For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men.



Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. 



The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys and girls start off nearly equal in math. But just four months into formal math instruction, a small gap appears - and it keeps growing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nationwide-study-tracks-the-math-gap">Nationwide study tracks the math gap</h2>



The research draws on a French government testing program that was launched in 2018. This nationwide effort tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reminiscing-can-boost-language-development-in-preschoolers/">language</a> and math skills of young students from first through sixth grade. 



Over five years and across four student cohorts, the program gave researchers an unmatched view of early math development.



At school entry, French girls scored slightly better than boys in language. Math scores, though, were essentially the same. 



"The headline conclusion is that the gender gap emerges when systematic instruction in mathematics begins," Spelke explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-for-gender-differences">Looking for gender differences </h2>



Spelke had already spent decades studying how young children understand numbers and shapes. Back in 2005, she wrote a major review for American Psychologist. The piece challenged the notion that boys are biologically wired for better math performance than girls.



"My argument was, 'OK, if there really were biological differences, maybe we would see them in the infancy period,'" said Spelke. 



She and her team always tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-children-learn-gender-stereotypes-from-storybooks/">gender</a> in their studies, but they never found infant boys outperforming girls in math, or vice versa. Still, Spelke admitted that something could be happening later in development.



"The fact that there are no differences in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conscious-awareness-when-does-our-sense-of-purpose-emerge/">infants</a> could be because the abilities that show gender effects actually emerge during preschool," she proposed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-math-instruction-for-boys-and-girls">Math instruction for boys and girls</h2>



In recent years, Spelke has turned her attention to how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-better-way-for-kids-to-learn-math/">children learn counting</a> and numbers in real classrooms. 



Spelke partnered with Nobel Prize-winning MIT economist Esther Duflo to advise the Delhi office of the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL). The team is helping four Indian states create and test math lessons for children in preschool through first grade.



In France, she works alongside her longtime collaborator, neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene. Together, they serve on the French Ministry of Education's Scientific Council, which helped develop the EvalAide testing program. 



The idea was simple: measure where every child stands in math and language and use that data to guide better teaching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-gap-emerges-in-math">Gender gap emerges in math</h2>



For this study, the team analyzed data from four full cohorts of first-graders entering school between 2018 and 2021. 



What they found was consistent: no math gap at the time of school entry, a small but significant gap favoring boys after four months, and a steadily widening gap by second, fourth, and even sixth grade.



"It was even bigger in fourth grade," Spelke said. "And in sixth grade it was bigger still."



Interestingly, the gender gap in language shrank slightly after the first few months of school and stayed relatively stable in later years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruling-out-old-explanations">Ruling out old explanations</h2>



So why does the math gap grow with time in school? The researchers ruled out several familiar theories.



"If there was really a pervasive social bias, and the parents were susceptible to it, we would expect boys to be more oriented toward spatial and numerical tasks when they first got to school," said Spelke.



But that didn’t happen. At school entry, there was no math gap. This points away from both biological and early social bias explanations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-experiment-during-the-pandemic">An experiment during the pandemic </h2>



The EvalAide dataset offered other insights. French first-graders can be nearly a year apart in age, depending on when their birthday falls. 



The team wondered if the older students were skewing results. They weren’t. The widening gender gap aligned more closely with time spent in school than with age.



Then came an unusual variable: COVID-19. The 2019 cohort missed the final 2.5 months of first grade due to lockdowns. That gap year created a natural experiment.



"With less time in school, the amount of the gender gap grew by less than it did in the other years where there wasn't a long school closure," said Spelke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-math-gender-gap">Confirming the math gender gap</h2>



The cohort also began school just after a national education crisis. In early 2019, French students had scored <a href="https://www.polytechnique-insights.com/en/braincamps/society/how-to-improve-the-relationship-between-education-and-employment/maths-an-essential-subject-whose-level-is-falling-in-a-majority-of-countries/#:~:text=In%202003%2C%2015%25%20of%20French,European%20average%20of%20527%20points.">lowest</a> among 23 European countries in math, according to international rankings. 



In response, the French Education Ministry - guided by its Scientific Council - called for more math teaching in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-pandemic-setbacks-reduced-kindergarten-readiness/">kindergarten</a>.



Sure enough, a tiny math gender gap appeared in fall 2019 among new first-graders. That gap hadn’t shown up in 2018 but was still present in 2020 and 2021.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problems-in-early-math-instruction">Problems in early math instruction </h2>



The study doesn't pinpoint a single cause, but its message is clear: differences in math achievement between boys and girls seem to grow as a result of what happens in early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schools-are-in-a-battle-with-cell-phones-to-keep-students-engaged/">school</a> instruction.



"We still don't know what that is exactly," Spelke said. "But now we have a chance to find out by randomized evaluations of changes to the curriculum."



The findings put pressure on education systems to ask hard questions about how math is taught in the early years - and what needs to change to make it fair for everyone.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09126-4">Nature</a>.



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Early math instruction may unintentionally favor boys

For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men. Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from Harvard University and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys...

As glaciers melt and lose mass, they will contribute to sea-level rise. It is already estimated that meltwater from all glacial land ice (excluding the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets) has contributed 21 percent of the sea-level rise recorded between 2000 and 2019. In addition, melting glaciers will change available water resources for around 1.9 billion people, altering annual and seasonal runoff for personal use and agriculture, and contributing to water insecurity.&nbsp;



Melting glaciers will also increase the frequency and magnitude of glacier-related hazards, such as landslides and outburst floods, over the next century. For all these reasons, it is critical to predict and understand the magnitude, spatial pattern, and timing of glacier mass loss.



In a new study that represents “a substantial step forward in predictive modeling”&nbsp;of glacier response to climate change, a team of international researchers has developed a model predicting the fate of all 215,547 of the world’s mountain glaciers (excluding those on the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets) under various different warming scenarios. Their findings emphasize that, even if warming is limited to the target 1.5oC, all glaciers will be under threat by the end of 2100.



The study uses new and more detailed data sets on glacier mass balance and rates of ablation, and represents glacier dynamics with a flowline model. The researchers also consider important physical processes that have not been incorporated in previous models, and provide model predictions for global warming at 1.5oC, 2oC, 3oC and 4oC above pre-industrial levels, all the way to the year 2100. In a related perspective of the research, a commentator referred to this model as the “most comprehensive so far.”



The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abo1324">Science</a>, predict that, globally, glaciers will lose between 26 percent (+1.5°C) and 41 percent (+4°C) of their mass by 2100, relative to a 2015 baseline. This mass loss would increase mean sea level by between 90 (+1.5°C) and 154 (+4°C) mm SLE, representing a 71 percent increase between the +1.5°C and +4°C scenarios.



The researchers report that, even in the most optimistic scenario of limiting global warming to 1.5 oC above pre-industrial levels, their model predicts that nearly 60 percent of the world’s glaciers will be lost by 2100. Within 2°C, the agreed warming limit of the Paris Agreement, about 70 percent of the smaller glaciers and 20 percent of the larger ones will melt completely. Considering that estimates from COP26 predict a global mean temperature increase of around 2.7°C by 2100, even the very largest glaciers in the Polar Regions will be under threat.&nbsp;



And the consequences do not stop at 2100. Even if temperature is stabilized at any level, the glaciers that remain will continue to lose mass beyond the model’s 2100 end point. These dire predictions highlight the need to act now in order to prevent substantial glacier loss.



“Every increase in temperature has significant consequences with respect to glacier contribution to sea level rise, the loss of glaciers around the world, and changes to hydrology, ecology, and natural hazards," wrote the study authors, led by David Rounce of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Carnegie Mellon University and the Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska Fairbanks.



In&nbsp;a related Perspective (also published in Science), Guðfinna Aðalgeirsdóttir and Timothy James say it is important to frame these findings in a positive light in order to motivate the public to support climate change policies. They say the authors of this study, “. . . while issuing a stark warning about the consequences of insufficient action, achieve this framing with an important message: Although it is too late to avoid losing many glaciers, any effort to limit global mean temperature rise will have a direct effect on reducing how many glaciers will be lost.”



The new model reveals a strong linear relationship between global mean temperature increase and glacier mass loss, meaning that, no matter how small the increase in global mean temperature, it will lead to increased glacier loss and added sea-level rise. And if temperatures were to increase by +2.7°C, as predicted at COP26, Earth will likely experience a near-complete deglaciation of entire mid-latitude regions by 2100, including Central Europe, Western Canada and United States, and New Zealand, which will add more to sea-level rise than is currently estimated.



In conclusion, the researchers stress the urgency of establishing more ambitious climate pledges to preserve the glaciers in the mountainous regions of the world. It may be too late to prevent the loss of many glaciers, but because of the linear relationship between temperature rise and ice mass loss, any action that is taken to limit warming will have a direct effect on reducing the number of glaciers lost.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Half of the world’s glaciers will melt by 2100

As glaciers melt and lose mass, they will contribute to...

A study funded by the National Institutes of Health has identified two specific air pollutants that cause asthma attacks in urban <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-connect-with-the-environment-through-story-writing/">children</a>. The experts report that moderate levels of ozone and fine particulate matter are linked to asthma attacks among adolescents who live in low-income urban areas.



The research was focused on non-viral asthma attacks that are not caused by respiratory viruses. The team examined the relationship between air pollutant levels and non-viral asthma attacks among more than 200 children who lived in low-income neighborhoods in one of nine U.S. cities.&nbsp;



The researchers found that asthma attacks had a non-viral cause in nearly 30 percent of the urban children. This rate is two to three times higher than that of children who do not live in a city, according to previous evidence.&nbsp;



“The strong association this study demonstrates between specific air pollutants among children in impoverished urban communities and non-viral asthma attacks further augments the evidence that reducing air pollution would improve human health,” said Dr. Hugh Auchincloss, director of the <a href="https://www.niaid.nih.gov/">National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases</a> (NIAID).&nbsp;



The study also revealed that exposure to ozone and fine particulate matter is associated with molecular changes in the children’s airways during non-viral asthma attacks. These molecular changes could possibly be the underlying cause of the exacerbations.



"We identified that increased air quality index values, driven predominantly by increased PM2·5 and O3 concentrations, were significantly associated with asthma exacerbations and decreases in pulmonary function that occurred in the absence of a provoking viral infection," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Moreover, individual pollutants were significantly associated with altered gene expression in coordinated inflammatory pathways, including PM2·5 with increased epithelial induction of tissue kallikreins, mucus hypersecretion, and barrier functions and O3 with increased type-2 inflammation."



"Our findings suggest that air pollution is an important independent risk factor for asthma exacerbations in children living in urban areas and is potentially linked to exacerbations through specific inflammatory pathways in the airway. Further investigation of these potential mechanistic pathways could inform asthma prevention and management approaches."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(22)00302-3/fulltext">The Lancet Planetary Health</a>.



Image Credit: UN Photo/Kibae Park



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Specific air pollutants linked to asthma attacks in urban children

A study funded by the National Institutes of Health has...

Bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus)&nbsp;is a species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-breaking-macroalgae-blooms/">macroalgae</a> common to the Baltic Sea that is known to act as an important carbon sink, sequestering a major amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide. However, by measuring the fluxes of greenhouse gases between surface waters and the atmosphere over several seasons, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.su.se/stockholm-university-baltic-sea-centre/infrastructure/ask%C3%B6-laboratory">Askö Laboratory</a> in Sweden has found that these algae also emit significant amounts of methane – a more potent greenhouse gas than CO2 - and thus potentially offset the uptake of atmospheric CO2.&nbsp;



“It was a bit surprising that methane was emitted from the bladderwrack, since this algae grows on hard substrates and not on soft sediments, where methane is produced normally,” said study co-author Christoph Humborg, the scientific director of the <a href="https://www.su.se/stockholm-university-baltic-sea-centre/infrastructure/ask%C3%B6-laboratory">Stockholm University Baltic Sea Center</a>. “But what we found was that these algae form pockets of sediment where methane forming microorganisms, archaea, could be detected. We found these archaea also on floating filamentous algae and organic matter debris associated with dense stands of bladderwrack.”



By&nbsp;continuously measuring greenhouse gas fluxes between the water surface and atmosphere outside the Askö Laboratory in Trosa during an entire year, the scientists confirmed that mixed vegetation and bladderwrack forests in coastal areas do take up significant amounts of atmospheric CO2. However, this uptake was offset by methane fluxes from the water to the atmosphere.



“Caring for and restoring macroalgae habitats could still be important from a climate perspective. Our study shows that these environments are net carbon sinks, just not as large as has sometimes been suggested,” Humborg explained.



According to the researchers, it is important to clarify whether methane production in the macroalgae habitats is influenced by their health status. “Our measurements were done in situ in the Baltic Sea, which is affected by eutrophication. A less eutrophic ecosystem with less organic matter accumulation and less filamentous algae growth could likely produce less methane. If so, taking measures to help the Baltic Sea recover from eutrophication would substantially improve the blue carbon potential of these habitats and contribute to mitigating climate change,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-35673-9">Nature Communications</a>.



Image Credit: Stockholm University Baltic Sea Centre



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Methane emissions offset carbon uptake by macroalgae

Bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus)&nbsp;is a species of macroalgae common to the...

Rats have been introduced to many offshore islands in the past, mostly arriving by accident aboard visiting ships. They can cause devastation to the indigenous wildlife of these islands, particularly if the native species include ground-nesting birds. This has led to a call for rat eradication programs on many islands, in order to save wildlife from the deleterious impacts of these introduced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-rodent-borne-diseases-spill-over-into-humans/">rodents</a>.&nbsp;



A study led by researchers at <a href="https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/">Lancaster University</a> has now identified an unexpected way in which invasive rats on tropical islands have affected the lives of fish inhabiting the reefs around the islands. This is an unusual instance where the presence of terrestrial rats leads to a change in the behavior of species in an entirely different biome. It reveals how species in different biomes are linked, despite the fact that they will never meet one another.



The study, which also involved researchers from Lakehead University in Canada,&nbsp;compared the territorial behavior of jewel damselfish (Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus) on reefs around five rat-infested and five rat-free islands in a remote archipelago in the Indian Ocean. These small reef fish are highly territorial and readily chase away other fish that enter their territory. They “cultivate” patches of algae between the branches of corals within a territory, and mostly direct their aggression towards intruders that are also herbivorous and in search of algal turf for food.&nbsp;



Previous research has shown that the damselfish around rat-free islands benefit from the nutrients that leach from the guano of seabirds breeding and roosting on the islands. These seabirds, including mostly terns and noddies, forage at sea and return to their nests on the islands. They produce nutrient-rich guano that enters the waters surrounding the islands and provides a sort of fertilizer. Around the rat-free islands, algal productivity and damselfish growth and body sizes are higher than they are in the waters around rat-infested islands.&nbsp;



The black rats (Rattus rattus) are thought to have been introduced to the archipelago in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, but are not present on all the islands. This provided the researchers with a natural experiment in which they could assess the impacts of the rats by comparing the behavior of damselfish around rat-infested and rat-free islands.&nbsp;



The rats feed on the eggs and chicks of the resident seabirds, causing significant decreases in bird population numbers. The researchers recorded an average of 1,243 birds per ha on rat-free islands, and 1.6 birds per ha on rat-infested islands, which equates to a seabird density that is 720 times smaller where rats are present. As a result, there is less guano on rat-infested islands, and less nutrient-enrichment in the surrounding waters.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The findings of the current study, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-022-01931-8">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>, show that damselfish on reefs around rat-infested islands defend larger territories (average 0.62m² compared with 0.48m² around rat-free islands), presumably because the algae receives less nutrient-enrichment and is less productive where the seabird populations have been decimated; the damselfish therefore need a larger “farm” area to fulfil their needs.



In addition, while damselfish aggressively defended their small territories and algal turf patches around rat-free islands, the fish on reefs around rat-infested islands were far less likely to behave aggressively towards other fish that entered their territory. The researchers hypothesize that the algal food in waters around rat-infested islands was simply not nutritious or productive enough to make it worth defending.&nbsp;



Dr. Rachel Gunn conducted the research as part of her PhD studies at Lancaster University and is now at Tuebingen University, Germany.&nbsp;



"Jewel damselfish around rat-free islands aggressively defend their turf because the higher enriched nutrient content means they get ‘more for their money,’ and this makes it worth the energy cost needed to defend," said Dr. Gunn. "Conversely, the fish around rat-infested islands behave less aggressively. We believe that the presence of rats is lowering the nutritional benefit of the turf to the extent that it is almost not worth fighting for, which is what we are observing with these behavior changes.”&nbsp;



Seabirds are drivers of nutrient cycling in numerous locations around the world, as they forage out in the oceans and return to land to roost and breed. The results of this study reveal that the reduction in nutrient availability, due to the effects of invasive rats on the seabird populations, can also affect the behavior of fish in the shallow waters around tropical islands. It is possible that the reduced nutrient levels could also affect other reef species, and influence the spread of corals, the distribution of reef fish and the genetic traits of damselfish.&nbsp;



“The algal farming of damselfish affects the balance of corals and algae on the reef. Their aggression towards other fish can influence the way those fish move around and use the reef. We do not yet know what the consequence of this behavioral change will be but ecosystems evolve a delicate balance over long time-scales, so any disruption could have knock-on consequences for the wider ecosystem,” said Dr. Gunn.



“Changes in behavior are often the first response of animals to environmental change, and can scale up to affect if, how and when species can live alongside one another," explained Dr. Sally Keith, the principal investigator of the study. "Our research is the first to show that these broader impacts can even be felt across biomes, from terrestrial invaders to marine farmers. It also shows the power of leveraging real-world environmental variation across multiple locations as an approach to understand animal behavior.”



The findings also add evidence in support of rat eradication programs on tropical islands. Rats have been removed successfully from more than 580 islands worldwide, and in many instances resident seabird populations have benefitted. It is clear from this study that the return of seabirds and their guano would be advantageous, not only for the islands’ ecosystems, but also for the nearshore marine ecosystems that receive nutrient enrichment as a consequence of seabird presence. Rat eradication should be conservation priority for these tropical islands.&nbsp;



“We have provided more evidence that invasive rats have a large impact on both terrestrial and marine ecosystems," said Dr. Gunn. "Rat eradication has the potential to have multiple, cross-ecosystem benefits. The removal of invasive rats could restore the territorial behavior of farming damselfish, which could scale up to benefit coral reef community composition and resilience.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Rats on tropical islands change reef fish behavior

Rats have been introduced to many offshore islands in the...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> has found that Twitter and online new articles could be used effectively to track the timing and location of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-origin-of-californias-latest-invasive-insect/">invasive insect</a> spread in the United States and globally. These findings suggest that such sources are promising for filling gaps when official data are not widely available.



“The idea was to explore if we could use this data to fill in some of the information gaps about pest spread, and ultimately, to support the development of better predictive models of where pest spread is happening, and when to use costly control measures,” said study lead author Laura Tateosian, an associate professor of Geospatial Analytics at NC State. “Even though these are not formal scientific sources, we found that we could clearly see some of the major events that were occurring about two invasive pests in the news, and on Twitter.”



The scientists tracked Tweets and online news articles (published between 2011 and 2021) about two invasive insects: the spotted lanternfly and the tomato leaf miner (Tuta absoluta). The former - first spotted in the U.S. in 2014 – is an insect native to Asia which can damage or even destroy grapes, cherries, hops, certain lumber trees, and other plants. The latter – often nicknamed the “tomato Ebola” – is native to South America, and was first discovered in Spain in 2006 before spreading to Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East.



“While some invasive insects have reached their global range, in both of these cases, the pests are actively spreading,” said study co-author Ariel Saffer, a graduate student in Geospatial Analytics at NC State. “We launched this as a proof-of-concept study to see if it would be scientifically reasonable to use these sources to track pest spread. We compared information in places where the insects were known to be present to see if these sources accurately captured existing knowledge.”



The analysis revealed that activity on Twitter and in news stories reflected some of the patterns in official surveys, such as the pests’ seasonal cycles, and major outbreaks. In Pennsylvania – where the spotted lanternfly was first found - news articles uncovered one county not listed in the official records.



“News media and social media have the potential to give you more immediate insight into what’s going on, especially if scientific information on insect spread is not immediately published in scientific literature, or not widely available to other scientists. Also, relying on data from scientific publications can sometimes offer a patchwork coverage of space and time, depending on when that study happened. It can be hard to get aggregated information in continuous time, especially at the global scale, as that information can be managed by multiple agencies,” Saffer concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2022.101922">Computers, Environment and Urban Systems</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Tweets provide insights on how invasive insects spread

A new study led by North Carolina State University has...

A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> and <a href="https://saveourseas.com/">Save Our Seas Foundation</a> has recently sequenced the entire genomes of two species of endangered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-important-deserve-protections/">sharks</a> – the great hammerheads and the shortfin mako. The experts discovered that while low genetic diversity and signs of inbreeding ring alarm bells for the former, there may still be hope for the latter, which showed higher genetic diversity and limited interbreeding.



“With their whole genomes deciphered at high resolution we have a much better window into the evolutionary history of these endangered species,” said study senior author Mahmood Shivji, an expert in Conservation Biology at Save Our Seas.



“Technical advances in the study of genomes mean that DNA sequencing approaches are much more powerful and efficient now,” added lead author Michael Stanhope, a professor of Public and Ecosystem Health at Cornell. “We can apply these new technologies to gain insights about the organism, information that we hope can be leveraged to protect sharks and rays.”



By sequencing to chromosome level the genomes of great hammerhead and shortfin mako sharks, the scientists discovered that their populations have declined substantially over the past 250,000 years. Moreover, the DNA analysis revealed that great hammerheads have low genetic variety, which makes them less resilient to adapting to the rapidly changing world in which they live. In addition, this species also showed significant signs of interbreeding, a feature that can lower the ability of their populations to survive. By contrast, the shortfin mako shark exhibited higher genetic diversity and limited interbreeding, which could make them less threatened by environmental changes.&nbsp;



However, as revolutionary and effective as it is, genetic sequencing performed in order to improve conservation efforts poses its own problems. “Genetics has advanced such that chromosomal level genomes are the expectation for a reference quality genome for species. However, conservation research presents its own challenges to achieving this consistently and at the resolution expected in other fields,” Shivji explained.



“Obtaining tissue samples from endangered marine vertebrates is a major hurdle. You can assemble the genome with a single tissue sample from a single shark, but the ideal circumstance would be to sequence genomes from multiple individuals from different parts of their ocean range, an ethically difficult and costly endeavor.”



Thus, conservation geneticists should balance the latest technological advances with respect for the vulnerable populations that they study. Nonetheless, as new possibilities arise, insights into the genetic blueprint of sharks will help strengthen our understanding of these ecologically important species and help conserving their fragile populations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.105815">iScience</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Genetic analyses help shark conservation efforts

A team of researchers led by Cornell University and Save...

Although the seafloor is considered the final sink for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-confirms-microplastics-have-entered-our-food-chain/">microplastics</a> floating on the sea surface, the historical evolution of this major source of pollution in the sediment compartment – and especially the sequestration and burial rate of smaller microplastics on the ocean floor – has been unknown until recently. Now, a new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c04264">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a> has found that the total amount of microplastics deposited on the seafloor has tripled over the past two decades, mimicking the progression of the global plastic production from 1965 to 2016.



“Specifically, the results show that, since 2000, the amount of plastic particles deposited on the seafloor has tripled and that, far from decreasing, the accumulation has not stopped growing mimicking the production and global use of these materials,” said study lead author Laura Simon-Sánchez, a researcher at the <a href="https://portalrecerca.uab.cat/en/organisations/institute-of-environmental-science-and-technology-icta-uab">Institute of Environmental Science and Technology of the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona</a> (ICTA-UAB).



The analysis of sediments obtained in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea has revealed that the microplastics that reached the seafloor have remained unaltered since they were deposited decades ago, most likely due to lack of erosion, oxygen, and light. “The process of fragmentation takes place mostly in the beach sediments, on the sea surface or in the water column. Once deposited, degradation is minimal, so plastics from the 1960s remain on the seabed, leaving the signature of human pollution there,” explained study senior author Patrizia Ziveri, a marine biologist at ICTA-UAB.



“Since the 1980s, but especially in the past two decades, the accumulation of polyethylene and polypropylene particles from packaging, bottles, and food films has increased, as well as polyester from synthetic fibers in clothing fabrics,” added study co-author Michael Grelaud, an oceanographer at the same institute.



According to the scientists, the amount of these three types of particles reached a critical level of 1.5mg per kilogram of sediment collected, with polypropylene being the most abundant, followed by polyethylene and polyester.&nbsp;



Regardless of the increasing number of awareness campaigns on the necessity of reducing single-use plastic, data from annual marine sediment analyses show that we are very far from achieving this goal. To solve this major problem, policies at the global level addressing this issue are urgently needed in order to protect the health and functioning of a vast number of currently endangered ecosystems.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Microplastics have tripled on the seafloor in the past 20 years

Although the seafloor is considered the final sink for microplastics...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a> has found that certain species of gut-dwelling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-gut-bacteria-feed-on-complex-plant-sugars/">bacteria</a> activate nerves in the gut that promote the desire for mice to engage in physical activity. Through a series of controlled experiments, the experts identified the gut-to-brain pathway which explains why some bacteria boost exercise performance.



By recording the genome sequences, gut bacterial species, bloodstream metabolites, and other data for a large number of genetically diverse lab mice, the scientists found that differences in running performances were largely caused by the presence of certain gut bacterial species – particularly Eubacterium rectale&nbsp;and&nbsp;Coprococcus eutactus - in the higher-performing animals. These effects appeared to be triggered by small molecules called metabolites that the bacteria produce, which stimulate sensory nerves in the gut to increase activity in a motivation-controlling brain region during exercise.



The researchers analyzed the collected data using machine learning algorithms to identify attributes of the mice which could best explain the animals’ significant inter-individual differences in running performance. The investigation revealed that genetics accounted for only a surprisingly small portion of these performance differences, whereas differences in gut bacterial populations seemed to play a much larger role. In fact, they noticed that giving mice broad-spectrum antibiotics to annihilate their gut bacteria reduced their running performance by half.



Among the vast population of gut bacteria, two species - Eubacterium rectale&nbsp;and&nbsp;Coprococcus eutactus - stood out, which both produce metabolites known as fatty acid amines (FAAs) that stimulate the CB1 endocannabinoid receptors on gut-embedded sensory nerves connecting the brain via the spine. The stimulation of these receptors causes an increase in dopamine levels during exercise, in a brain area called the ventral striatum – a critical node in the brain’s reward and motivation network.



“This gut-to-brain motivation pathway might have evolved to connect nutrient availability and the state of the gut bacterial population to the readiness to engage in prolonged physical activity,” explained study co-author&nbsp;J. Nicholas Betley, an associate professor of Biology at the University of Pennsylvania. “This line of research could develop into a whole new branch of exercise physiology.”&nbsp;



“If we can confirm the presence of a similar pathway in humans, it could offer an effective way to boost people’s levels of exercise to improve public health generally,” added study senior author&nbsp;Christoph Thaiss, an assistant professor of Microbiology at the same university.



Besides offering cheap, safe, diet-based methods of getting people to exercise and optimizing elite athletes’ performance, further explorations of this pathway may help boost motivation and mood in psychological disturbances such as addiction or depression.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05525-z">Nature</a>.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Gut bacteria may boost your motivation to exercise

A new study led by the University of Pennsylvania has...

Many studies have shown the various health benefits of time-restricted eating, including increase in lifespan, making practices such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intermittent-fasting-improves-health/">intermittent fasting</a> a major topic in the welfare industry. Yet, exactly how time-restricted eating is affecting the body on a molecular level, and how such changes interact across multiple organ systems, have not been clearly understood.



Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.salk.edu/">Salk Institute for Biological Research</a> has found that, in mice, time-restricted eating influences gene expression – the process through which genes are activated and respond to their environment by creating proteins – across more than 22 regions of the body and brain. These findings could have significant implications for a wide range of health issues where time-restricted eating has shown potential benefits, including heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, or cancer.



“We found that there is a system-wide, molecular impact of time-restricted eating in mice,” said study senior author&nbsp;Satchidananda Panda, an expert in Regulatory Biology at Salk. “Our results open the door for looking more closely at how this nutritional intervention activates genes involved in specific diseases, such as cancer.”



In their experiments, the scientists fed two groups of mice the same high-calorie diet. However, while one group was given free access to the food, the other was restricted to eating within a window of nine hours per day. After seven weeks, the experts collected tissue samples from 22 organ groups and the brain – including the heart, the liver, the lungs, the adrenal gland, the hypothalamus, and various parts of the intestines - at different times during the day and night, and analyzed them to detect possible genetic changes.



The analysis revealed that 70 percent of mouse genes responded to time-restricted eating, and that almost 40 percent of genes in the adrenal gland, hypothalamus, and pancreas – which are important for hormonal regulation, safeguarding the organism from diseases such as diabetes, cancers, or stress disorders – were affected by restricting the time when the animals were allowed to eat. "By changing the timing of food, we were able to change the gene expression not just in the gut or in the liver, but also in thousands of genes in the brain,” Panda reported.



Moreover, time-restricted eating appeared to have a major role in aligning the circadian rhythms of multiple organs. “Circadian rhythms are everywhere in every cell. We found that time-restricted eating synchronized the circadian rhythms to have two major waves: one during fasting, and another just after eating. We suspect this allows the body to coordinate different processes,” Panda added.



In future research, the scientists will explore the effects of time-restricted eating on specific conditions or systems, including atherosclerosis – a hardening of the arteries which is often a precursor to heart disease and stroke – and chronic kidney disease.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2022.12.006">Cell Metabolism</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Time-restricted eating affects gene expression

Many studies have shown the various health benefits of time-restricted...

In the animal kingdom, tails come in many shapes, sizes, and strengths. For instance, the long, thick tail of a kangaroo acts as a third leg, while the rabbit’s fluffy tail is used to communicate with conspecifics. In the case of carnivores, tails often help them be more agile while hunting. Scientists have long debated whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/epigenetic-variation-predicts-behavior-in-dogs/">dogs</a>’ tails could play a similar function.



Now, by combining experimental data, mathematical modeling, and computer simulations, an international team of researchers led by the <a href="https://is.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems</a> has found that the canines’ tails play very little role in stabilization and more likely act as a communication device.



While in many mammalian carnivores, tails are very useful for balancing, counterbalancing, and sometimes gripping during climbing activities, they can play a significant role on the ground too. For instance, cheetahs use their tails for jumping stabilization and turning. But is this the case for dogs too?



“It is unknown if larger carnivorans, such as canids, can still use their tails to this effect or whether other appendages, such as head movement, must be used,” the study authors wrote. “Canidae have been shown to exhibit various tail elevations and depressions in different movement paces with many dogs walking with an upright tail whereas galloping with a tail aligned with the spinal column. However, these movements are highly complex and require long periods of dedicated practice to be able to perform them, making it an unlikely strategy for other animals. This study sought to design a complex biomechanics model to test the inertial capabilities of canidae tails.”



To clarify the role dogs’ tails play in stabilization, the scientists used data from detailed motion tracking studies of the ways dog move and jump. Then, they performed computer simulated leaps, altering the position of the tails to see whether positioning had a significant effect on the jump. The analysis shown that dogs were able to jump adroitly regardless of what their tails were doing.



“The utilizing of the tail during jumping mechanisms achieves very low amounts of center of mass movement across all species with the largest being under a single degree. We believe that this implies that dogs utilize their tails for other means, such as communication and pest control, but not for agility in maneuvers,” the scientists explained.



“Given the incredibly low angular movement the tail is imposing on the center of mass in a range of canid species, we believe at this point that the dog tail is primarily adapted for communication,” they concluded.



The study is published on the preprint server <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.12.30.522334v1.full">bioRxiv</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Dogs use their tails more for communication than movement

In the animal kingdom, tails come in many shapes, sizes,...

The first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geminid-shower-set-to-shoot-150-meteors-per-hour-at-its-peak/">meteor</a> shower of the year will light up the skies tonight, producing more than 100 shooting stars per hour. The Quadrantids are most active during their peak which will last for just a few hours leading up until dawn. By comparison, most meteor showers have a peak that lasts about two days.



"The reason the peak is so short is due to the shower's thin stream of particles and the fact that the Earth crosses the stream at a perpendicular angle," explained <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a>.



The Quadrantid shower is known for its "fireballs," which appear as brilliant explosions that leave behind long-lasting trails. According to astronomers, this is among the strongest and most consistent of all meteor showers.



While most shooting star events occur as Earth moves through debris left behind by a comet, the Quadrantids come from asteroid 2003 EH1. This near-Earth asteroid was first observed by Chinese astronomers more than 500 years ago



Because the moon is approaching a full phase, it may be difficult to see all of the shooting stars in tonight's sky. The moonlight will potentially outshine all but the brightest meteors.



The best way to locate the Quadrantids is to look north for the Big Dipper and follow the handle across the sky to the red giant star Arcturus. This star forms the bottom of the constellation Bootes - the region of the sky where the Quadrantids will appear.&nbsp;



"For the best conditions, you want to find a safe location away from street lights and other sources of light pollution," said the <a href="https://ras.ac.uk/">Royal Astronomical Society</a>. "The meteors can be seen in all parts of the sky, so it's good to be in a wide open space where you can scan the night sky with your eyes."



"In 2023, the maximum of the shower occurs just before the Full Moon, so moonlight will cause some interference."



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Quadrantid meteor shower peaks tonight

The first meteor shower of the year will light up...

In a new study led by the <a href="https://www.pitt.edu/">University of Pittsburgh</a>, experts have discovered that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-what-triggers-our-brains-to-overeat/">brains</a> rely on sight to identify a familiar voice. While listening to the voices of U.S. presidents, study participants used the same brain region to recognize both voices and faces.&nbsp;



The results suggest that voice and face recognition are more closely linked than what was previously understood.&nbsp;



“From behavioral research, we know that people can identify a familiar voice faster and more accurately when they can associate it with the speaker’s face, but we never had a good explanation of why that happens,” said study senior author Dr. Taylor Abel of the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine.&nbsp;



“In the visual cortex, specifically in the part that typically processes faces, we also see electrical activity in response to famous people’s voices, highlighting how deeply the two systems are interlinked.”&nbsp;



Neuroscientists have widely acknowledged a connection between auditory and the visual brain processing, but those systems were expected to have distinct and separate structures.&nbsp;



The study was focused on epilepsy surgery patients, who had been were temporarily implanted with electrodes that measure brain activity. The participants were presented with photographs and voice recordings of three U.S. presidents - Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama.&nbsp;



For the investigation, electrical activity was recorded in the brain region that processes visual cues, the fusiform gyri (FG). The experts found that the same brain region became active when participants heard familiar voices, even though this response was slightly delayed.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This is important because it shows that auditory and visual areas interact very early when we identify people, and that they don’t work in isolation,” said Dr. Abel. “In addition to enriching our understanding of the basic functioning of the brain, our study explains the mechanisms behind disorders where voice or face recognition is compromised, such as in some dementias or related disorders.”&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00459.2022">Journal of Neurophysiology</a>



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Brains rely on sight to identify voices

In a new study led by the University of Pittsburgh,...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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