h3>The Cretaceous epoch</h3>



<p>The Cretaceous was the final epoch of the Mesozoic era. It saw flowering plants dominate the world, with the evolution of bees aiding their pollination. Dinosaurs diversified, and the first snakes evolved. This epoch ended with a mass extinction event that erased most dinosaur species.</p>



<h3>The Paleogene epoch </h3>



<p>This period heralded the Cenozoic era, often called the "Age of Mammals." Dinosaurs' extinction led to the rise of mammals, and flowering plants diversified further.</p>



<h3>The Neogene epoch </h3>



<p>The Neogene witnessed the evolution of many modern mammalian families. Grasslands and kelp forests appeared, and apes evolved during this epoch.</p>



<h3>The Quaternary epoch</h3>



<p>This is the epoch immediately prior to the Anthropocene, in which we live today. It started 2.6 million years ago. It encompasses the entirety of human history, from the first hominins to the development of human civilizations. This epoch is defined by recurring glacial periods and a significant rise in biodiversity.</p>



<p>Understanding Earth's geological epochs is akin to reading the chapters of a vast, intricate book. Each epoch has played a critical role in shaping the planet as we know it today, hosting unique life forms and witnessing significant climatic and geological shifts. As we continue to probe these epochs, we unravel more about Earth's past, gain insights into its present, and predict its possible future.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Welcome to Earth's new era, the Anthropocene - "epoch of humans"

In 2009, a secluded group of scientists embarked on a...

<p>In a study led by Dr. Lujendra Ojha of <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a>, scientists report that Earth-like planets with potential to harbor liquid water could be about 100 times more common than previously believed.</p>



<p>The research, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-35187-4"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>, is a game-changer for our understanding of the universe. It also opens an intriguing new chapter in the search for extraterrestrial life.</p>



<p>“It was estimated that around one rocky planet around every 100 stars would have liquid water,” Dr. Ojha said at the Goldschmidt geochemistry conference held in Lyon, France. </p>



<p>“The new model shows that if the conditions are right, this could approach one planet per star - so we are a hundred times more likely to find liquid water than we thought.”</p>



<p>With at least 100 billion stars in our Milky Way galaxy, this study dramatically broadens the potential stage for the existence of life. As Dr. Ojha put it, “that represents really good odds for the origin of life elsewhere in the universe.”</p>



<h2 id="h-many-stars-could-host-earth-like-planets">Many stars could host Earth-like planets&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Traditionally, scientists have considered Earth-like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-exoplanets-could-have-enough-water-to-be-habitable/">exoplanets</a> with surface water bodies like oceans, lakes, and rivers to be scarce. </p>



<p>However, this new research suggests that many stars could indeed host planets. They only need the right geological conditions to sustain liquid water beneath their surface.</p>



<p>Our own solar system provides examples of subterranean oceans. Enceladus, one of Saturn's moons, as well as Europa and Ganymede, which are moons of Jupiter, are believed to harbor saltwater oceans encased within icy shells. Even dwarf planets like Pluto and Ceres, and potentially several moons of Uranus, are believed to possess underground oceans.</p>



<h2 id="h-liquid-water-is-essential">Liquid water is essential&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Dr. Ojha emphasized the significance of water for life as we know it. He said, “We know that the presence of liquid water is essential for life.” </p>



<p>This research sheds light on the potential for liquid water to exist in places that hadn't been seriously considered before. “This significantly increases the chances of finding environments where life could, in theory, develop.”</p>



<p>This groundbreaking conclusion comes from a closer look at how planets, seemingly frozen on their surface, could have liquid water oceans beneath their crust. </p>



<p>A couple of primary mechanisms make this possible. First, the heat from radioactivity within the planet's core can warm the water enough to prevent it from freezing. This is similar to what we observe in Antarctica and the Canadian Arctic. Also, the gravitational effects of the larger planets they orbit can prevent freezing.</p>



<h2 id="h-red-dwarf-stars">Red dwarf stars&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The researchers also highlighted the role of red dwarf stars, the most abundant star type in the Milky Way. They found that a significant percentage of planets orbiting red dwarf stars could produce their own heat.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We found that when one considers the possibility of liquid water generated by radioactivity, it is likely that a high percentage of these exoplanets can have sufficient heat to sustain liquid water - many more than we had thought,” explained Dr. Ojha.</p>



<h2 id="h-wet-moons">Wet moons</h2>



<p>Furthermore, the experts drew attention to the solar system’s wet moons. Their interiors are continuously churned due to the strong gravitational effects from the large planets they orbit. This is similar to the lunar influence on our Earth's tides but on a grander scale.</p>



<p>Enceladus and Europa are considered top contenders for life in our solar system. Several space agencies have already launched missions to explore these intriguing moons. </p>



<p>Notably, the European Space Agency's JUICE (Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer) mission, which commenced in April 2023, is slated to orbit Ganymede following numerous flybys of Europa and Callisto. </p>



<p>NASA is not far behind with its Europa Clipper. This mission is set to launch in October 2024 and conduct 32 flybys of Europa from 2030.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-earth-like-planets">More about Earth-like planets&nbsp;</h2>



<p>An Earth-like planet, also referred to as a "terrestrial" or "telluric" planet, is a planet that is similar to Earth in key characteristics. These include size, mass, and composition. </p>



<p>They are primarily composed of rock and metal, and have solid surfaces. The term "Earth-like" often suggests a similarity not only in physical properties but also in potential habitability.</p>



<h3 id="h-key-characteristics">Key characteristics&nbsp;</h3>



<h4 id="h-size-and-mass">Size and mass</h4>



<p>Earth-like planets are usually close to Earth in size and mass. Too large, and the planet might become a gas giant. Too small, and it may not be able to hold onto an atmosphere.</p>



<h4 id="h-location-in-the-habitable-zone">Location in the habitable zone</h4>



<p>The planet should ideally be located in its star's habitable zone (often referred to as the "Goldilocks Zone"). This is where conditions might be just right – not too hot, not too cold – for liquid water to exist on the planet's surface.</p>



<h4 id="h-rocky-composition">Rocky composition</h4>



<p>Earth-like planets are composed mainly of silicate rocks or metals. They have a hard surface that can potentially support oceans, continents, and life as we know it.</p>



<h4 id="h-presence-of-an-atmosphere">Presence of an atmosphere</h4>



<p>A significant atmosphere can help regulate temperature and protect the planet from stellar radiation and meteor impact.</p>



<h4 id="h-surface-water">Surface water</h4>



<p>The presence of liquid water is a critical aspect of "habitability." As we currently understand, every life form we know on Earth requires water to survive.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Earth-like planets may be more common than we ever imagined

In a study led by Dr. Lujendra Ojha of Rutgers...

<p>In the lush green forests of North America's west coast, a towering tree is silently waging a biological war against a notorious pest. A fascinating study from <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> reveals how the Sitka spruce tree defends itself against the voracious spruce weevil.</p>



<p>The findings will provide insights for breeding more resistant species of this tree, which could ultimately safeguard its survival against the voracious spruce weevil, Pissodes strobi.</p>



<p>The primary objective of the study was to investigate the genetic mechanisms of natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crop-pest-will-spread-northward-as-soil-temperatures-warm/">pest</a> resistance. "We wanted to learn about the genetic basis for natural pest resistance that certain Sitka spruce trees have evolved to prevent insects from feeding on the plant," explained study first author Professor Justin Whitehill.</p>



<h2 id="h-formation-of-stone-cells">Formation of stone cells</h2>



<p>The research, which Whitehill began during his time as a postdoctoral researcher at the University of British Columbia, sheds light on an intriguing defense feature of the Sitka spruce - the formation of stone cells.</p>



<p>"The trait we studied in Sitka spruce is a physical defense known as stone cells, which are found in almost all plant species,” Whitehill explained. Stone cells are the culprits behind the gritty texture one feels when eating a pear, revealing their existence in more familiar contexts.</p>



<p>Professor Whitehill emphasized the complexity of stone cell development, noting that thousands of genes contribute to this process. The research team, however, has managed to identify certain key genetics involved in the initial stages of these cells’ development.</p>



<h2 id="h-sitka-spruce-vulnerability">Sitka spruce vulnerability&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Distributed along the West Coast from California to Alaska, the Sitka spruce is a large conifer tree. Despite its replacement in North America with other timber species due to susceptibility to the weevil, it maintains a strong presence as a timber species in Europe.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Professor Whitehill highlighted an interesting historical cause of the tree's vulnerability. He noted that the primary population cultivated for forestry products on the West Coast originated from an island, where they had never been exposed to the weevil, leading to a heightened susceptibility in these trees.</p>



<h2 id="h-some-trees-built-resistance">Some trees built resistance&nbsp;</h2>



<p>But there was a silver lining in this tale of botanical hardship. A group of resistant Sitka spruce trees that developed stone cells was discovered in Canada. These rigid cells uniquely proliferate in less than an inch of the top of budding branches, coincidentally the very region favored by the weevil for feeding.</p>



<p>The stone cells play a critical role in the tree's defense. "The stone cells slow down the progression of the insect and give time for the resin found in the trees’ bark to coat the insect and make it too sticky to feed more," explained Professor Whitehill. Their effect is to obstruct the feeding insects and hinder their progress sufficiently to avoid significant damage to the tree.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The comprehensive analysis led to the identification of almost 1,300 genes that were expressed at higher levels in stone cells.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experts also pinpointed a key gene functioning as a "master switch," activating thousands of other genes known to control the development of thick-walled cells in other plants.</p>



<p>Professor Whitehill succinctly summarized the import of their findings: "This paper lays out a roadmap of the genes involved in stone-cell development. We’re showing it’s strongly controlled by genetics involved in secondary cell walls."</p>



<p>The execution of this study hinged on the use of a microdissection tool that employs a laser to meticulously slice tissue into thin sections. This technology enabled the researchers to study genes expressed specifically in stone cells during their formation.</p>



<h2 id="h-future-research-plans">Future research plans</h2>



<p>With an updated version of this tool now funded for use at NC State, the research team plan to delve into the genetic makeup of the Fraser fir tree, a leading Christmas tree in the United States grown in western North Carolina.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The size of the Fraser fir's genome, which is five times bigger than the human genome, has raised hopes of unlocking insights into the tree's viability, fragrance, and pest resilience.</p>



<p>The application of the laser microdissection technique is viewed by Whitehill as a promising path forward: "We’re using this approach now to look for genes involved in resistance to pathogens and pests, and to understand complex ecological interactions at the genetic level."&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-sitka-spruce-tree">More about the Sitka spruce tree&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) is a species of spruce tree native to the west coast of North America. Its range extends from Alaska, down through British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and as far south as northern California. It's named after Sitka, a city in southeast Alaska.</p>



<p>This tree species is notable for its size. It is one of the largest spruce species and among the tallest trees in the world. Some mature Sitka spruce trees can reach heights of over 300 feet (90 meters), although they typically average around 125 to 180 feet (38 to 55 meters) tall. The trunk diameter can be up to 16 feet (5 meters).</p>



<p>The Sitka spruce has a conical shape, with dense branches that droop slightly and are covered with sharp, stiff, needle-like leaves. Its bark is thin and scaly, and its cones are cylindrical and hang down from the branches.</p>



<p>Sitka spruces are adapted to cool, wet climates and grow well in both sun and shade. They're commonly found in coastal rainforests and near bodies of water, as they require a lot of moisture to thrive.</p>



<p>The wood of the Sitka spruce is light, strong, and flexible, making it highly valued in various industries. It's often used in the construction of musical instruments, especially soundboards for pianos and tops for guitars, due to its excellent resonant properties. The wood is also used in aircraft construction, particularly in small light aircraft, because of its strength-to-weight ratio.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Nature's defenses: How the Sitka spruce fends off weevil invasion

In the lush green forests of North America's west coast,...

<p>In the scorching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europe-experienced-its-hottest-summer-on-record-in-2022/">summer</a> of 2022, record-breaking heatwaves swept across Europe, marking it as the hottest summer ever documented in the continent's history.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These unprecedented events ignited forest fires, spurred droughts, and dried up major rivers. Even more devastatingly, a new study has linked Europe's record heat to an estimated 61,672 deaths between May 30 and September 4, 2022.</p>



<p>The grim results, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41591-023-02419-z"><em>Nature Medicine</em></a>, highlight the catastrophic human toll of intensifying global warming trends.</p>



<p>Eurostat, the European statistical office, had previously reported a significant spike in mortality for that period, yet the contribution of extreme heat had not been precisely quantified.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The current study was a collaborative effort by experts at the <a href="https://www.isglobal.org/en">Barcelona Institute for Global Health</a> (ISGlobal), an institution supported by the "la Caixa" Foundation, and the French National Institute of Health (Inserm).</p>



<p>The researchers accessed temperature and mortality data for 2015-2022 from 823 regions spanning 35 European countries. Collectively, the data represented a population of over 543 million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Based on this information, the team developed epidemiological models to estimate temperature-attributable mortality for each region and week of the summer period.</p>



<p>Throughout the summer of 2022, sweltering heat was relentless, with above-average temperatures occurring every week. The hottest weather lingered from mid-July to mid-August, coinciding with the most deadly period of heat-related mortality. In this month alone, a staggering 38,881 deaths were recorded.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-geographical-disparities">Geographical disparities</h2>



<p>Italy endured the highest number of heat-related fatalities, with 18,010 deaths. Spain and Germany followed with 11,324 and 8,173 deaths respectively.&nbsp;</p>



<p>When the data is adjusted by population, Italy again emerges as the most affected, with 295 heat-related deaths per million, followed by Greece (280), Spain (237), and Portugal (211). The European average was calculated at 114 deaths per million.</p>



<p>In terms of temperature anomalies, France experienced the warmest conditions with temperatures rising +2.43°C above the average values for the period 1991-2020. Switzerland (+2.30°C), Italy (+2.28°C), Hungary (+2.13°C), and Spain (+2.11°C) were also severely impacted.</p>



<h2 id="h-mortality-rate-and-gender">Mortality rate and gender</h2>



<p>The study further highlighted a troubling disparity in terms of age and gender. Older age groups, particularly women, were disproportionately affected. Overall, 4,822 victims were under 65 years of age, 9,226 were between 65 and 79, and 36,848 were over the age of 79.</p>



<p>Gender-specific data revealed that heat-attributable mortality was 63% higher in women than in men. This manifested as 35,406 premature deaths (or 145 deaths per million) in women compared to 21,667 (or 93 per million) in men.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This increased susceptibility to heat was observed across the population but was especially pronounced in women over 80, who had a mortality rate 27% higher than their male counterparts. Conversely, men under 65 and those aged 65-79 saw higher mortality rates than women by 41% and 13% respectively.</p>



<h2 id="h-summer-deaths-in-2003">Summer deaths in 2003</h2>



<p>The disastrous summer of 2022 is comparable to the deadly 2003 heatwave, which caused over 70,000 excess deaths.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to Joan Ballester Claramunt, the lead author of the study and a researcher at ISGlobal, the summer of 2003 was a rarity even when accounting for anthropogenic warming observed up until that point.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The events of 2003 exposed the deficiencies in health systems' capacity to handle climate-related emergencies, leading to the implementation of prevention plans in subsequent years.</p>



<p>Contrastingly, the temperatures recorded in the summer of 2022 were not exceptional when compared to the recent temperature series. This affirms that warming has accelerated over the last decade.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"The fact that more than 61,600 people in Europe died of heat stress in the summer of 2022, even though, unlike in 2003, many countries already had active prevention plans in place, suggests that the adaptation strategies currently available may still be insufficient," noted Joan Ballester Claramunt.</p>



<h2 id="h-prevention-plans-urgently-needed">Prevention plans urgently needed</h2>



<p>Hicham Achebak, a researcher at Inserm and ISGlobal, echoed Ballester's sentiment, emphasizing the pressing need to reassess and bolster prevention plans. This need is particularly urgent given the escalating warming trends and the fact that Europe is experiencing warming rates up to 1°C higher than the global average.</p>



<p>The researchers project a bleak future if effective adaptive responses are not implemented. The team estimates that, in the absence of such measures, the continent could face an average of more than 68,000 premature deaths each summer by 2030 and exceed 94,000 by 2040.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This stark prediction highlights the urgent need to address the age and gender gaps in vulnerability to heat, improve adaptation strategies, and, most importantly, tackle the root causes of the accelerating climate crisis.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Deadly summer: More than 61,000 deaths linked to Europe's 2022 heatwaves

In the scorching summer of 2022, record-breaking heatwaves swept across...

<p>Currently, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-material-biodegradable-soil/">plastic</a> mulch films are extensively used in agricultural practices. When tucked in around the base of plants, they can help control weeds and pathogens, reduce water evaporation, and prevent soil splashing on fruit.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.calpoly.edu/">California Polytechnic State University</a> (Cal Poly), the plastic mulch used to support the growth of Californian strawberries sheds large quantities of plastic fragments that negatively impact soil quality. Such a situation is likely to occur in the case of other crops too, suggesting that this method’s risks may outweigh its benefits.</p>



<p>“What we are seeing is a huge quantity of macroplastic material – particles bigger than 5mm across - being shed where the mulch is used to enhance strawberry production. These can remain in the soil for decades or longer,” said study lead author Ekta Tiwari, a postdoctoral fellow in Geochemistry at Cal Poly.</p>



<h2 id="h-plastic-fragments-accumulate-for-decades">Plastic fragments accumulate for decades</h2>



<p>Although the mulch is removed after the crop’s seasonal production is complete, even careful land stewardship by farmers fails to remove all the plastic, since fragments usually adhere to the soil after removal.&nbsp;</p>



<p>After decades of annual plastic mulch application and removal, even in extremely well-managed fields, there is a significant accumulation of plastic fragments.</p>



<p>“We carried out a systematic survey of strawberry fields after the seasonal removal of these plastic film. We found that the distribution was fairly uniform. On field surfaces alone, we found up to 213,500 macroplastic particles per hectare. That doesn’t include subsurface particles, which we did not survey," explained Tiwari.</p>



<p>"In addition, we are currently analyzing the same soil samples for&nbsp;microplastics, which are smaller particles, less than 5mm across; these are not yet included in our findings."</p>



<h2 id="h-plastic-mulch-degrades-soil-quality">Plastic mulch degrades soil quality</h2>



<p>By using a groundbreaking method called Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, the experts found that most of the particles were polyethylene. Moreover, the analysis revealed that, as the levels of microplastic pollution increased, soil moisture content, microbial respiration, and plant-available nitrogen decreased.</p>



<p>“The plastic mulch provides benefits, but at the expense of long-term soil quality. It’s difficult and expensive to remove these particles from the soil, so once they are there they can stay there indefinitely. We tend to think that strawberries are simply things to be enjoyed, but this shows that even something as delicious as fresh strawberries can come with a cost to the environment. We are working with the manufacturers to see if we can mitigate these costs,” Tiwari said.</p>



<h2 id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Since the current study has only focused on macroplastic pollution, the researchers are now evaluating the level of microplastic pollution too. Providing reliable data on the extent of plastic pollution in the U.S. agricultural system could help improve land management practices and assess the biogeochemical consequences of plastic accumulation in agricultural soils.</p>



<p>Although there are alternatives to using polyethylene mulches – such as biodegradable plastic mulches or natural mulches like straw – such methods come with additional costs, which makes them less popular among farmers. Further research is needed to identify cost-effective techniques that could protect crops, while avoiding the negative impacts of plastic mulch.</p>



<p>The study was presented the <a href="https://conf.goldschmidt.info/goldschmidt/2023/meetingapp.cgi">Goldschmidt Geochemistry Conference</a> in Lyon, France (9-14 July).</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-plastic-mulch">More about plastic mulch</h2>



<p>Plastic mulch is a product used in farming and gardening to suppress weeds and conserve water. It's made from a thin layer of plastic film that is placed over the soil with the plants growing through slits or holes in the plastic. Here are some key points about plastic mulch:</p>



<h3 id="h-weed-control">Weed control</h3>



<p>Plastic mulch forms a physical barrier between the soil and the atmosphere, thus preventing weed seeds from germinating and growing. This is because most weed seeds need light to germinate, and the plastic mulch blocks this light.</p>



<h3 id="h-moisture-conservation">Moisture conservation</h3>



<p>Plastic mulch acts as a barrier to evaporation, reducing the amount of water that is lost from the soil. This helps to conserve water and can be especially useful in regions where water is scarce or in times of drought.</p>



<h3 id="h-soil-temperature-regulation">Soil temperature regulation</h3>



<p>Depending on its color, plastic mulch can either absorb or reflect sunlight, thus affecting the temperature of the soil underneath.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Black plastic mulch absorbs sunlight and warms the soil, which can be beneficial for warm-season crops like tomatoes and peppers. Conversely, white or silver plastic mulch reflects sunlight and can help to keep the soil cooler, which can be beneficial for cool-season crops.</p>



<h3 id="h-increased-crop-yield">Increased crop yield</h3>



<p>By suppressing weeds, conserving water, and helping to regulate soil temperature, plastic mulch can contribute to increased crop yield.</p>



<p>Despite these benefits, there are also several potential drawbacks to using plastic mulch. One is that it is a form of non-biodegradable waste, which can contribute to environmental pollution. Additionally, the use of plastic mulch can lead to soil degradation over time due to reduced organic matter decomposition and soil biodiversity.&nbsp;</p>



<p>To address these issues, some farmers and gardeners use biodegradable mulches, which provide many of the same benefits but break down over time to reduce waste and soil degradation.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Plastic mulch used in strawberry production leads to long-term pollution

Currently, plastic mulch films are extensively used in agricultural practices....

<p>In an intriguing new study, researchers have found that a bird's choice of nest materials strongly correlates with the dimensions of its beak. This discovery is based on an extensive data analysis involving close to 6,000 bird species. The experts report that beak shape could accurately forecast the type of nesting material a bird might utilize.</p>



<p>The comprehensive research was a collaborative effort by researchers at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> and the University of St Andrews. Their innovative approach to the study involved employing random forest models - a machine learning algorithm widely used for pattern recognition and data analysis.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The objective was to use these models to analyze beak data and predict corresponding nesting material preferences.</p>



<h2 id="h-surprising-findings">Surprising findings</h2>



<p>The researchers were surprised to discover an unexpectedly robust correlation between beak characteristics and nest materials. With only the knowledge of beak shape and size at their disposal, the experts were able to predict broad nest material usage in 60 percent of species. In some instances, their predictive accuracy reached as high as 97 percent.</p>



<p>These intriguing findings, published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rstb"><em>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</em></a>, provide a detailed exploration of the ecological and evolutionary factors behind these relationships. The researchers acknowledge certain variables influencing their results, such as the fact that not all species have equal access to all types of nest materials.</p>



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



<p>"We know a lot about primate hands, but not as much about how other animals use their limbs and mouths to manipulate objects," said Dr. Catherine Sheard, the lead author of the study from Bristol's School of Earth Sciences. "We're very excited about the potential applications of our findings, to further explore how beak shape may have co-evolved with other aspects of nest building or other functions."</p>



<p>Dr. Shoko Sugasawa, the senior author of the study based at the University of St Andrews, emphasized the significance of these insights in understanding animal evolution. "Most animals, including birds, do not have hands like ours, but manipulating objects like nest material and food is such a crucial part of their lives."&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Our finding is the first step to reveal possible interactions between the evolution of beaks and manipulation like nest building, and helps us better understand how animals evolved to interact with the world with or without hands," said Dr. Sugasawa.</p>



<h2 id="h-future-research">Future research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The team is now conducting new research that is focused on anthropogenic nest material in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-species-of-poisonous-birds-discovered/">bird species</a>. The aim is to understand which birds incorporate human-made materials such as plastic, wire, or cigarette butts into their nests. A key area of interest is determining if there's a correlation between this behavior and birds that dwell in urban areas.</p>



<p>Dr Sheard expressed her curiosity on how beak shape influences other nest attributes. "I’m also interested in how beak shape relates to other properties of the nest, including overall nest structure, such as whether birds build nests with walls, or a roof."</p>



<p>The study sheds light on the intriguing connection between the physical traits of birds and their behavior. The ongoing research will continue to unravel the complexities of evolution, nest-building behavior, and the impact of human activity on the world's birds.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-bird-beaks">More about bird beaks</h2>



<p>Bird beaks, also known as bills, are a prominent feature of birds and are extremely diverse, reflecting a wide range of adaptations to different environments and lifestyles. Here are a few key points about bird beaks:</p>



<h3 id="h-shape-and-size">Shape and size</h3>



<p>The size and shape of a bird's beak can tell a lot about its diet and behavior. For example, birds that eat seeds often have strong, short beaks for cracking open the seeds, while birds that eat nectar have long, thin beaks for reaching into flowers. Birds of prey have sharp, curved beaks for tearing meat, while shorebirds have long, thin beaks for probing into mud for invertebrates.</p>



<h3 id="h-temperature-regulation">Temperature regulation</h3>



<p>Bird beaks also play a role in regulating body temperature. Some species, particularly those living in hot climates, can increase blood flow to their beaks to lose heat and cool down.</p>



<h3 id="h-sensory-organ">Sensory organ</h3>



<p>The beak is a sensory organ that provides birds with detailed information about their environment and the food they eat. It contains nerve endings, allowing the bird to feel what it's doing.</p>



<h3 id="h-tool-use">Tool use</h3>



<p>Some birds, like crows and parrots, use their beaks as tools to find food and manipulate objects.</p>



<h3 id="h-nesting-and-mating">Nesting and mating</h3>



<p>Beaks play a role in building nests. Some birds have beaks specially adapted to weaving intricate structures. In many species, beak color and health can be indicators of fitness, playing a role in mate selection.</p>



<h3 id="h-communication">Communication</h3>



<p>Some birds use their beaks for communication. They may tap their beaks to signal aggression or clack them together as part of mating displays.</p>



<p>The extraordinary diversity of bird beaks is a prime example of evolution in action, illustrating how a basic structure can be modified in countless ways to suit a species' needs.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Bird behavior: Beak shape can predict nest materials

In an intriguing new study, researchers have found that a...

<p>As Earth grows warmer due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-the-world-look-in-2100-due-to-climate-change/">climate change</a>, the potential health effects on the human population are becoming more visible and concerning. One such emerging health risk seems to be a marked increase in serious vision impairment, particularly among older adults, living in warmer regions of the United States.</p>



<p>A comprehensive study involving 1.7 million people has provided strong evidence for this alarming correlation. The study reveals that older adults living in regions with average temperatures of 60 degrees Fahrenheit or higher, which is comparable to the warm climate of South Florida, are significantly more likely to suffer from blindness or difficulties in seeing, even with glasses.</p>



<p>"The link between vision impairment and average county temperature is very worrying if future research determines that the association is causal," explained Esme Fuller-Thomson, the co-author of the study and director of the <a href="https://aging.utoronto.ca/">University of Toronto's Institute of Life Course and Aging</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This concern is intensified in the light of climate change predictions that project a rise in global temperatures. "It will be important to monitor if the prevalence of vision impairment among older adults increases in the future,” said Fuller-Thomson.</p>



<h2 id="h-disturbing-trends">Disturbing trends</h2>



<p>The research uncovered a disturbing trend: compared to residents of counties with average temperatures less than 50 degrees F, the odds of severe vision impairment rose in tandem with temperature increases.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The likelihood was 14 percent higher for residents of counties with temperatures ranging from 50-54.99 degrees, and 24% higher in places where average temperatures fell between 55-59.99 degrees. For those living in regions with even warmer climates, the odds of vision loss were a staggering 44% higher.</p>



<p>Remarkably, the link between higher temperatures and vision impairment remained strong even when demographic factors like age, sex, and income were taken into consideration.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"It was powerful to see that the link between vision impairment and temperature was consistent across so many demographic factors including income," said study co-author Elysia Fuller-Thomson, a graduate student at the University of Toronto.</p>



<p>The researchers found this correlation was stronger among individuals aged 65 to 79 compared to those aged 80 and above. The link was also found to be more prevalent among men than women. However, the exact reason why temperature has such an impact remains an enigma.</p>



<h2 id="h-underlying-causes">Underlying causes</h2>



<p>The team proposed potential causes for this correlation, such as increased ultraviolet light exposure, air pollution, infections, and degradation of folic acid with rising temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The consequences of this development are alarming, considering that vision problems are a significant cause of disabilities and functional limitations. They contribute to falls and deteriorate the quality of life among older adults.</p>



<p>The research was focused on data from six consecutive waves of the American Community Survey, targeting Americans aged 65 and above. Average temperature data was obtained from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and combined with the survey data to draw these conclusions.</p>



<p>These critical findings have been recently published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/iope20"><em>Ophthalmic Epidemiology</em></a>, pointing to an urgent need for further investigation into the links between climate change and health.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-vision-impairment">More about vision impairment&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Vision impairment refers to a decrease in the ability to see to a certain degree that can't be corrected fully with eyeglasses, contact lenses, or eye surgery. It is often characterized by partial or complete loss of sight or inability to see clearly.</p>



<h3 id="h-various-types">Various types&nbsp;</h3>



<h4 id="h-low-vision">Low vision</h4>



<p>This is a significant reduction of visual function that cannot be fully corrected by glasses or contact lenses. People with low vision may have difficulty performing everyday tasks like reading, recognizing faces, or crossing the street.</p>



<h4 id="h-legal-blindness">Legal blindness</h4>



<p>In the U.S., this is defined as vision that's 20/200 or worse in the better seeing eye with the best possible correction, or a field of vision that is 20 degrees or less.</p>



<h4 id="h-color-blindness">Color blindness</h4>



<p>This is the inability to see colors in a normal way. The most common type is red-green color blindness, but there are many variations and degrees of color blindness.</p>



<h4 id="h-night-blindness">Night blindness</h4>



<p>People with night blindness (nyctalopia) have difficulty seeing in low light conditions or at night.</p>



<h4 id="h-blindness">Blindness</h4>



<p>This is the complete lack of vision. Blindness can be due to genetic mutations, injuries, diseases, or age-related conditions.</p>



<h3 id="h-causes">Causes</h3>



<p>Causes of vision impairment include eye diseases like macular degeneration, glaucoma, and cataracts; systemic diseases like diabetes; and injuries or accidents. Sometimes, vision impairment can be present from birth.</p>



<h3 id="h-treatments">Treatments&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Treatments for vision impairment can include glasses, contact lenses, visual aids, vision rehabilitation, and surgery, depending on the type and cause of vision impairment.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, some forms of vision impairment cannot be reversed. In such cases, resources and training can help individuals to adapt to their vision loss and maintain a high quality of life.</p>



<p><em>—--</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Rising temperatures linked to vision impairment

As Earth grows warmer due to climate change, the potential...

<p>In the intricate world of plant biology, researchers are on a quest to uncover the secrets of plant regeneration. Plants have the fascinating ability to regenerate an entire organism from a somatic cell - an ordinary cell not typically associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seals-prioritize-survival-over-reproduction/">reproduction</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Plant regeneration is based on the formation of a structure known as the shoot apical meristem (SAM), which subsequently gives rise to lateral organs critical for the plant's reconstruction.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, SAM formation does not just occur haphazardly - it is regulated by a series of positive and negative regulator molecules. But what molecules exactly, and are there other regulatory layers that are yet to be unveiled?</p>



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>To answer these questions, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.naist.jp/en/">Nara Institute of Science and Technology</a> (NAIST) in Japan focused on Arabidopsis, a model plant species frequently utilized in genetic research.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The researchers identified and characterized a key negative regulator of shoot regeneration known as WUSCHEL-RELATED HOMEOBOX 13 (WOX13) gene and its accompanying protein.</p>



<p>The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adg6983"><em>Science Advances</em></a>, reveals how WOX13 promotes the non-dividing (non-meristematic) function of callus cells. This action as a transcriptional (RNA-level) repressor can impact the efficiency of plant regeneration.</p>



<p>"The search for strategies to enhance shoot regeneration efficiency in plants has been a long one. But progress has been hindered because the related regulatory mechanisms have been unclear. Our study fills this gap by defining a new cell-fate specification pathway," explained Momoko Ikeuchi, the principal investigator of the study.</p>



<h2 id="h-previous-research">Previous research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Prior research by Ikeuchi's team had established WOX13's role in tissue repair and organ adhesion following grafting, thus piquing their interest in this gene's potential role in regulating shoot regeneration.&nbsp;</p>



<p>They experimented with a mutated version of Arabidopsis, called the wox13 mutant, which has a dysfunctional WOX13 gene. Using a two-step tissue culture system, the experts analyzed the speed of shoot regeneration in plants both with and without the WOX13 gene.</p>



<p>The analysis painted a clear picture: Shoot regeneration was faster - by approximately three days - in plants lacking the WOX13 gene, and conversely, slower when WOX13 expression was induced. It became evident that WOX13 is a negative regulator of shoot regeneration.</p>



<h2 id="h-current-research">Current research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>To substantiate these findings, the team undertook a comparative study using RNA sequencing, examining gene expression over multiple time points in both the wox13 mutants and normal (wild-type) plants.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The absence of WOX13 did not substantially alter the gene expression of Arabidopsis under callus-inducing conditions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, the absence of WOX13 under shoot-inducing conditions significantly amplified the gene alterations, leading to increased expression of shoot meristem regulator genes. These same genes were suppressed within 24 hours when WOX13 was overexpressed in mutant plants.</p>



<p>This breakthrough highlights a crucial role for WOX13, showing it inhibits a subset of shoot meristem regulators while simultaneously activating cell wall modifier genes involved in cell expansion and differentiation.</p>



<h2 id="h-new-understanding-of-plant-regeneration">New understanding of plant regeneration&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The NAIST study also underscores a significant departure from traditional understanding of plant regeneration. Unlike previously identified negative regulators, which solely prevent the transition from callus towards SAM, WOX13 impedes SAM specification by promoting the acquisition of alternative cell fates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>WOX13 and the regulator WUS form a mutually repressive regulatory circuit, leading to the transcriptional inhibition of WUS and other SAM regulators.</p>



<p>"Our findings show that knocking out WOX13 can promote the acquisition of shoot fate and enhance shoot regulation efficiency. This means that WOX13 knockout can serve as a tool in agriculture and horticulture and boost the tissue culture-mediated de novo shoot regeneration of crops," said Ikeuchi.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As scientists continue to decipher the complex mechanisms of plant regeneration, such discoveries hold promise for innovative applications in agriculture and horticulture, potentially transforming plant regeneration efficiency and crop yields.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-self-renewal-in-plants">More about self-renewal in plants</h2>



<p>Self-renewal in plants refers to the capacity of a plant to continually produce new cells and tissues throughout its lifetime. This process is essential for the survival and growth of plants, and it happens thanks to specific types of cells called meristems.</p>



<h3 id="h-meristems">Meristems&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Meristems are regions of plant growth, where cells are undifferentiated, much like stem cells in animals. These cells can divide and differentiate into various types of plant cells and have the potential to grow into any part of the plant.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Meristems are typically located in the tips of roots and shoots (called apical meristems), which allow for vertical growth, and in the vascular and cork cambium (lateral meristems), which allow for girth expansion in woody plants.</p>



<h3 id="h-self-renewal">Self-renewal&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Self-renewal is also essential for the process of plant regeneration. Plants have a remarkable ability to regenerate lost or damaged parts. For example, if a branch gets cut off, many plant species can grow a new one in its place. Similarly, some plants can even grow an entirely new plant from a single cell or small tissue cutting, a feature that is extensively utilized in the field of plant tissue culture and micropropagation.</p>



<p>The self-renewal in plants is controlled by a complex network of genetic and hormonal pathways. Several plant hormones, such as auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins, play crucial roles in the process of cell division and differentiation. These hormones work together with various genes and transcription factors to ensure the proper development and growth of plants.</p>



<p>Studies in model organisms, such as the small flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana, have provided much insight into the molecular mechanisms behind plant self-renewal and regeneration. However, there's still a lot to learn about these processes, and ongoing research continues to uncover new aspects of plant growth and development.</p>



<p><em>—--</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Study sheds light on the pathways of plant regeneration

In the intricate world of plant biology, researchers are on...

<p>In a bold stride toward innovative mental health treatment, Australia has become the first country to legally authorize psychiatrists to prescribe specific psychedelic substances to patients grappling with depression or post-traumatic stress disorder (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/women-with-ptsd-and-depression-are-four-times-more-likely-to-die-prematurely/">PTSD</a>).&nbsp;</p>



<p>This historic legislation took effect last Saturday, allowing Australian medical practitioners to administer doses of MDMA, colloquially known as ecstasy, for PTSD. Psilocybin, the psychoactive component in psychedelic mushrooms, has been greenlighted for patients suffering from intractable depression.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/therapeutic-goods-administration-tga">Therapeutic Goods Administration</a>, Australia's regulatory body for therapeutic goods, has added these two psychedelic substances to their roster of approved medicines.</p>



<h2 id="h-pioneering-research">Pioneering research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>This move, initially announced in February, has drawn astonishment from the scientific community in Australia, positioning the country at the leading edge of mental health research. One scientist cited Australia as now standing “at the forefront of research in this field.”</p>



<p>Chris Langmead, the deputy director of the Neuromedicines Discovery Centre at the <a href="https://www.monash.edu/mips">Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences</a>, highlighted the scarcity of breakthroughs in the management of persistent mental health issues over the last half-century. This pioneering development signals a possible new direction for treatment modalities.</p>



<h2 id="h-cultural-acceptance">Cultural acceptance&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The shifting cultural acceptance of these substances has been reflected in legislative measures across the United States. Oregon blazed the trail by legalizing the adult use of psilocybin, closely followed by Colorado, where voters chose to decriminalize psilocybin in 2022.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In an intriguing twist, the youngest brother of President Joe Biden revealed in a recent radio interview that the President has exhibited a “very open-minded” stance in their discussions about the potential benefits of psychedelics for medical treatment.</p>



<h2 id="h-breakthrough-therapy">Breakthrough therapy</h2>



<p>The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) labeled psilocybin a “breakthrough therapy” in 2018, a status designed to expedite the development and evaluation of medications intended for serious conditions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Psychedelics researchers, including teams at institutions such as Johns Hopkins, have gained support from federal grants. Moreover, the FDA issued preliminary guidelines last month for investigators planning clinical trials to evaluate psychedelic substances as potential treatments for an array of medical conditions.</p>



<p>However, the American Psychiatric Association has withheld endorsement of the use of psychedelics in treatment, citing the FDA's pending final decision.</p>



<h2 id="h-unknown-risks">Unknown risks&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Medical experts worldwide, including in the U.S. and Australia, have urged caution, stating that additional research is needed to fully comprehend these drugs' effectiveness and the scope of the potential risks. Psychedelics, known to induce hallucinations, are not without their dangers.</p>



<p>“There are concerns that evidence remains inadequate and moving to clinical service is premature; that incompetent or poorly equipped clinicians could flood the space; that treatment will be unaffordable for most; that formal oversight of training, treatment, and patient outcomes will be minimal or ill-informed," said Dr. Paul Liknaitzky, head of Monash University’s Clinical Psychedelic Lab.</p>



<p>Furthermore, the financial burden on patients is significant. In Australia, the cost of this novel treatment will amount to roughly $10,000 (approximately $6,600 U.S. dollars) per patient.</p>



<p>Despite these hurdles, Dr. Litnaitzky regards this as an exclusive opportunity for Australians to access these drugs for specific conditions. He expressed his optimism, stating that there’s excitement about drug policy progress. Dr. Litnaitzky sees the prospect of being able to offer patients “more suitable and tailored treatment without the constraints imposed by clinical trials and rigid protocols.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-psychedelics-and-mental-health">Psychedelics and mental health&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Psychedelics, such as LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), psilocybin (magic mushrooms), and ayahuasca, have gained attention in recent years for their potential effects on mental health. While research in this area is still ongoing, there is growing evidence suggesting that psychedelics may have therapeutic potential for certain mental health conditions.</p>



<p>Psychedelics are known to produce profound alterations in perception, thoughts, and emotions. They can induce a range of effects, including hallucinations, altered sense of self, and mystical experiences. Some studies have indicated that these substances may be useful in the treatment of conditions such as depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and addiction.</p>



<p>One of the most well-known studies on psychedelics and mental health is the use of psilocybin-assisted therapy for treating depression and end-of-life anxiety in cancer patients. Preliminary research has shown promising results, with participants experiencing reductions in depressive symptoms and improved quality of life. Similar studies have shown positive outcomes for other mental health conditions as well.</p>



<p>It's important to note that the therapeutic use of psychedelics typically involves a structured and supervised approach, often in the context of psychotherapy. These substances are not meant to be used recreationally or without professional guidance. The therapeutic process often includes careful preparation, the presence of trained therapists during the psychedelic experience, and integration sessions afterward to help individuals make sense of their experiences.</p>



<p>It's also crucial to recognize that psychedelics are not without risks. They can induce intense and challenging experiences that may be overwhelming for some individuals.&nbsp;</p>



<p>People with a history of mental health conditions or certain medical conditions, such as schizophrenia or certain heart conditions, may be at greater risk and should approach the use of psychedelics with caution.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Australia is the first country to legalize psychedelics for mental health treatment

In a bold stride toward innovative mental health treatment, Australia...

<p>Looking back into the origins of our world billions of years ago, celestial bodies were beginning to form in the gargantuan, swirling disk of dust, gas, and rocky debris that orbited our sun.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This process, known as accretion, gradually gave rise to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-our-galaxys-planets-could-be-habitable/">planets</a>, moons, and asteroids that populate our cosmic landscape. Scientists continue to grapple with understanding the complex procedures that gave birth to planets, including Earth.</p>



<h2 id="h-magma-holds-clues">Magma holds clues</h2>



<p>One of the primary methods that researchers use to understand Earth's formation is the examination of magma, the molten or semi-molten natural rock, which emerges from deep within the Earth's core.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Magma samples contain chemical signatures that chronicle our planet's birth - detailing the timing and nature of the constituent materials that contributed to the formation of Earth. This is similar to how fossils offer us clues about the biological past of Earth.</p>



<p>In a groundbreaking new study from the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/">California Institute of Technology</a>, evidence suggests that early Earth was created from hot, parched materials. This revelation suggests that water arrived relatively late in the history of Earth's formation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study fundamentally alters our understanding of our planet's creation story, shedding light on a crucial chapter in Earth's development. The research was conducted in the laboratories of Professor Francois Tissot and Yigang Zhang from the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences. Weiyi Liu, a graduate student at Caltech, is the first author of the paper published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv"><em>Science Advances</em></a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-samples-from-earths-mantle">Samples from Earths mantle&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Even though humans have not yet developed a way to physically penetrate into the heart of our planet, the interior is not entirely inaccessible to us. Deep within Earth's mantle, rocks can make their way to the surface through volcanic eruptions, bringing important samples with them.</p>



<p>These parental magmas can originate from different strata within the Earth, including the upper mantle, which starts roughly 15 kilometers beneath the surface and stretches to around 680 kilometers; or the lower mantle, extending from 680 kilometers down to the core - mantle boundary approximately 2,900 kilometers beneath our feet.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-chemical-signatures">Chemical signatures&nbsp;</h2>



<p>By analyzing magmas from varying depths, scientists are able to infer information about the distinct chemical composition of Earth's layers.</p>



<p>The formation of Earth was not an overnight phenomenon, but was a protracted process involving materials gradually coming together over a vast span of time. Through the study, the team was able to discern that the early Earth was primarily composed of desiccated, rocky substances.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The chemical signatures derived from the planet's depths indicated an absence of so-called volatiles, which are substances that readily evaporate, like water and iodine. By contrast, the upper mantle samples contained a higher proportion of volatiles, three times that found in the lower mantle.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Liu developed a model based on these chemical ratios, demonstrating that Earth initially formed from arid, rocky materials and that significant infusion of life-essential volatiles, including water, transpired during the last 15 percent (or less) of Earth's formation.</p>



<h2 id="h-planetary-formation-theories">Planetary formation theories</h2>



<p>The research significantly contributes to the ongoing dialogue around planetary formation theories - a field that has witnessed multiple paradigm shifts in the past decades and continues to be the locus of vibrant scientific debate. It also provides predictions for the nature of other terrestrial planets like Mercury and Venus, which are presumed to have been formed from similar dry materials.</p>



<p>Tissot emphasizes the importance of space exploration in this context: "Space exploration to the outer planets is really important because a water world is probably the best place to look for extraterrestrial life."&nbsp;</p>



<p>"There hasn't been a mission that's touched Venus's surface for nearly 40 years, and there has never been a mission to the surface of Mercury. We need to be able to study those worlds to better understand how terrestrial planets such as Earth formed."&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-earth-s-water">More about Earth's water</h2>



<p>Earth's water constitutes a significant part of the planet's unique identity, playing a crucial role in sustaining a wide array of life forms. Until recently, it was widely accepted that water was a key part of Earth's formation. However, the Caltech study has introduced a significant paradigm shift in this understanding.</p>



<p>According to the new study, the early Earth, contrary to previous assumptions, was a barren, arid place, consisting mainly of hot, dry materials. Magma evidence strongly suggests that Earth's abundant water - essential for life as we know it - made a rather late appearance in the planet's formative history.</p>



<p>The late addition of water to Earth's composition has far-reaching implications for our understanding of life's evolution. The late addition of water could mean that life also started to evolve relatively late in Earth's history.</p>



<p><em>—--</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

When did Earth get its water? Much later than expected, study suggests

Looking back into the origins of our world billions of...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>



<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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<p>Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how  Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.</p>



<p>According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. </p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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