Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

<a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">UC Riverside</a> researchers are pioneering a new approach to investigate the elusive subject of microplastics in Los Angeles County's urban waterways. With an increased focus on understanding the quantity, quality, and origins of these tiny pollutants, the team aims to shed light on their potential impacts on both the environment and human health.



Microplastics are defined as particles no larger than five millimeters in diameter, roughly the size of a pencil eraser. Within this category, nanoplastics are even smaller, with dimensions far smaller than the width of a human hair. Although scientists have been aware of these particles' presence in the environment for decades, concerns surrounding their potential effects have only recently gained momentum.



"There is mounting evidence that these materials are toxic," explained Professor Andrew Gray. Recent studies have shown that microplastics can negatively affect reproductive health, particularly in males.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-how-microplastics-harm-humans-and-ecosystems">How microplastics harm humans and ecosystems</h2>



Furthermore, small microplastics and nanoplastics have the ability to cross organ boundaries and infiltrate cell walls, potentially carrying other harmful compounds with them. These include heavy metals or PFOS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances), which are used in products like fire-fighting foams, stain-resistant fabrics, and food packaging.



Microplastics also pose threats to animals, as they can inadvertently consume the particles, leading to blockages in their airways and digestive tracts.



In an effort to better manage these pollutants in our water systems, scientists must first identify the types of plastics present and determine their sources. Gray's research group at UCR has been granted nearly $1 million from Los Angeles County's Safe Clean Water Program to uncover this critical information.



"Microplastics are a complex suite of contaminants with a wide range of particle sizes and shapes, and different ramifications for aquatic and human health," Gray said.



The research team aims to establish a baseline understanding of the microplastics present in the waterways and gain insights into how they arrived there, their discharge points, and their transportation routes through urban water systems. Gray added, "We expect that stormwater moves most of the microplastics through rivers and streams and into the coastal ocean."



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-will-work">How the study will work</h2>



The study will investigate the lower Los Angeles River, lower San Gabriel River, Ballona Creek, and the Dominguez Channel. Collaborating with LA County Public Works, the research team will collect stormwater samples from pre-established monitoring stations, which will then be analyzed in the laboratory of Professor Gray.



The primary goal of Gray's group is to use the data gathered from these four waterways to standardize the monitoring methods for microplastics in streamflow, particularly during storm conditions.&nbsp;



Additionally, the researchers aim to develop models of how plastics move through waterways, applying these models to guide monitoring efforts in other streams where stations do not yet exist, and where establishing them would be costly.



Enhanced monitoring systems have the potential to inform a range of management strategies targeted at specific compounds. For instance, Gray's laboratory has frequently identified one type of plastic in water samples that originates from tires and streets.



"We tend to think about emissions from combustion, but there are a lot of non-combustion vehicle-related emissions as well. Brakes, fluids, tires, and roads - all these things contain plastics that leach out, break down, and get washed into our waterways," explained Professor Gray. "Tires used to be relatively simple concoctions, but that is no longer the case. Today's tires are mixed with a lot of petroleum-based plastics and additives."



Tire and road particles can have toxic effects on various commercial fish species, including salmon and trout, as well as other aquatic animals. By pinpointing the entry points of these pollutants into waterways, researchers can devise strategies to reduce runoff and clean the water before it enters municipal drains and flows downstream.



<h2 id="h-strategies-to-reduce-levels-of-microplastics">Strategies to reduce levels of microplastics</h2>



There are numerous everyday strategies that consumers can adopt to decrease plastic waste, such as choosing reusable containers and items over single-use plastics. Gray also envisions a future where more pressure is applied to sectors of the economy that manufacture plastic goods.



As microplastics are often formed by the breakdown of larger plastic particles already present in the environment, the problem is likely to persist. "Even if we stop producing all plastics today, the legacy of pollution will go on for decades. But not all microplastics may be toxic, and for those that are, we have the opportunity to decrease their manufacture and impact," Gray said. "Improved monitoring will definitely help guide those efforts."



By unraveling the complexities of microplastic contamination, the UCR researchers hope to develop effective strategies for mitigating the potential risks they pose to both the environment and human health. This groundbreaking work will undoubtedly contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the consequences of microplastic pollution and inform future policy decisions to address this growing concern.



<h2 id="h-more-about-microplastics">More about microplastics</h2>



Microplastics are small plastic particles typically measuring less than 5 millimeters in diameter. They can originate from a variety of sources, such as the breakdown of larger plastic materials or the direct release of small plastic particles like microbeads found in personal care products. Microplastics can also be classified into smaller subcategories, such as nanoplastics, which are even tinier than the width of a human hair.



Microplastics pose several risks to humans, ecosystems, and the environment:



<h3 id="h-human-health-risks">Human health risks</h3>



Research has shown that microplastics can negatively affect human reproductive health, particularly in males. Additionally, microplastics and nanoplastics have the ability to cross organ boundaries and infiltrate cell walls, potentially carrying other harmful compounds like heavy metals or PFOS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) with them. These substances can accumulate in the body and cause various health problems.



<h3 id="h-harm-to-ecosystems">Harm to ecosystems</h3>



Microplastics can impact aquatic life, as they are often mistaken for food by marine and freshwater animals. This can lead to blockages in their airways and digestive tracts, and the toxins in microplastics can cause physiological stress, reproductive issues, and even death. Ingestion of microplastics by smaller organisms can also lead to bioaccumulation in the food chain, eventually impacting larger predators and human consumers.



<h3 id="h-environmental-impacts">Environmental impacts</h3>



Microplastics are pervasive in the environment, and their persistence and accumulation can result in long-term pollution. They have been found in various habitats, including oceans, rivers, lakes, soil, and even the air. The presence of microplastics in the environment also poses challenges for waste management, as they are difficult to remove from water and soil, and their degradation can take hundreds of years.



Due to their widespread presence and potential harm to humans and ecosystems, microplastics have become a growing concern for scientists, environmentalists, and policymakers. Efforts are being made to better understand their sources, movement, and impacts, as well as to develop strategies for mitigating their effects on the environment and human health.



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Microplastics: Deadly and widespread environmental pollutants

UC Riverside researchers are pioneering a new approach to investigate...

According to a recent study led by <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/">Tufts University</a>, the 2018 implementation of menu <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/calorie-restriction-makes-it-possible-to-slow-down-aging/">calorie</a> labels - mandated by the <a href="https://www.healthcare.gov/where-can-i-read-the-affordable-care-act/">Affordable Care Act</a> for all chain restaurants with 20 or more outlets - is helping Americans make healthier choices at restaurants and fast-food operations, leading to a net decrease in caloric intake by 20 to 60 calories per meal.&nbsp;



Although this reduction may not sound too significant, the experts estimated that it is sufficient to prevent over 28,000 cancer cases linked to obesity and 16,700 deaths over a lifetime, while saving $2.8 billion in healthcare and societal costs. Since obesity-related cancers currently represent 40 percent of all newly diagnosed cancer cases, helping people make healthier food choices both at home and at restaurants could be considered an important cancer prevention strategy.



“It’s important for us to continue to show consumers, policymakers, and industry how small changes can lead to big benefits,” said lead author&nbsp;Mengxi Du, a doctoral student in Nutrition Epidemiology and Data Science at Tufts. “Our population-level view suggests that these labels can be associated with substantial health gains and cancer-related healthcare cost savings that could be doubled with additional industry response, such as by replacing high-calorie menu items with lower-calorie options or reformulating recipes.”



The model developed by the research team assumes that menu calorie labels lead to one pound of weight loss per year and estimates that it increases health gains and net savings the most among young adults aged 20-44, who are recently facing a disproportionate rise in obesity-associated cancers. While Hispanic and Black individuals are also likely to see more cancer deaths averted by menu labeling, further work is needed to ensure that people of different ethnicities and socioeconomic backgrounds are equally benefiting from food labeling policies.



“People with higher education or income levels are aware of the information in menu labels and how to understand it, but we need to put some effort into education among underrepresented, low-income, or at-risk communities because we still see some disparities,” Du explained. “I think people would like to see calorie numbers when they go to a restaurant - even if menus don’t provide comprehensive nutrition information, it helps us all make quick calculations about the food we’re about to purchase.”



“From this research, we can see how labeling policies that effectively encourage consumers to make healthier dietary decisions are a form of cancer prevention - they reduce an individual’s chances of being obese and getting an obesity-associated cancer, while improving quality of life. These policies don’t require a lot of spending, especially when compared to cancer screening costs, but provide a lot of benefits,” concluded senior author&nbsp;Fang Fang Zhang, a cancer epidemiologist at Tufts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2022-063614">BMJ Open</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Menu calorie labels can help prevent thousands of cancer deaths

According to a recent study led by Tufts University, the...

A recent study conducted by <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/">UC San Francisco</a> reveals a significant reduction in the consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) in Oakland, California, following the implementation of a local soda tax. This decline is likely to contribute to improved public health and financial savings for the city. The findings support previous recommendations by the National Clinical Care Commission (NCCC) to implement a national tax on SSBs and may reignite the debate around the issue.



Published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosmedicine/">PLOS Medicine</a>, the study found that purchases of SSBs in Oakland dropped by 26.8 percent between July 2017, when the one-cent-per-ounce tax went into effect, and December 31, 2019. This decrease was in comparison to similar cities without a tax, such as Richmond, California, and Los Angeles.



The NCCC, established by Congress to provide guidance on diabetes policy, had advised the introduction of a nationwide tax on SSBs just over a year ago. However, California state legislators have prohibited new taxes on SSBs for the past five years. Existing taxes in Oakland, San Francisco, Berkeley, and Albany were permitted to remain in place.



“These results suggest SSB taxes can meaningfully improve diet and health and generate substantial cost savings over a sustained period of time, all of which support the case for a national tax on SSBs,” said study senior author Dr. Dean Schillinger.



“The American Beverage Association cornered the California legislature into passing the law barring further SSB taxes in our state. Voters now have evidence that allowing such taxes can yield significant benefits to society, and we hope that legislators at the state and national level act on these findings.”



<h2 id="h-huge-savings-on-health-care-costs-for-the-city">Huge savings on health care costs for the city</h2>



To assess the impact of the soda tax, researchers compared sugary drink purchases in Oakland to those in nearby Richmond and Los Angeles, which do not have a beverage tax. They analyzed consumer behavior in these cities in the 30 months before and after the tax went into effect on July 1, 2017.



The study also employed computer modeling to estimate the consequences of reduced SSB consumption on community health, using quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) as a measure. QALYs represent a year of perfect health and are often used to quantify the benefits of health interventions. Additionally, the researchers calculated the health care cost savings associated with preventing or controlling diseases linked to SSB consumption, such as diabetes, heart disease, stroke, and gum disease.



According to the findings, a 26.8% reduction in SSB consumption over a decade added 94 QALYs per 10,000 residents and saved Oakland more than $100,000 per 10,000 residents in health care costs. The researchers expect these gains to increase over a lifetime.&nbsp;



Furthermore, they discovered no evidence that consumers traveled to neighboring untaxed locations to purchase sugary drinks or substituted sweet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sweet-snacks-rewire-the-brain-to-prefer-unhealthy-food/">snacks</a> for taxed SSBs.



“Our estimates suggest this tax is at least as cost-effective as other widely recognized public health interventions such as smoke-free workplace policies and air pollution control measures,” noted study first author Professor Justin White.



<h2 id="h-researchers-report-additional-and-unexpected-benefits">Researchers report additional and unexpected benefits&nbsp;</h2>



The study also revealed a significant decrease in the consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) across all categories, including sweetened soda, fruit drinks, sports drinks, and sweetened teas.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that the local soda tax implemented in the city has had positive effects on public health, which may be underestimated due to the study not accounting for additional benefits from nutrition and public health programs funded by the tax revenue.



The research discovered that purchases of various types of SSBs declined significantly, with sweetened soda dropping by 23.1 percent, fruit drinks by 30.4%, sports drinks by 42.4 percent, and sweetened teas by 24.4 percent. The declines were consistent for both individual- and family-sized products and were similar in both lower-income and higher-income areas.



“Studies of other U.S. cities have found similar reductions in SSB purchases as this one,” said Dr. Schillinger. “The sustained impact of Oakland’s tax is particularly important. It suggests that, were an SSB tax to be scaled nationally, our country would enjoy better health and lower healthcare costs.”



According to Dr. Schillinger, the current findings might underestimate the health benefits of the SSB tax. He stated that the researchers "did not account for the positive impacts of the local nutrition and public health programs funded by the tax revenue in Oakland."



<h2 id="h-a-growing-trend-nationwide">A growing trend nationwide</h2>



As of 2021, seven U.S. cities and over 35 countries had implemented SSB taxes to reduce the risk of diet-sensitive chronic diseases and increase government revenue for health promotion initiatives.



Past research has shown that consuming sugar-sweetened beverages is linked to a higher risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. In fact, a recent UCSF study found that SSB taxes in five cities, including Oakland, significantly lowered the risk of diabetes and unhealthy weight gain in pregnant mothers and reduced the risk of having an overly small fetus.



While previous studies have established that SSB taxes lead to fewer purchases and reduced intake of SSBs in the short term, this study is among the first to examine sustained declines alongside other purchasing behavior, such as "substitute" purchases of sweet snacks. It is also the first study to evaluate cost-effectiveness in relation to SSB taxes.



This research contributes valuable insights into the potential benefits of SSB taxes in promoting public health and reducing the risks associated with chronic diet-sensitive diseases. As more cities and countries adopt similar measures, the findings of this study may play an essential role in shaping future policies and strategies aimed at decreasing SSB consumption and promoting healthier lifestyles.



<h2 id="h-health-impact-of-sugar-heavy-diets">Health impact of sugar-heavy diets</h2>



Sugar-heavy diets can have numerous negative health impacts on humans and pose a significant burden on the health care system. Some of the key health issues associated with excessive sugar consumption include:



<h3 id="h-obesity">Obesity</h3>



Consuming excessive amounts of added sugars, particularly in the form of sugar-sweetened beverages and processed foods, can lead to weight gain and an increased risk of obesity. Obesity is associated with numerous health problems, such as heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and certain types of cancer.



<h3 id="h-type-2-diabetes">Type 2 diabetes</h3>



High sugar consumption can lead to insulin resistance, a major risk factor for type 2 diabetes. Over time, this can cause elevated blood sugar levels, which can damage organs, blood vessels, and nerves, leading to further health complications.



<h3 id="h-cardiovascular-disease">Cardiovascular disease</h3>



Diets high in added sugars have been linked to an increased risk of developing heart disease, the leading cause of death worldwide. Excessive sugar intake can lead to high blood pressure, increased levels of unhealthy cholesterol (LDL), and inflammation, all of which contribute to the development of cardiovascular disease.



<h3 id="h-dental-caries-cavities">Dental caries (cavities)</h3>



Sugary foods and drinks promote the growth of harmful bacteria in the mouth, which can lead to tooth decay and cavities. Poor dental health can also contribute to other health issues, such as gum disease and tooth loss.



<h3 id="h-non-alcoholic-fatty-liver-disease-nafld">Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)</h3>



Excessive sugar intake, particularly in the form of fructose, can lead to fat accumulation in the liver, resulting in NAFLD. This condition can progress to more severe liver diseases, such as non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), cirrhosis, and liver cancer.



<h3 id="h-metabolic-syndrome">Metabolic syndrome</h3>



High sugar consumption has been linked to the development of metabolic syndrome, a cluster of conditions that increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes. These conditions include high blood pressure, elevated blood sugar levels, excess body fat around the waist, and abnormal cholesterol levels.



<h2 id="h-impact-on-the-health-care-system">Impact on the health care system</h2>



The increased prevalence of obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and other conditions related to sugar-heavy diets places a significant burden on the health care system. This includes higher health care costs, increased demand for medical services and resources, and a greater need for chronic disease management and prevention programs.



Additionally, the economic impact of lost productivity due to illness, disability, and premature death associated with sugar-related health issues can be substantial. To address these challenges, health care systems must invest in public health initiatives, such as educational campaigns, nutritional guidelines, and policies aimed at reducing sugar consumption and promoting healthier lifestyles.



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Sugar drink taxes dramatically improve overall health in cities

A recent study conducted by UC San Francisco reveals a...

Group,Of,Vikings,Are,Floating,On,The,Sea,On,Drakkar

A groundbreaking study conducted by archaeologists from the <a href="https://english.hi.is/university_of_iceland">University of Iceland</a> has uncovered evidence that Vikings arrived in the Americas 500 years before Christopher Columbus, who is often credited with the discovery of the continent in 1492.&nbsp;



The study, recently published in the journal <a href="https://antiquity.ac.uk/">Antiquity</a>, analyzed wood samples from five Norse sites in western Greenland, occupied between 1000 and 1400.



The researchers were able to identify the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neem-tree-bark-has-the-potential-to-treat-coronaviruses/">tree</a> species that many of the samples originated from, revealing that some of the wood had been imported from both the Americas and Europe. In particular, they found that hemlock and Jack pine, which were not grown in northern Europe during the second millennium, must have been brought across the Atlantic.&nbsp;



This discovery supports some Viking sagas - stories passed down through Viking societies - which suggest that explorers imported timber from "Vínland," a coastal area of North America believed to be along the Gulf of St. Lawrence.



Jack pine grows naturally around the Mackenzie River, Nova Scotia, and New England, while hemlock can be found near Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Ontario, and Nova Scotia.&nbsp;



"These findings highlight the fact that Norse Greenlanders had the means, knowledge and appropriate vessels to cross the Davis Strait to the east coast of North America, at least up until the fourteenth century," wrote the researchers. "As such, journeys were being made from Greenland to North America throughout the entirety of the period of Norse settlement in Greenland, and resources were being acquired by the Norse from North America for far longer than previously thought."



Many historical records suggest that Vikings living in Greenland between 985 and 1450 relied on imported materials, such as iron and wood, for large building projects, shipbuilding, and artifact production. Local tree species were not adequate for these purposes.&nbsp;



To determine the proportion of foreign wood used by Vikings and its origins, the researchers collected samples from wood assemblages in four medium-sized elite farms and a bishop's manor, which were known to have been occupied in the first half of the second millennium through radiocarbon dating and the types of artifacts found there.



The experts used microscopes to examine the cellular structure of the wood and identify the tree species they came from. Their analysis revealed that 0.27 per cent of the samples came from imported species, either from North America or northern Europe.&nbsp;



Some of the European species, including oak, beech, and Scots pine, might have been old ship timber or arrived as ready-made artifacts. The analysis also found that a quarter of the samples were either imported or arrived in Greenland as driftwood, with species including larch, spruce, Scots pine, and fir. Driftwood, along with timber from local woodlands, was used as fuel and for other domestic purposes.



The results confirm that the Vikings had established numerous trading routes across the northwestern Atlantic Ocean and corroborate the sagas which claim that explorers, like Leif Erikson - who is thought to have been the first European to set foot on the continent - brought timber back from Vínland.&nbsp;



In 2021, a study of wooden artifacts from L'Anse Aux Meadows in Newfoundland, Canada, reached the same conclusion. The area was first thought to be a Norse site in 1960, based on evidence of cutting and slicing on the wood by metal blades, which were not produced by the Indigenous population.&nbsp;



Researchers from the University of Groningen found that this wood dated back to the year 1021, a full 471 years before Columbus arrived in the Americas.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-vikings">More about the Vikings</h2>



Aside from the groundbreaking discoveries regarding the Vikings' presence in the Americas, their early transatlantic voyages, and their extensive trade networks, the Vikings also left a lasting impact in other areas. Some of their other achievements and contributions include:



<h3 id="h-shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</h3>



Vikings were known for their advanced shipbuilding techniques, which allowed them to sail across vast distances and navigate diverse waterways. Their iconic longships were fast, agile, and had shallow drafts, enabling them to travel both on open seas and along river systems.



<h3 id="h-navigation">Navigation</h3>



The Vikings were skilled navigators, relying on their knowledge of the stars, ocean currents, and other natural cues. They used tools like the sunstone, which helped them determine the position of the sun even on cloudy days, to help guide their voyages.



<h3 id="h-settlements">Settlements</h3>



The Vikings established numerous settlements across Europe and the North Atlantic, reaching as far as Iceland, Greenland, and the aforementioned North American sites. These settlements often included farming communities, trading posts, and centers of political power.



<h3 id="h-language-and-literature">Language and Literature</h3>



The Vikings' language, Old Norse, evolved into several modern Scandinavian languages, including Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, and Icelandic. They also produced a rich body of literature, including the sagas, which are a mix of history, myth, and legend, as well as the Poetic Edda and Prose Edda, which contain a wealth of Norse mythology.



<h3 id="h-art-and-craftsmanship">Art and Craftsmanship</h3>



Viking art, characterized by intricate designs and patterns, is still admired today. They were skilled craftsmen, working with materials like wood, metal, and textiles to create functional and decorative objects.



<h3 id="h-runes">Runes</h3>



The Vikings used a writing system called runes, which they carved into stone, metal, and wood. Runes were used for various purposes, including communication, memorial inscriptions, and magical or religious symbolism.



<h2 id="h-influence-on-european-history">Influence on European History</h2>



The Viking Age, spanning from the late 8th to the early 11th century, significantly influenced European history. Vikings played a role in the formation of several European nations, including England, Scotland, and Russia, through their settlements, conquests, and interactions with local populations.



In conclusion, the Vikings' legacy extends far beyond their early arrival in the Americas. They made significant advancements in shipbuilding, navigation, and other areas, established settlements across vast distances, and influenced the development of modern European nations.&nbsp;



Their rich cultural heritage, including their language, literature, art, and craftsmanship, continues to captivate people today.



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Vikings landed in the Americas 500 years before Columbus

A groundbreaking study conducted by archaeologists from the University of...

Understanding the factors that limit an animal's traveling speed is essential to comprehend their movement patterns, survival strategies, and adaptability in the face of climate change.&nbsp;



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.idiv.de/en/index.html">German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research</a> (iDiv) and the Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Germany, have discovered a key relationship between animal size and traveling speed, as well as the role of heat dissipation. The study, led by Alexander Dyer, was published on April 18th in the open-access journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001820">PLOS Biology</a>.



The capacity of an animal to travel is critical for its survival, as it determines its ability to migrate, find food and mates, and expand into new territories. In an increasingly human-dominated world, the challenges of fragmented habitats, limited food and water resources, and a changing climate make understanding these factors even more pressing.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



To examine the relationship between animal size and traveling speed, Dyer and his colleagues developed a model using data from 532 species. Although it might be assumed that larger animals, with longer wings, legs, or tails, would be able to travel faster, the research team discovered that medium-sized animals typically demonstrate the fastest sustained speeds.



The researchers believe that this is because larger animals require more time to dissipate the heat generated by their muscles while moving. Consequently, these animals must travel more slowly to avoid overheating. The team concludes that an animal's traveling speed can be explained by jointly considering how efficiently it utilizes energy and sheds heat.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



"The new study provides a way to understand animal movement capacities across species and can be used to estimate any animal’s traveling speed based on its size. For example, this approach can be applied to predict whether an animal might be able to move between habitats fragmented by human development, even when the details of its biology are unknown," said Dyer.



The researchers anticipate that larger animals may be more vulnerable to the effects of habitat fragmentation in a warming climate than previously thought, making them more prone to extinction. Dr. Myriam Hirt, the study's last author from iDiv and the University of Jena, acknowledges that further investigation is necessary to confirm these suspicions.&nbsp;



This research could provide crucial insights into the conservation efforts needed to protect species affected by habitat fragmentation and climate change.



<h2 id="h-more-about-animals-and-traveling-speed">More about animals and traveling speed</h2>



While the aforementioned study provides valuable insights into the relationship between animal size and traveling speed, there are other factors and aspects worth considering.&nbsp;



Large animals have certain advantages and disadvantages when it comes to their traveling speed, which are influenced by various biological, physiological, and ecological factors.



<h3 id="h-body-structure">Body structure</h3>



The biomechanics of large animals, including their muscle strength, leg length, and overall body design, can influence their traveling speed. For instance, long-legged animals like giraffes or elephants can cover greater distances with each stride. However, their size and mass can also limit their acceleration, making them slower to reach their top speed compared to smaller animals.



<h3 id="h-metabolic-rate">Metabolic rate</h3>



Large animals typically have lower metabolic rates compared to smaller ones. As a result, they may not need to travel as fast to obtain the necessary energy and resources for survival. This could partly explain why larger animals don't travel as fast as might be expected based on their size alone.



<h3 id="h-energy-conservation">Energy conservation</h3>



Large animals may opt for slower traveling speeds to conserve energy. Traveling at high speeds can be energetically costly, so maintaining a slower pace can help them preserve energy for essential activities like foraging, mating, and escaping predators.



<h3 id="h-terrain">Terrain</h3>



The type of terrain that large animals inhabit can affect their traveling speed. For example, large animals living in dense forests may have difficulty navigating through tight spaces and obstacles, while those living in open grasslands or savannahs may be able to move more freely and rapidly.



<h3 id="h-predation-and-escape-strategies">Predation and escape strategies</h3>



Large animals often have fewer natural predators, which could reduce the need for high-speed escapes. Instead, they may rely on their strength, size, or social behavior to deter predators.



<h3 id="h-locomotion-type">Locomotion type</h3>



The mode of locomotion used by large animals can also impact their traveling speed. For example, large aquatic animals, like whales, can achieve considerable speeds in water due to their streamlined bodies and powerful tails. However, large terrestrial animals like elephants may not be as efficient in terms of their speed.



Understanding the factors that govern the traveling speed of large animals is essential for ecological studies, wildlife conservation, and predicting how these species will respond to environmental changes. Further research in this area could help refine our understanding of the relationship between animal size and traveling speed, as well as the consequences for species conservation and management.



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Large animals travel slowly because they get too hot

Understanding the factors that limit an animal's traveling speed is...

Researchers at the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> have developed an innovative optimization framework that could dramatically reduce the energy demands of training deep learning models, a critical tool in powering artificial intelligence systems.&nbsp;



The open-source optimization framework, called Zeus, studies deep learning models during the training process to identify the optimal balance between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-energy-do-plants-use-to-lift-water-from-the-soil/">energy</a> consumption and training speed.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/zeus-comparison-graph.png" alt="" class="wp-image-1916974"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A variety of common deep learning models benefit from Zeus' ability to tune GPU power limits and the training batch size. When both parameters were tuned, the software achieved up to 75% energy reduction.&nbsp; Credit: SymbioticLab, University of Michigan</figcaption></figure>



Deep learning models have seen a surge in popularity in recent years, powering a range of applications from image-generation models and expressive chatbots to recommender systems for platforms like TikTok and Amazon. However, the energy consumption associated with training these models is substantial and has significant environmental implications.&nbsp;



"At extreme scales, training the GPT-3 model just once consumes 1,287 MWh, which is enough to supply an average U.S. household for 120 years," said Professor Mosharaf Chowdhury.



<h2 id="h-the-researchers-goals">The researchers' goals</h2>



With the new Zeus energy optimization framework, Chowdhury and his team aim to reduce energy consumption figures like these by up to 75 percent without the need for new hardware and with only minor impacts on the time it takes to train a model. The framework was presented at the 2023 USENIX Symposium on Networked Systems Design and Implementation (NSDI) in Boston.



As cloud computing continues to grow and outpace the emissions of commercial aviation, the increased climate burden from artificial intelligence is a pressing concern.&nbsp;



"Existing work primarily focuses on optimizing deep learning training for faster completion, often without considering the impact on energy efficiency," said study first author Jae-Won Chung, a doctoral student in computer science and engineering.



"We discovered that the energy we're pouring into GPUs is giving diminishing returns, which allows us to reduce energy consumption significantly, with relatively little slowdown."



<h2 id="h-why-ai-training-consumes-so-much-energy">Why AI training consumes so much energy</h2>



Deep learning is a subset of machine learning that relies on multilayered, artificial neural networks, also known as deep neural networks (DNNs), to tackle a wide array of tasks. These models are highly complex and learn from some of the largest data sets ever used in machine learning.&nbsp;



As a result, they benefit significantly from the multitasking capabilities of graphical processing units (GPUs), which account for 70 percent of the power consumed during the training process.



Zeus achieves this optimization by adjusting two critical software parameters in real-time: the GPU power limit and the deep learning model's batch size. The GPU power limit controls the energy consumption of the GPU, reducing it while temporarily slowing down the model's training until the setting is adjusted again.&nbsp;



The batch size parameter, on the other hand, determines how many samples from the training data the model processes before updating its internal representations. Higher batch sizes can decrease training time but at the cost of increased energy consumption.



The unique ability of Zeus to tune these settings in real time allows it to find the optimal tradeoff point between energy usage and training time. According to Jie You, a recent doctoral graduate in computer science and engineering and co-lead author of the study, the repetitive nature of machine learning enables Zeus to learn about the DNN's behavior across different recurrences, making it highly effective in practice.



<h2 id="h-what-makes-zeus-better-than-other-options">What makes Zeus better than other options</h2>



Zeus stands out as the first framework designed to integrate seamlessly into existing workflows for various machine learning tasks and GPUs. This innovative solution reduces energy consumption without necessitating changes to a system's hardware or data center infrastructure.



To further reduce the carbon footprint of DNN training, the team has also developed complementary software called Chase. This software prioritizes speed when low-carbon energy is available and opts for efficiency at the expense of speed during peak times, which are more likely to involve carbon-intensive energy generation like coal.&nbsp;



Chase won second place at last year's CarbonHack hackathon and will be presented on May 4 at the International Conference on Learning Representations Workshop.



Study co-author Zhenning Yang emphasized the need for solutions that don't conflict with the realistic constraints of DNN training, such as data regulations or the requirement for up-to-date data.&nbsp;



"Our aim is to design and implement solutions that do not conflict with these realistic constraints, while still reducing the carbon footprint of DNN training," Yang said.



Zeus represents a groundbreaking step forward in addressing the energy efficiency concerns associated with training deep learning models. By optimizing the tradeoff between energy consumption and training speed, the framework has the potential to significantly reduce the environmental impact of artificial intelligence systems without sacrificing performance.



The study was supported in part by the National Science Foundation grants CNS-1909067 and CNS-2104243, VMWare and the Kwanjeong Educational Foundation, and computing credits provided by CloudLab and Chameleon Cloud. As the AI industry continues to grow, frameworks like Zeus and software like Chase can play a crucial role in promoting sustainability and minimizing the environmental impact of AI technologies.



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Tech breakthrough cuts carbon footprint of AI training by 75 percent

Researchers at the University of Michigan have developed an innovative...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> (UCL) has found that individuals living with long Covid who suffer from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-loss-of-smell-linked-to-abnormal-immune-response/">loss of smell</a> (anosmia) have reduced brain activity and impaired communication between the orbitofrontal cortex and the prefrontal cortex, two areas of the brain which process important smell information.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that smell loss caused by long Covid is associated with a change in the brain that stops smells from being processed properly.



The experts used MRI scans to compare the brain activity of individuals with long Covid experiencing anosmia, those whose smell returned after their Covid infection, and people who never tested positive for Covid.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that, although the brain impairment of people with long Covid suffering from loss of smell seemed quite persistent, in those who regained their sense of smell after Covid, the connection between the two brain areas was not impaired. This finding suggests that it may be possible to retrain the brain to recover its sense of smell.



“Persistent loss of smell is just one way long Covid is still impacting people’s quality of life – smell is something we take for granted, but it guides us in lots of ways and is closely tied to our overall wellbeing,” said lead author Jed Wingrove, a neuroimaging scientist and data analyst at UCL. “Our study gives reassurance that, for the majority of people whose sense of smell comes back, there are no permanent changes to brain activity.”



&nbsp;“Our findings highlight the impact Covid-19 is having on brain function. They raise the intriguing possibility that olfactory training – that is, retraining the brain to process different scents – could help the brain to recover lost pathways, and help people with long Covid recover their sense of smell,” added joint senior author Claudia Wheeler-Kingshott, a professor of Magnetic Resonance Physics at the UCL Institute of Neurology.



The researchers also discovered that the brains of people with long Covid smell loss might be compensating for this lost sensorial capacity by creating neuronal connections with other sensory regions of the brain, such as the visual cortex, suggesting that the neurons which would normally process smell are still there, but are functioning in a different way.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2023.101883">EClinicalMedicine</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Covid smell loss linked to changes in brain connectivity

A new study led by the University College London (UCL)...

As we grow older, it is an unfortunate reality that our cognitive abilities gradually decline. The loss of brain plasticity and a decrease in grey matter, where our neurons are located, are linked to this decline. Scientists have long been searching for ways to delay this cognitive decline in healthy seniors. 



A recent breakthrough study led by a team from the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/">University of Geneva</a> (UNIGE), HES-SO Geneva, and EPFL has found that practicing and listening to music can help slow down this process by stimulating the production of grey matter.



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ynirp.2023.100166">NeuroImage: Reports</a>, the study investigated the potential benefits of music practice and active listening on cognitive functions, specifically working memory, in healthy retirees who had never practiced music before.&nbsp;



Working <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/digital-devices-can-actually-improve-our-memory-skills/">memory</a> is a core cognitive process that allows us to briefly retain and manipulate information to achieve a goal. Remembering a telephone number long enough to write it down or translating a sentence from a foreign language are examples.



The research team followed 132 healthy retirees, aged 62 to 78. The subjects had not taken any music lessons for more than six months in their lives. The researchers enrolled these participants in piano and music awareness training for a period of six months.



The results demonstrated that engaging in these activities promoted brain plasticity, which led to an increase in grey matter volume. The researchers also observed positive impacts on working memory.



Throughout our lives, our brain constantly remodels itself. Brain morphology and connections change according to the environment and our experiences. One example of this is when we learn new skills or recover from a stroke. However, as we age, this "brain plasticity" decreases, leading to "brain atrophy," or the loss of grey matter.



<h2 id="h-practicing-vs-listening-to-music">Practicing vs. listening to music</h2>



‘‘We wanted people whose brains did not yet show any traces of plasticity linked to musical learning. Indeed, even a brief learning experience in the course of one’s life can leave imprints on the brain, which would have biased our results," explained study first author Damien Marie, a research associate at the CIBM Center for Biomedical Imaging, the Faculty of Medicine and the Interfaculty Center for Affective Sciences (CISA) of UNIGE, as well as at the Geneva School of Health Sciences.



Researchers divided the participants into two groups. One group took piano lessons while the other engaged in active listening sessions. The active listening group focused on instrument recognition and analysis of musical properties across a wide range of musical styles. The researchers required both groups to attend one-hour classes and do half an hour of homework daily.



<h2 id="h-positive-impact-found-for-both-groups">Positive impact found for both groups</h2>



‘‘After six months, we found common effects for both interventions. Neuroimaging revealed an increase in grey matter in four brain regions involved in high-level cognitive functioning in all participants, including cerebellum areas involved in working memory. Their performance increased by six percent and this result was directly correlated to the plasticity of the cerebellum,’’ said study last author Clara James, a privat-docent at the Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences of UNIGE.



Interestingly, the researchers discovered that the quality of sleep, the number of lessons attended, and the daily training quantity positively influenced the degree of improvement in performance.



However, the researchers observed differences between the two groups. For the group of pianists, the volume of grey matter remained stable in the right primary auditory cortex. This is a key region for sound processing. In contrast, the active listening group experienced a decrease in grey matter volume in the same area.



"In addition, a global brain pattern of atrophy was present in all participants. Therefore, we cannot conclude that musical interventions rejuvenate the brain. They only prevent aging in specific regions," explained Marie.



The findings of this study open up new possibilities for promoting healthy aging and supporting cognitive functions in older adults. By engaging in music practice and active listening, seniors can help preserve their working memory and potentially slow down the decline of other cognitive processes as well.



The researchers from UNIGE, HES-SO Geneva, and EPFL have provided valuable insights into the potential benefits of music training on cognitive decline in healthy seniors. As the global population continues to age, these findings are promising. They offer exciting prospects for maintaining cognitive health and promoting well-being in our later years.



<h2 id="h-more-about-music-and-the-mind">More about music and the mind</h2>



People have long recognized music for its ability to evoke emotions and influence various aspects of human brain functioning. Researchers have conducted numerous studies over the years to understand the underlying mechanisms and the extent of music's impact on the brain. Some key findings include:



<h3 id="h-emotional-processing">Emotional processing</h3>



Music can elicit strong emotional responses, such as joy, sadness, and relaxation. The emotional impact of music is believed to be linked to the release of neurotransmitters like dopamine. This chemical plays a role in the brain's reward system, and serotonin, which contributes to feelings of happiness and well-being.



<h3 id="h-memory-and-learning">Memory and learning</h3>



Studies have shown that listening to music can improve memory retention and learning in various tasks. This is partly due to music's ability to enhance the encoding of information and improve cognitive performance. Familiar music can also trigger memories. This trick makes it an effective tool in therapies for patients with Alzheimer's disease or other forms of dementia.



<h3 id="h-spatial-temporal-skills">Spatial-temporal skills</h3>



Research has found that engaging in musical activities, such as playing an instrument or listening to certain types of music, can enhance spatial-temporal skills. These skills are essential for solving complex problems and understanding abstract concepts.



<h3 id="h-stress-reduction-and-relaxation">Stress reduction and relaxation</h3>



Listening to music can have a calming effect on the mind and body. Studies have demonstrated that music can lower cortisol levels. Cortisol is associated with stress, and increase the release of endorphins, the body's natural "feel-good" chemicals.



<h3 id="h-brain-connectivity-and-neuroplasticity">Brain connectivity and neuroplasticity</h3>



Music training and practice have been shown to promote brain connectivity and neuroplasticity. Learning to play an instrument can enhance motor skills and auditory processing, and boost cognitive functions such as attention and memory. As seen in the previously mentioned study, music can also help maintain brain plasticity in older adults, potentially slowing cognitive decline.



<h3 id="h-pain-management">Pain management</h3>



Music has been used as a complementary therapy for pain management in various settings. Listening to music can distract the brain from pain, lower anxiety, and create a more positive emotional state, making it easier to cope with discomfort.



<h3 id="h-mood-regulation">Mood regulation</h3>



Music can be an effective tool for regulating mood and promoting emotional well-being. By selecting music that resonates with our emotional state or the emotions we want to experience, we can influence our mood and maintain emotional balance.



In summary, music has a profound impact on human emotions and brain functioning. It can elicit powerful emotional responses, enhance cognitive performance, promote relaxation, and even help manage pain. The ability of music to influence the brain and emotions has led to its integration into various therapies and interventions for mental health and well-being.



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Music can prevent brain aging and cognitive decline

As we grow older, it is an unfortunate reality that...

Poly-Chlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) continue to persist in the environment, despite most countries banning them since the 1970s. They pose a significant threat to both human and marine life. 



In a groundbreaking study, deep-sea researchers have recently discovered traces of PCBs at the bottom of the Atacama Trench in the Pacific Ocean. This startling discovery highlights the far-reaching effects of human activities on even the most remote and isolated ecosystems.



The research team, consisting of scientists from the Department of Environmental Science at <a href="https://www.su.se/english/search-courses-and-programmes">Stockholm University</a> and the Danish Center for Hadal Research at the <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en">University of Southern Denmark</a>, conducted an expedition to the Atacama Trench to study its sediment layers.



After retrieving sediment cores from five different locations within the trench, they found that all of the surface sediment samples analyzed contained PCBs.



The study, led by Professor Anna Sobek and Professor Ronnie N. Glud, has been published in the prestigious scientific journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37718-z">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-are-pcbs">What are PCBs?</h2>



In the 1930s, chemists initially introduced PCBs primarily in building materials and technical components. These substances comprise 209 different components. Most countries have banned PCBs and classified them as a highly persistent environmental toxin. This is due to their potential to cause cancer and reproductive harm.



Although the world's production of PCBs significantly declined in the 1970s, these substances still pose an ongoing environmental threat. In 2018, researchers found that half of the world's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killer-whales-are-accumulating-high-levels-of-contaminants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">killer whale populations were weakened by PCB exposure</a>. Moreover, another study reported that deep-sea scavenging amphipods contained large amounts of PCBs.



Professor Glud has participated in more than ten expeditions to deep-sea trenches worldwide. He commented on the significance of their findings: "It is thought-provoking that we find traces of human activity at the bottom of a deep-sea trench; a place that most people probably perceive as distant and isolated from our society."



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-have-learned">What the researchers have learned</h2>



Surface-level human activities can affect deep-sea trenches, as these expeditions have shown by dispelling the misconception. They have also revealed a surprisingly rich, active, and diverse ecosystem at the ocean's greatest depths. 



Moreover, the studies have demonstrated that deep-sea trenches accumulate large amounts of organic material. This contributes to the oceans' capacity to absorb atmospheric carbon released through fossil fuel burning.



However, not only organic material accumulates in these hadal trenches. In 2021, the Danish Center for Hadal Research reported that mercury accumulates in the sediments of these trenches. In 2022, researchers announced that black carbon also accumulates in these deep-sea environments, similarly to PCBs. The combustion of fossil fuels primarily forms black carbon.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/sediment-core_Atacama-trench_PCBs_SDU_1medium.png" alt="A sediment core containing PCBs from the Atacama trench. Credit SDU" class="wp-image-1916951"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A sediment core containing PCBs from the Atacama trench. Credit SDU</figcaption></figure>



<h2 id="h-not-yet-time-to-panic">Not yet time to panic</h2>



Although the recent discovery of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-banned-toxic-chemicals-remain-a-global-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Poly-Chlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)</a> in the Atacama Trench has raised concerns, Professor Glud assures that the concentration of these pollutants in the trench's samples is not alarmingly high. He points out that researchers have found much higher concentrations of PCBs in places like the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Tokyo Bay. Concentrations there range from 300 to 1500 times higher than those found in the Atacama Trench.



“These are places with a lot of human activity, so one would expect that. The Atacama samples do not show very high concentrations, but considering that they were retrieved from the bottom of a deep-sea trench, they are relatively high. A priori no one would expect to find pollutants in such a place," said Professor Glud.



PCBs are hydrophobic, meaning they are not very soluble in water. They tend to bind to organic material that sinks to the bottom. Professor Anna Sobek explains that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/three-new-species-discovered-pacific/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atacama Trench</a> is located in an area with relatively high production of plankton in surface waters. As the plankton dies, it sinks to the ocean floor. Large amounts of material descend down the steep slopes. They then deposit in the trench's deepest areas.



Microorganisms eventually decompose the organic material that reaches the bottom of the Atacama Trench. This causes PCBs to accumulate in the sediment. Over time, PCBs slowly redeposit as persistent compounds. This is why researchers can find increasing concentrations of PCBs in remote areas like the hadal trenches, even though most countries largely banned them worldwide in the 1970s.



“Unlike coastal areas where PCB concentrations are typically higher in deeper sediment layers deposited 50 years ago, PCB concentrations in hadal sediments are highest in the upper sediment layers, indicating that PCBs have only recently reached the deeper trenches and that concentrations have not yet peaked: We may see higher concentrations in a few years," said Professor Glud.



<h2 id="h-about-the-deep-sea-trenches-where-pcbs-were-found">About the deep-sea trenches where PCBs were found</h2>



The deep-sea trenches are home to various microorganisms and animals that have adapted to the extreme living conditions. It is possible that these trenches also harbor organisms capable of metabolizing the pollutants deposited there. This is one of the focus points of the Danish Center for Hadal Research. Researchers there have a stock of frozen sediment samples collected from expeditions to different deep-sea trenches in 2021 and 2022.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Ocean-depth-graphic_1medium.jpg" alt="Different layers of ocean depths where PCBs were found" class="wp-image-1916955"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Different layers of ocean depths where PCBs were found</figcaption></figure>



“We are interested in finding out if PCBs are also present in other deep-sea trenches or if they are unique to the Atacama Trench. We also want to investigate the bacteria that live down there and learn more about their function," said Professor Glud.



The deep-sea trenches are located in the hadal zone of the ocean, which lies at depths of 6-11 km. There are about 27 hadal trenches, named after the Greek god Hades, who ruled the underworld. As researchers continue to explore these remote and mysterious environments, they aim to better understand the impact of pollutants like PCBs on these ecosystems and the organisms that inhabit them.



The discovery of PCBs in the Atacama Trench serves as a stark reminder of the pervasive and long-lasting consequences of human activities on even the most remote ecosystems. This research underscores the importance of continued monitoring and mitigation efforts. With consistent effort, they hope to reduce the impact of environmental toxins on the planet's most vulnerable habitats.



<h2 id="h-more-about-pcbs">More about PCBs</h2>



Poly-Chlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are a group of man-made organic chemicals consisting of 209 different substances, also known as congeners. They were first produced in the 1930s and used in a variety of industrial and commercial applications. PCBs were popular due to their chemical stability, low flammability, and insulating properties. 



Common uses included electrical transformers and capacitors, coolants, flame retardants, plasticizers, adhesives, and as additives in paints, sealants, and caulking.



<h2 id="h-pcbs-are-harmful-to-both-humans-and-the-environment-for-several-reasons">PCBs are harmful to both humans and the environment for several reasons:</h2>



<h3 id="h-persistence">Persistence</h3>



PCBs are extremely stable and resistant to breaking down in the environment. As a result, they persist for long periods, allowing them to bioaccumulate in plants, animals, and humans. Even though many countries have banned PCB production since the 1970s, they still pose a threat to ecosystems and human health due to their persistence.



<h3 id="h-bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</h3>



PCBs accumulate in the fatty tissues of living organisms, a process called bioaccumulation. As these chemicals move up the food chain, they become more concentrated, posing a greater risk to top predators and humans who consume contaminated food.



<h3 id="h-toxicity">Toxicity</h3>



Researchers have shown that PCBs can cause a range of adverse health effects in both humans and animals. PCBs are carcinogenic (cancer-causing). They can also affect the immune, reproductive, nervous, and endocrine systems. Long-term exposure to PCBs may lead to developmental issues in children, memory and learning problems, and other neurological disorders.



<h3 id="h-environmental-impact">Environmental impact</h3>



Due to their persistence and bioaccumulation, PCBs can cause significant harm to ecosystems, impacting the health of various plant and animal species. The contamination of water bodies, soil, and air can lead to the death of aquatic life, reduced reproductive success in birds and mammals, and disruption of entire ecosystems.



The discovery of PCBs' harmful effects on human health and the environment led to a widespread ban on their production and use in many countries. However, the long-lasting nature of these chemicals means that they continue to pose a threat, and ongoing research and monitoring efforts are necessary to assess and mitigate their impacts.



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Shocking: Deepest parts of the ocean polluted with PCB chemicals

Poly-Chlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) continue to persist in the environment, despite...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">University of California, Riverside</a> (UCR) have discovered that wildfires are releasing a massive amount of methane gas into the atmosphere. Methane is a greenhouse gas much more potent than carbon dioxide. This source of methane was previously unaccounted for. It could make it challenging for states to achieve their cleaner air and climate goals.



Methane gas is known to warm the planet 86 times more effectively than carbon dioxide over a 20-year period. It is currently not being tracked by state air quality managers when it comes to emissions from wildfires. This omission could have significant implications for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-whales-help-mitigate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change mitigation</a> efforts.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-breaking-amount-of-co2-released-by-wildfires-in-2021/">Wildfires</a> have long been known to emit methane gas. A new study conducted by UCR researchers reveals that the amount of methane released by the top 20 fires in 2020 was more than seven times the average from wildfires in the previous 19 years. This significant increase in emissions has been linked to the growing size and intensity of fires.



“Fires are getting bigger and more intense, and correspondingly, more emissions are coming from them," explained study co-author Professor Francesca Hopkins. She added that the fires in 2020 would have accounted for 14 percent of the state's methane budget, had they been tracked.



<h2>Monitoring sources of methane gas</h2>



Currently, the state does not monitor natural sources of methane gas, such as those produced by wildfires. However, the 2020 wildfires would have ranked as the third biggest source of methane in the state. 



Professor Hopkins emphasized the importance of addressing these emissions, stating: “Typically, these sources have been hard to measure, and it’s questionable whether they’re under our control. But we have to try. They’re offsetting what we’re trying to reduce.”



In the past, scientists measured emissions by analyzing air samples collected from wildfires using aircraft. However, this method is both costly and complex. The UCR research team, however, employed a remote sensing technique to measure emissions from the Sequoia Lightning Fire Complex in the Sierra Nevadas. This remote sensing method is not only safer for scientists but also potentially more accurate. It captures an integrated plume from the fire, including different burning phases.



The novel technique, detailed in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-4521-2023">Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics</a>, allowed lead author and UCR environmental sciences Ph.D. student Isis Frausto-Vicencio to safely measure the entire plume of gas and debris from the Sequoia Lightning Fire Complex from 40 miles away.



“The plume, or atmospheric column, is like a mixed signal of the whole fire, capturing the active as well as the smoldering phases," said Professor Hopkins. “That makes these measurements unique.”



<h2 id="h-study-used-a-new-method-to-measure-methane-gas">Study used a new method to measure methane gas</h2>



The study employed a novel technique that utilizes the sun as a light source instead of lasers. This approach is common in similar instruments.



The innovative technique works by using the sun's heat energy absorbed and emitted by gases in the plume. This allows scientists to determine the quantity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aerosols-play-a-mysterious-yet-powerful-role-in-arctic-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aerosols</a>, carbon, and methane gas present. This method enabled the research team to measure the massive amount of methane released by the Sequoia Lightning Fire Complex. The 20 gigagrams of methane detected is noteworthy. Just one gigagram is equal to 1,000 metric tons, and an elephant weighs around one metric ton.



Interestingly, the data obtained using this remote technique corresponds with measurements collected from European space agency satellite data. While these satellites offer a broader, global view of burned areas, they are not yet capable of measuring methane gas in such conditions.



The study's findings have critical consequences for California's methane budget, as established by the <a href="https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Air Resources Board</a>. If wildfires like the Sequoia Lightning Fire Complex were accounted for, they would surpass residential and commercial buildings, power generation, and transportation in terms of methane emissions. 



However, they would still rank behind agriculture and industry. As climate change continues to intensify, scientists predict that more megafire years will occur in the future. This will further exacerbate methane emissions.



<h2>Addressing methane gas emissions</h2>



California has been proactive in addressing methane gas emissions since 2015 when the state set a target to reduce methane, refrigerants, and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/specific-air-pollutants-linked-to-asthma-attacks-in-urban-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air pollutants</a> contributing to global warming by 40% by 2030. In 2016, Gov. Jerry Brown signed SB 1383 into law, officially codifying these reduction targets. 



The state's ambitious goals are to be achieved through a series of regulations aimed at capturing methane gas from dairy farm manure, minimizing leaks from oil and gas producers, eliminating food waste in landfills, banning specific gases in new refrigerators and air conditioners, and implementing other measures.



"California has been way ahead on this issue," said Professor Hopkins. "We're really hoping the state can limit the methane emissions under our control to reduce short-term global warming and its worst effects, despite the extra emissions coming from these fires."



The research highlights the importance of understanding and addressing the role of wildfires in methane emissions. This is particularly important in regions like California, which are already grappling with the impacts of climate change. By doing so, the state can make informed decisions on how best to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to an increasingly unpredictable climate.



<h2 id="h-more-about-wildfires">More about wildfires</h2>



Wildfires have a significant impact on humans and the environment, with consequences that can be both immediate and long-lasting. Some key aspects of wildfires and their effects are as follows:



<h3 id="h-air-quality">Air quality</h3>



Wildfires produce smoke, which contains a mixture of gases, such as methane gas, and fine particles. These can cause respiratory issues, aggravate pre-existing conditions such as asthma and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/workplace-exposure-to-pesticides-linked-to-greater-copd-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)</a>, and contribute to heart problems. Smoke can travel great distances, affecting air quality in regions far from the actual fire.



<h3 id="h-climate-change">Climate change</h3>



Wildfires release large amounts of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), into the atmosphere. This contributes to global warming and climate change, which in turn can lead to more frequent and severe wildfires. Additionally, the loss of forests and vegetation due to wildfires reduces the Earth's ability to absorb CO2, further exacerbating climate change.



<h3 id="h-loss-of-biodiversity">Loss of biodiversity</h3>



Wildfires can cause significant damage to ecosystems, killing plants and animals, and reducing biodiversity. In some cases, wildfires can lead to the local extinction of sensitive species. Moreover, the loss of habitat can make it challenging for the surviving wildlife to find food, shelter, and breeding grounds.



<h3 id="h-soil-erosion-and-water-quality">Soil erosion and water quality</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/measuring-the-effect-of-wildfires-on-air-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildfires</a> can remove vegetation that helps stabilize soil and prevent erosion. This can lead to increased sedimentation in rivers and streams, affecting water quality and aquatic habitats. Additionally, the chemicals and ash released during a wildfire can contaminate water sources, posing risks to both humans and wildlife.



<h3 id="h-economic-impact">Economic impact</h3>



Wildfires can cause considerable damage to property, infrastructure, and natural resources, resulting in substantial economic losses. The costs of fighting wildfires, as well as the subsequent rebuilding and restoration efforts, can strain government budgets and local economies.



<h3 id="h-mental-health">Mental health</h3>



Wildfires can have psychological effects on individuals and communities. The stress and trauma associated with losing one's home, witnessing the devastation of the landscape, and the loss of livelihood can lead to mental health issues such as anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).



<h3 id="h-carbon-sequestration">Carbon sequestration</h3>



Forests play a crucial role in capturing and storing carbon, helping to mitigate climate change. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-breaking-amount-of-co2-released-by-wildfires-in-2021/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildfires can reduce the carbon sequestration</a> capacity of forests, especially when fires become more frequent or severe, preventing forests from regenerating and capturing carbon effectively. By releasing tons of methane gas, the climate impact becomes substantially worse.



To minimize the impacts of wildfires on humans and the environment, it is essential to implement effective forest management practices, promote public awareness and preparedness, and develop strategies to mitigate climate change.



—-



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Discovery: Massive amounts of methane gas spews from wildfires

Scientists at the University of California, Riverside (UCR) have discovered...

In a groundbreaking study, scientists have discovered that when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-sea-ice-hits-a-new-record-low-this-year/">sea ice</a> disappears, Antarctic seals fall silent.&nbsp;



The research was conducted by Dr. Ilse van Opzeeland and her team at the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/">Alfred Wegener Institute</a>, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI) and the Helmholtz Institute for Functional Marine Biodiversity at the University of Oldenburg (HIFMB).



Dr. Opzeeland's team analyzed audio recordings from an underwater microphone that automatically captured the vocalizations of marine mammals such as seals and whales.&nbsp;



"What's unique about our study is that, for the first time, we were able to assess recordings covering eight years and all four Antarctic seal species," said study lead author Dr. Irene Roca, a biologist at HIFMB and AWI at that time, and currently working at the Université du Québec en Outaouais.&nbsp;



The extensive data collection allowed the researchers to examine the seals' behavior over an extended timeframe and compare individual years.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-focused-on-in-the-study">What the researchers focused on in the study</h2>



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fee.2622">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>, was focused on data collected between 2007 and 2014, with the 2010/2011 season proving to be particularly noteworthy. During that time, the research area, situated in the Southern Ocean near AWI's Neumayer Station III, experienced a significant reduction in ice cover. Less than ten percent of the usually frozen waters had ice, resulting in a near-total absence of sea ice.



This lack of ice had a dramatic effect on the seals' presence in the area. Audio recordings from underwater microphones showed a significant decrease in seal vocalizations during this period compared to the other seven years of data.&nbsp;



Antarctic seals rely on sea ice for giving birth and nursing their young, which typically occurs during the Southern Hemisphere's spring and summer months, from October to January.



Under normal conditions, the sea ice provides an ideal environment for seals to raise their offspring. However, during the 2010/2011 season, the ice all but disappeared. Due to the researchers having installed only one underwater microphone in the area, it remains uncertain whether the seals migrated during this time and, if so, where they went.



Unfortunately, the AWI's Perennial Acoustic Observatory in the Antarctic Ocean (PALAOA) broke away from the coast along with a calving glacier. In the upcoming Antarctic season, they will install a new underwater microphone on the coast. Installation will begin at the end of this year.



“However, our underwater recordings clearly show that there were far fewer calling seals than usual in the observed waters,” said Irene Roca. This applies, she claims, to all seal species native to the region: the crabeater seal, Weddell seal, leopard seal and Ross seal.



<h2 id="h-where-the-antarctic-seals-study-was-done">Where the Antarctic seals study was done</h2>



Located approximately 2,000 kilometers south of Cape Town in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/looking-for-microplastics-in-the-remote-weddell-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weddell Sea</a>, the research area chosen by experts from the Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI) is of particular interest due to its diverse marine life. 



The coastal region in the eastern Weddell Sea is home to all four Antarctic seal species and several species of whale, making it a crucial area for marine research. Scientists believe the region's abundance of food and typically favorable ice conditions make it an ideal habitat for seals.



However, observations from the 2010/2011 season have raised concerns among the AWI team. If climate change leads to more frequent and extreme variations in sea ice cover, the region may become less reliable as a breeding ground for seals. Recently, the SEA ICE PORTAL reported that below-average sea-ice extents have characterized the Antarctic for the past eight years. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-sea-ice-extent-has-reached-a-record-low/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sea-ice extent reached an all-time low</a> in February 2023.



The potential impact of reduced sea ice on seal populations remains unclear due to limited knowledge about the four Antarctic seal species. However, studies on Arctic ringed seals, which are better understood, reveal that the species requires thick snow cover on sea ice to create small caves for their young. Research has shown that many Arctic ringed seal pups perish when there is insufficient sea ice and snow.



"I surmise that the low-ice years also have an effect on Antarctic seals' reproduction – not only in terms of the young's survival, but possibly also the adults' mating behavior or other aspects," said project coordinator Ilse van Opzeeland.



<h2 id="h-new-equipment-will-allow-the-antarctic-seals-study-to-continue">New equipment will allow the Antarctic seals study to continue</h2>



Van Opzeeland considers the eight years of acoustic data collected by the team as a unique asset. Gathering data on seals is typically challenging. Scientists can only count seals from vessels or helicopters. Both options offer limited observational radius. Vessels and helicopters also lack the ability to continuously monitor entire ocean regions.



In contrast, underwater "listening posts" provide round-the-clock monitoring of extensive regions. Additionally, sounds travel farther underwater than in the air. Based on the volume of their vocalizations, some marine fauna can be detected from several kilometers away.



Unfortunately, the AWI's Perennial Acoustic Observatory in the Antarctic Ocean (PALAOA) recently broke away from the coast along with a calving glacier. Plans to install a new underwater microphone on the coast are in place for the upcoming Antarctic season, beginning at the end of this year. This new installation will continue to provide valuable insights into the lives of Antarctic seals and the potential consequences of diminishing sea ice in their habitat.



This study highlights the potential consequences of declining sea ice for Antarctic seals and the broader marine ecosystem. It serves as a crucial reminder of the importance of understanding and preserving the delicate balance between marine species and their environment, especially as the climate continues to change.



<h2 id="h-more-about-antarctic-seals">More about Antarctic seals</h2>



Antarctic seals are an essential component of the Antarctic marine ecosystem. There are four primary species of seals found in the region: the Weddell seal, the Ross seal, the crabeater seal, and the leopard seal. Each species exhibits distinct adaptations to the unique and harsh Antarctic environment. Here's a brief overview of each species:



<h3 id="h-weddell-seals-leptonychotes-weddellii">Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii)</h3>



These seals are known for their ability to inhabit the icy waters of Antarctica. They have an exceptional diving ability, reaching depths of over 600 meters and holding their breath for up to 90 minutes. Weddell seals primarily feed on fish, squid, and krill. They are very docile in nature. This makes them relatively easy to approach and study.



<h3 id="h-ross-seals-ommatophoca-rossii">Ross seals (Ommatophoca rossii)</h3>



Ross seals are the least common and least studied of the Antarctic seals. They are relatively small and slender compared to other seals, with a distinctive wide, round head and large eyes. Ross seals are known for their unique vocalizations. They have a diet consisting of fish, squid, and krill. Researchers typically find ross seals in the pack ice surrounding the Antarctic continent.



<h3 id="h-crabeater-seals-lobodon-carcinophaga">Crabeater seals (Lobodon carcinophaga)</h3>



Despite their name, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-seals-will-struggle-more-than-others-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crabeater seals</a> primarily feed on krill rather than crabs. They have specialized teeth that act as a sieve, allowing them to filter krill from the water. Crabeater seals are the most abundant seal species in the Antarctic region and play a crucial role in the marine food web. They inhabit the pack ice zones and are known for their long, slender bodies.



<h3 id="h-leopard-seals-hydrurga-leptonyx">Leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx)</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-reveal-new-features-of-the-elusive-leopard-seal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leopard seals</a> are the most formidable predators among the Antarctic seals. They have a large, reptile-like head and powerful jaws with sharp teeth, making them efficient hunters. Leopard seals primarily feed on other seals, penguins, fish, and krill. They are solitary animals and occupy a higher trophic level in the Antarctic marine ecosystem.



Antarctic seals rely heavily on sea ice for their survival, as they use it as a platform to rest, breed, and give birth to their pups. The effects of climate change on sea ice levels may have significant consequences for the long-term survival of these species and the overall health of the Antarctic ecosystem.



<h3 id="h-impact-of-climate-change-on-antarctica">Impact of climate change on Antarctica</h3>



Climate change has a profound impact on Antarctica and its marine life, including Antarctic seals. The primary consequences of climate change in the region include rising temperatures, ocean warming, melting ice sheets, and sea level rise. These changes directly and indirectly affect Antarctic seals in several ways:



<h3 id="h-loss-of-sea-ice">Loss of sea ice</h3>



Antarctic seals depend on sea ice for various aspects of their life cycle, such as breeding, giving birth, and nursing their pups. As climate change leads to a decline in sea ice, seals face challenges in finding suitable habitats for these critical activities. Insufficient sea ice may lead to reduced reproductive success, as seals may struggle to find safe and stable platforms for breeding and raising their young.



<h3 id="h-changes-in-prey-availability">Changes in prey availability</h3>



Climate change can alter the distribution and abundance of prey species like krill, fish, and squid in the Antarctic region. Changes in prey availability can affect the foraging behavior and diet of seals, potentially impacting their overall health and reproductive success. For example, a decline in krill population due to ocean warming and reduced sea ice may negatively affect crabeater seals, which primarily feed on krill.



<h3 id="h-habitat-shifts">Habitat shifts</h3>



The decline of sea ice and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-report-an-unprecedented-rise-in-ocean-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rise in ocean temperatures</a> may force seals to shift their habitat ranges in search of suitable breeding and foraging grounds. These shifts could lead to increased competition for resources among different seal species and other marine predators, such as penguins and whales. Additionally, habitat shifts may expose seals to new threats, such as predation or human activities like fishing and shipping.



<h3 id="h-ocean-acidification">Ocean acidification</h3>



The increased absorption of carbon dioxide by the ocean leads to ocean acidification, which can have adverse effects on marine ecosystems. Acidification can negatively impact the base of the food chain, including phytoplankton and other organisms that krill rely on for sustenance. This disruption can ultimately affect seal populations that depend on krill and other affected species as a primary food source.



Overall, the impacts of climate change on Antarctica and Antarctic seals pose significant challenges for the long-term survival of these species and the health of the entire Antarctic ecosystem. Continued research and monitoring are essential to better understand these impacts and develop effective conservation strategies to protect Antarctica's unique marine life.



—-



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What happens to Antarctic seals when sea ice vanishes?

In a groundbreaking study, scientists have discovered that when sea...

Newly discovered amber <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-marine-ichthyosaur-fossils-found-high-in-the-alps/">fossils</a> have provided intriguing evidence that beetles fed on the feathers of dinosaurs around 105 million years ago. This suggests a symbiotic relationship between the two species. 



The study, published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, analyzed amber fragments from the San Just locality in Teruel, Spain. These fragments contained larval moults of small beetle larvae closely surrounded by pieces of downy feathers.



Scientists think the feathers belonged to an unknown theropod dinosaur. It may have been either avian or non-avian. Both types lived during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-new-dinosaur-species-related-to-velociraptors-has-been-found/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Early Cretaceous</a> period and had similar feather types. The fossils predate the emergence of modern birds by approximately 30 million years.



Vertebrates and arthropods have coexisted for over 500 million years, forming diverse and complex ecological relationships. These interactions have critically shaped their evolutionary history and led to coevolution. However, fossil evidence of such relationships is exceedingly rare.



Researchers identified the larval moults found in the amber as related to modern dermestid beetles. These are known for feeding on organic materials that are difficult for other organisms to decay, such as natural fibers. 



Dermestids also play a crucial role in recycling organic matter in nature. They commonly inhabiting nests of birds and mammals where feathers, hair, or skin accumulate. This discovery provides valuable insights into the ecological interactions and coevolution of beetles and dinosaurs during the Early Cretaceous period.



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



“In our samples, some of the feather portions and other remains – including minute fossil faeces, or coprolites – are in intimate contact with the moults attributed to dermestid beetles and show occasional damage and/or signs of decay. This is hard evidence that the fossil beetles almost certainly fed on the feathers and that these were detached from its host,” explained Dr. Enrique Peñalver, from the <a href="https://www.igme.es/zaragoza/ingles/inicio.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geological and Mining Institute of Spain of the Spanish National Research Council</a> (CN IGME-CSIC) and lead author of the study.&nbsp;



“The beetle larvae lived − feeding, defecating, moulting − in accumulated feathers on or close to a resin-producing tree, probably in a nest setting. A flow of resin serendipitously captured that association and preserved it for millions of years.”&nbsp;



“Three additional amber pieces each containing an isolated beetle moult of a different maturity stage but assigned to the same species were also studied, allowing a better understanding of these minute insects than what is usually possible in palaeontology,” said study co-author Dr. David Peris, from the Botanical Institute of Barcelona.



Scientists found the most impressive, complete specimen in the amber deposit of Rábago/El Soplao in the northern Spain. It is roughly of the same age as San Just. 



“It is unclear whether the feathered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-large-predator-dinosaur/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">theropod</a> host also benefited from the beetle larvae feeding on its detached feathers in this plausible nest setting,” said co-lead author Dr. Ricardo Pérez-de la Fuente from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">Oxford University</a> Museum of Natural History.&nbsp;



“However, the theropod was most likely unharmed by the activity of the larvae since our data show these did not feed on living plumage and lacked defensive structures which among modern dermestids can irritate the skin of nest hosts, even killing them.”&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-evidence-that-birds-descended-from-dinosaurs">Evidence that birds descended from dinosaurs</h2>



There is substantial evidence supporting the idea that birds descended from theropod dinosaurs, a group of bipedal, mostly carnivorous dinosaurs. This evidence comes from various fields, including paleontology, comparative anatomy, and molecular biology. Some key pieces of evidence are:



<h3 id="h-fossil-evidence">Fossil evidence</h3>



Researchers have discovered numerous fossils that show transitional features between dinosaurs and birds. One of the most famous examples is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-fossil-dinosaur-flight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeopteryx</a>. It was a creature that lived around 150 million years ago and had features of both dinosaurs and birds. It had feathers and wings, but also teeth, a long bony tail, and other dinosaur-like characteristics.



<h3 id="h-feathered-dinosaurs">Feathered dinosaurs</h3>



The discovery of numerous theropod dinosaurs with feathers or feather-like structures further supports the link between birds and dinosaurs. Examples include <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-evolutionary-origin-of-birds-wings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Velociraptor, Sinosauropteryx, and Microraptor</a>. These findings suggest that feathers originally evolved for purposes other than flight, such as insulation or display, and were later adapted for flight in birds.



<h3 id="h-skeletal-similarities">Skeletal similarities</h3>



Birds and theropod dinosaurs share many anatomical features. These include a wishbone (furcula), a unique ball-and-socket wrist joint, hollow bones, and a similar hip structure (with a pubis bone pointing backward). These shared characteristics suggest a common ancestry.



<h3 id="h-nesting-behavior">Nesting behavior</h3>



Fossil evidence indicates that some theropod dinosaurs, like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-ever-dinosaur-found-incubating-eggs-with-embryos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oviraptorosaurs</a>, displayed nesting behaviors similar to those of modern birds. They built nests and brooded their eggs, providing further evidence of a connection between birds and dinosaurs.



<h3 id="h-molecular-evidence">Molecular evidence</h3>



Genetic studies have shown that birds are more closely related to certain theropod dinosaurs than these dinosaurs are to other reptiles. This supports the idea that birds are not merely related to dinosaurs. Most think they are, in fact, a subgroup of theropod dinosaurs.



Taken together, this evidence from various fields paints a compelling picture of the evolutionary link between birds and theropod dinosaurs. Scientists consider birds the only surviving lineage of dinosaurs.



—-



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Beetles fed on dinosaur feathers 105 million years ago

Newly discovered amber fossils have provided intriguing evidence that beetles...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
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On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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