Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Stone Age people were already slow cooking - but not just for the food. They used heat and time to loosen animal teeth from skulls, removing them cleanly to turn into jewelry and ornaments. 



New research shows they didn’t just scavenge what they could find. They had a method, and it helped preserve the parts they needed.



The study comes from scientists at the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York</a> and the University of Helsinki, who examined more than 2,000 animal teeth excavated from graves at Zvejnieki cemetery in Latvia. 



This burial ground, used between 7500 and 2500 BC, is one of the largest known from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-hunter-gatherers-had-a-very-organized-domestic-life/">Mesolithic period</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pulling-teeth-the-ancient-way">Pulling teeth, the ancient way</h2>



Archaeologists have long known that people in the Mesolithic Stone Age wore animal teeth on their bodies or clothing. What hadn’t been studied closely was how they got the teeth out in the first place.



“Much of the research focus has been on how and why the animal teeth were used as ornaments, but relatively little is known about how they were extracted,” said Dr. Andrew Needham from the University of York.



"Recent theories have suggested they may have been cut from the skull or possibly scavenged from carcasses."



To find out what really happened, the team turned to experimental archaeology. They tested different methods of removing teeth from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-habits-shaped-the-skulls-of-humans-and-dinosaurs/">animal skulls</a> to see which techniques left the teeth intact.



“By testing different methods, it became clear that methods like cutting, hammering or pulling the teeth out of a fresh jaw is extremely difficult and often damages the teeth in the process,” Needham said.



“But what we see in these thousands of animal teeth at grave sites is that they are usually complete and undamaged by any extraction method.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stone-age-methods-tested">Stone Age methods tested</h2>



To simulate Stone Age techniques, the researchers ran year-long studies and tested techniques that involved heat and moisture.



Results from year-long experiments at the Īdeņa Experimental Centre in eastern Latvia showed that pit steaming and wet cooking were the most effective methods, allowing teeth to be extracted easily and without damage.



“This also meant that the meat could be eaten and the bones remained suitable for tool-making,” Needham said.



Pit steaming was basically a prehistoric version of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wine-drinking-in-the-americas-traced-back-to-the-15th-century/">slow cooking</a>. The process used hot stones, coals, water, and a covering of skins and plants to slowly cook animal heads and jaws. Left overnight, the teeth could be removed easily the next day.



“Our experiments show that tooth extraction was a deliberate, time-sensitive process embedded in daily life, especially <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eat-like-neanderthal-unpacking-ancient-cooking-methods-birds/">cooking practices</a>," said Dr. Aija Macāne from the University of Helsinki. 



"This challenges the assumption that teeth used for ornaments were simply scavenged or easily available.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-teeth-as-adornment">Animal teeth as adornment</h2>



Most of the teeth came from elk, wild boar, and red deer. Others were from dogs, and in a few cases, humans. 



These were turned into pendants worn by people of all ages and genders. Teeth were usually placed around the head, torso, and arms of the buried individuals.



Over time, preferences changed. Early graves favored <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/">large herbivores</a>. Later burials included more carnivores like dogs. This shift could reflect changing relationships with animals or evolving cultural meanings behind the ornaments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nothing-went-to-waste">Nothing went to waste</h2>



This method of careful tooth extraction suggests a deeper respect for the animals these people hunted. It wasn’t just about using the meat. They made sure every part of the animal served a purpose.



“This practice shows that Stone Age people were aware that there was a ‘right way’ to treat the animal remains in order to get everything they needed - from food to tools and ornaments,” said Dr. Aimée Little, Director of the York Experimental Archaeological Research (YEAR) Centre.



“Making personal ornaments from teeth was likely to have been a social activity linked to everyday cooking activities,” she added. 



“It is easy to imagine that different members of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kids-in-hunter-gatherer-stone-age-societies-had-better-parenting-than-modern-children/">Stone Age societies</a>, including small children, were involved in their making, with the first stage of extracting teeth from mandibles happening as meals were being prepared. Such insights help break down the idea that prehistoric craft was highly specialized.”



This research offers a new look at what daily life might have been like thousands of years ago. It wasn’t just about survival. It was about community, creativity, and making use of everything the natural world provided.



The full study was published in the journal Archaeological and<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12520-025-02260-0">https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12520-025-02260-0</a> Anthropological Sciences.



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Ancient cooking method helped preserve animal teeth for jewelry

Stone Age people were already slow cooking - but not...

In raw processing power, a large language model will outclass toddlers. Yet when a team of researchers did the math, they found a startling gap: if humans learned language at the same rate as ChatGPT, it would take them 92,000 years.



The calculation highlights a long-standing mystery. Children master speech and grammar after only a few years of everyday experience, whereas state-of-the-art <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-generated-birdsongs-may-shed-new-light-on-human-language/">AI</a>, trained on billions of words, still trips over basic nuance.



A new study conducted at the <a href="https://www.mpi.nl/">Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics</a> offers the most comprehensive explanation to date. 



Led by developmental psychologist Caroline Rowland and colleagues at the UK-based <a href="https://www.lucid.ac.uk/">ESRC LuCiD Center</a>, the research proposes that the decisive advantage is not the amount of data children receive, but the way they interact with it.



Their active, embodied, and socially embedded learning engine may also hold lessons for the next generation of artificial intelligence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-toddlers-power-research">How toddlers power research</h2>



The past decade has produced a multitude of tools - head-mounted eye trackers, wearable microphones, machine-vision scene analyzers - that let scientists capture moment-by-moment snapshots of childhood.



A typical modern dataset might include everything a two-year-old sees, hears, grasps, and babbles during an ordinary afternoon. 



What has been missing, Rowland and her co-authors argue, is an integrated theory of how these multisensory streams translate into grammar and vocabulary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-senses-shape-speech">How senses shape speech</h2>



The framework they propose rests on several mutually reinforcing principles. 



First is multisensory integration. Unlike text-bound chatbots, babies process language against a rich backdrop of sights, sounds, tastes, smells, and textures. 



A spoonful of mashed banana, for instance, comes with a color, a smell, a shape, a temperature, and a spoken label from a caregiver.



Over time, these correlated cues help infants crack linguistic codes that would baffle a purely textual learner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-bodies-active-minds">Moving bodies, active minds</h2>



Second is embodiment. Children’s bodies are constantly in motion - rolling, crawling, pointing, mouthing objects. 



Each action changes the incoming data stream, generating fresh correlations between words and physical experiences, like associating the word cup with the feel of a plastic rim.



This kind of “closed-loop” activity allows children to test hypotheses on the fly, using movement as part of the learning process.



Social immersion plays a third critical role. Caregivers instinctively tailor their speech in real time, repeating words, exaggerating intonation, or shifting topics based on the child’s attention. 



Whereas AI systems read from static datasets, children receive a dynamic, personalized curriculum designed by human minds evolved for teaching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-curiosity-powers-toddlers-learning">Curiosity powers toddlers’ learning</h2>



A fourth principle is incremental plasticity. The young brain reorganizes rapidly, strengthening and pruning neural connections in response to experience. 



This adaptability allows children to shift their learning priorities as they grow- starting with mastering sounds, then words, then grammar - without needing to discard earlier knowledge.



Finally, there is motivation and curiosity. Perhaps most crucially, toddlers want to decode the world around them. They actively seek novelty, request clarification, and show visible delight when they succeed, sustaining hours of daily language practice without explicit instruction.



“AI systems process data... but children really live it,” Rowland explained. “Their learning is embodied, interactive, and deeply embedded in social and sensory contexts.”



“They seek out experiences and dynamically adapt their learning in response - exploring objects with their hands and mouths, crawling toward new and exciting toys, or pointing at objects they find interesting. That’s what enables them to master language so quickly.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-children-can-teach-ai">What children can teach AI</h2>



The authors believe these insights could reshape machine-learning strategy. Current large language models ingest terabytes of written text, a modality children barely encounter until school age.



To narrow the performance gap, engineers might endow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-can-now-learn-from-humans-by-watching-how-to-videos/">robots</a> with multisensory inputs, motor exploration, and real-time social feedback loops - essentially giving silicon learners a simulated childhood.



“AI researchers could learn a lot from babies,” Rowland said. “If we want machines to learn language as well as humans, perhaps we need to rethink how we design them - from the ground up.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helping-language-thrive-again">Helping language thrive again</h2>



Beyond technology, the framework could illuminate adult second-language acquisition, evolutionary linguistics, and educational practice. 



For example, it suggests that immersive, interactive classrooms may outperform rote drills, and that endangered languages could be revitalized by recreating full sensory contexts for young speakers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulated-toddlers-in-labs">Simulated toddlers in labs</h2>



Rowland’s group is already testing the model with longitudinal recordings from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-with-autism-benefit-from-learning-multiple-languages/">multilingual</a> families. Meanwhile, cognitive neuroscientists plan brain-imaging studies to chart how sensory–motor loops sculpt language circuits.



On the AI front, several labs are experimenting with embodied agents that crawl through virtual nurseries, manipulating objects while linking words to experience.



Whether those synthetic toddlers can close a 92,000-year deficit remains to be seen. What is clear is that humanity’s smallest linguists still wield secrets that even the largest neural networks have yet to crack.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1364661325001421">Trends in Cognitive Sciences</a>.



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Children are much better at learning language than AI

In raw processing power, a large language model will outclass...

Tiny clusters of drifting debris called "marine snow" shower through the ocean every day, ferrying food and carbon from the bright surface to the dark seafloor.



New <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2505085122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiments</a> now show that the smallest flakes plunge more quickly than their larger cousins, overturning a century of textbook fluid dynamics and hinting at fresh twists in the planet’s carbon budget.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-marine-snow-the-basics">Understanding "marine snow" - the basics</h2>



This “snow” consists of dead and decaying animals, plankton, fecal matter, mucus, and other tiny detritus that clump together into slow-sinking flakes. 



Despite the whimsical name, marine snow plays a serious role in the ocean's ecosystem - it serves as a crucial source of food for many deep-sea organisms that live far below sunlight’s reach. 



Without this steady rain of carbon-rich material, life in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-trash-debris-now-found-in-deepest-parts-of-earths-seas-and-oceans-mediterranean/">ocean’s abyss</a> would be severely limited.



Beyond its ecological function, marine snow also influences Earth’s climate system. As it sinks, it transports carbon from the surface to the ocean floor, effectively removing it from the atmosphere for centuries or even longer. 



This process, known as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-robots-are-exploring-the-oceans-role-in-climate-control/">biological carbon pump</a>, helps regulate global carbon dioxide levels and mitigate climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smallest-marine-snow-sinks-faster">Smallest marine snow sinks faster</h2>



“It basically means that smaller particles can sink faster than bigger ones,” said Robert Hunt and colleagues at <a href="https://www.brown.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brown University</a> and the <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> at Chapel Hill, who led the study. 



That counterintuitive sprint happens only in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/stratified-fluid" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stratified fluids</a> such as the ocean, where density increases with depth.



When a porous flake soaks up salt from the layers it crosses, the added mass beats the drag that normally slows tiny objects. 



Because surface‐to‐depth density changes are gentle yet persistent, salt diffusion keeps boosting the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/marinesnow.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flake’s weight</a> all the way down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-this-important">Why is this important?</h2>



Speed matters. The ocean’s <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2021GB007083" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon biological pump</a> moves about 10.2  billion tons of carbon a year from sunlit waters toward long‑term storage below the <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/thermocline.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thermocline</a>. 



Faster‑than‑expected settling of small fragments may revise estimates of how much carbon actually reaches the deep, especially during spring plankton blooms when the ocean teems with fine detritus.



The same physics could alter the journey of <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/microplastics.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a>. A recent global <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08818-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survey</a> found that smaller plastic bits, under 0.004 inch, linger longer at mid‑depths than bigger shards. 



If porosity or biofilm growth changes their salt uptake, these particles might fall sooner than models predict and redistribute pollution hotspots on the seafloor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-marine-snow-sinks-through-layers">How marine snow sinks through layers</h2>



Hunt’s team built a four‑foot‑long tank whose density changed smoothly from fresh water at the top to salty water below, mimicking the open ocean’s gradient. Carefully controlled pumps dripped the two end‑member waters to create a stable linear stratification.



The researchers then 3D‑printed molds and cast agar shapes (spheres, disks, and rods) with diameters from 0.04 to 0.4 inch. 



Like gelatin desserts, the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/agar" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agar particles</a> were riddled with pores that quickly exchanged water and salt with their surroundings.



High‑speed cameras tracked each particle’s plunge through the tank. “We ended up with a pretty simple formula where you can plug in estimates for different parameters and get reasonable estimates of the sinking speed,” said <a href="https://engineering.brown.edu/people/daniel-m-harris" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Daniel Harris</a>, an associate professor of engineering at Brown who oversaw the work.



The observations matched the new equation: among spheres, a one‑millimeter bead beat a four‑millimeter bead to the bottom. 



For flat or rod‑shaped bodies, the thinnest dimension set the pace, allowing needle‑like fragments to blitz past bulkier shapes of the same mass.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salt-makes-porous-marine-snow-fall-faster">Salt makes porous marine snow fall faster</h2>



Classical drag calculations assume an object’s density stays fixed as it falls. Porous bodies break that rule because water flows through them, letting dissolved salt accumulate inside.



The model hinges on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/porosity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">porosity</a>, solute <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/diffusivity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diffusivity</a>, and the <a href="https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/lom3.10316" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vertical density gradient</a>. If salt absorption boosts density faster than drag slows descent, size becomes a liability and small wins the race.



This diffusion‑limited regime likely dominates for fluffier aggregates made of <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/phyto.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a> remains, fecal pellets, or dust‑laden snow. Less porous grains of sand or shell should still follow the familiar bigger‑falls‑faster script.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-sinking-marine-snow-changes-estimates">Fast-sinking marine snow changes estimates</h2>



Biogeochemical models track how quickly carbon sinks, gets eaten, or dissolves on the way down. Underestimating the speed of fine aggregates could inflate estimates of mid‑water remineralization and shortchange deep‑sea sequestration.



<a href="https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean-acidification" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA</a> notes that the ocean absorbs about 30 percent of the carbon dioxide humans emit each year, buffering climate change. Tweaking particle speeds could shift where, and how long, that captured carbon stays locked away.



Some climate engineers are exploring methods that encourage fast‑sinking flakes, from adding minerals that ballast algae to growing kelp for deep burial. 



Knowing exactly which sizes and shapes drop quickest will sharpen those interventions and gauge possible ecological side effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-plastic-pollution">Lessons for plastic pollution</h2>



Plastic fragments often pick up biofilms, turning them into tiny sponges that absorb salts and organic goo, much like marine snow. 



If that boosts density, millimeter‑scale fibers might leave surface waters sooner than remote sensing suggests.



A plastic snowfall could ferry toxins to bottom feeders and alter food webs once thought safe from floating litter. Policy aimed at surface cleanup alone may miss this hidden pathway.



Researchers also found that elongated pieces settle according to their thinnest axis. That means synthetic fibers shed from clothing, typically long and narrow, may descend even faster than spheres of equal volume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-in-real-ocean-and-improving-models">Testing in real ocean and improving models</h2>



Hunt and Harris plan to partner with oceanographers to drop custom particles over deep moorings and compare lab predictions with real‑world drifts. They also aim to explore how temperature gradients, common near polar ice and hydrothermal vents, tweak the balance between drag and diffusion.



Back on land, modelers are already folding the new equation into regional carbon budgets and microplastic fate simulations. Small marine snow flakes, once dismissed as slow movers, are entering the spotlight, reminding scientists that size is only skin deep when salt can seep inside.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2505085122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Tiny "marine snow" particles in the oceans defy the laws of physics

Tiny clusters of drifting debris called "marine snow" shower through...

Back,View,Of,Dog,Talking,To,Dog,Friends,In,Video

Spending time with dogs brings comfort. But can watching them virtually help too? A new study says yes. The researchers found that a five-minute video of a therapy dog can ease stress almost as much as an in-person visit.



Led by Dr. John-Tyler Binfet from&nbsp;<a href="https://ok.ubc.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UBC Okanagan</a>&nbsp;and Dr. Christine Tardif-Williams from&nbsp;<a class="" href="https://brocku.ca/">Brock University</a>, the study tested the impact of virtual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/therapy-dogs-on-campus-help-students-manage-stress-and-anxiety/">dog</a> videos on both students and non-students. Over 1,000 people took part, showing clear stress relief across groups.



“Our findings demonstrate that even with a virtual session, there was a significant reduction in stress among both the student population and the general public, regardless of age,” said Dr. Binfet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-therapy-dog-videos-created-calm">How therapy dog videos created calm</h2>



The virtual canine comfort modules were brief, calming, and thoughtfully made. They featured therapy dogs and handlers from the B.A.R.K. program, a known student well-being initiative.



Each video included a welcome message, land acknowledgment, gentle narration, and sensory prompts. Participants were asked to imagine petting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/therapy-dogs-reduce-emotional-exhaustion-and-work-burnout/">dog</a> and were guided to reflect on their emotions.



This method mimicked real therapy dog sessions without needing in-person attendance. It also gave viewers flexibility to watch from anywhere and at any time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-therapy-dog-videos-lowered-stress">Therapy dog videos lowered stress</h2>



This study included two phases: student participants (N = 963) and community members (N = 122). Both groups reported lower stress levels after the session. 



For students, average stress dropped from 3.33 to 2.53 on a five-point scale. For community members, the reduction was from 3.07 to 2.43.



Interestingly, women in the student group experienced more stress relief than men. Before watching, women reported higher stress. After viewing, their stress dropped to levels similar to male participants. Age, however, had no major influence on results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-pandemic-context">Beyond the pandemic context</h2>



This isn’t the first time virtual therapy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/petting-a-dog-might-be-the-easiest-way-to-reduce-stress/">dog</a> sessions were studied. But this research took place after COVID-19 restrictions ended. That makes it more relevant today, as it reflects everyday conditions.



The findings confirm that people continue to benefit from virtual canine modules even when in-person options are available. 



The simplicity and low commitment of the videos help reduce stress without needing a formal setting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-benefits-most-from-virtual-sessions">Who benefits most from virtual sessions?</h2>



This method works for students, busy adults, or anyone avoiding therapy due to stigma. 



For example, one participant said: “I have thought about attending an in-person session on campus before since I love dogs but the interacting with humans made me anxious."



"No offense to anyone but this virtual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interacting-with-dogs-can-ease-physical-pain/">dog</a> session removes the unknown human interaction that may make people nervous."



The videos can serve as an easy first step toward mental health care. Researchers believe this “foot in the door” model could help people eventually seek further support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-short-and-effective-videos">Short and effective videos</h2>



The virtual modules were just five minutes long. Despite the short length, they led to measurable improvements in stress. 



Participants viewed videos on YouTube without scheduling anything. That made it very convenient and widely accessible.



This short duration also helped protect the welfare of therapy dogs. In virtual settings, dogs avoid the stress of busy live events. It’s better for them and still works for humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inclusive-and-accessible-therapy-sessions">Inclusive and accessible therapy sessions </h2>



The sessions were inclusive in design. People from different age groups, ethnicities, and life situations took part. 



Virtual delivery helps reach rural residents, people with social anxiety, or those who simply prefer solitude.



Modules could be tailored further to suit marginalized or neurodiverse audiences. Researchers recommend more collaboration between mental health professionals and human-animal interaction experts to design targeted content.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-therapy-dog-research">Future of therapy dog research</h2>



The study had some limitations. It lacked a control group watching non-dog videos, so other calming factors weren’t ruled out. 



Also, long-term effects weren’t measured. Researchers want future work to track how long the stress relief lasts.



The gender imbalance in the sample also raises questions. Most participants were women, which matches past studies. Still, future research should explore how different genders experience virtual dog sessions.



Another future step could be combining these modules with mindfulness techniques. That might boost their calming impact even more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeling-better-with-little-effort">Feeling better with little effort</h2>



Virtual canine comfort videos offer a short, calming break with meaningful benefits. They help reduce stress, particularly for women and those who avoid traditional therapy settings. 



The videos are easy to access, require no special tools, and can reach people from all backgrounds.



In a time when stress and mental health challenges are rising, a simple dog video may be more powerful than we thought.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/hai.2025.0015" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human-Animal Interactions</a>.



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Scientists prove that simply watching dogs on video can reduce stress and anxiety, no contact required

Spending time with dogs brings comfort. But can watching them...

In the watery world of fish evolution, feeding is everything. Success depends on catching food efficiently, whether it's darting prey or algae stuck to rocks. 



A recent study published in the journal PLOS Biology&nbsp;shows that fish face a basic anatomical choice: grow big teeth or evolve mobile jaws - they can’t do both.



Nick Peoples and colleagues at <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a> used high-speed videography and evolutionary models to investigate this trade-off across 161 ray-finned fish species.



Ray-finned fishes dominate the aquatic world, forming about half of all vertebrate species. Their feeding success hinges on two traits: long teeth that help damage or grip prey, and extendable jaws that produce suction for capturing elusive prey. Yet both features rarely appear in the same species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-teeth-less-mobile-jaws">Bigger teeth, less mobile jaws</h2>



The researchers analyzed videos to track how fish approached prey using three techniques: swimming forward (body ram), extending the jaws (jaw ram), or sucking prey in (suction). Most species (76%) relied on body ram, while suction rarely played a primary role.



The team found that tooth size closely matched feeding strategy. Fish with big teeth nearly always relied on body ram. Those with small teeth used jaw protrusion more effectively. 



There was no strong link between tooth size and suction use. The results support a simple pattern: the bigger the teeth, the less mobile the jaws.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tooth-size-limits-feeding-flexibility">Tooth size limits feeding flexibility</h2>



To explore the evolutionary basis of this mismatch, the team ran statistical models comparing species with different feeding behaviors. 



The results confirmed a tight trade-off: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/">species</a> that use jaw ram evolved to have teeth four times smaller than species that rely on swimming strikes.



The study also showed that as teeth get larger, the diversity of feeding strategies drops sharply. Species with smaller teeth had more flexibility, combining jaw movement and suction in various ways. This flexibility was lost in fish with bigger teeth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jaw-structure-shapes-fish-evolution">Jaw structure shapes fish evolution</h2>



Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/319-million-year-old-fish-holds-clues-about-brain-evolution/">ray-finned fish</a> grow replacement teeth inside the jawbone. This requires extra space, especially if the teeth are big. But extendable jaws are slim and fast-moving, with little room for large internal replacements.



The result? Fish with mobile jaws can’t support very large teeth. “This presents a dilemma for species with high jaw protrusion," noted the researchers.



Slim jaws that allow fast strikes limit space for growing new, large teeth. To make things harder, large teeth could slow a suction strike by creating drag or interfering with water flow. Fish that use suction likely keep their teeth small on purpose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-adapt-to-keep-big-teeth">Fish adapt to keep big teeth</h2>



Some species sidestep this problem using special modifications. These include fused teeth in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-grazing-halos-and-parrotfish-reveal-about-coral-reef-health/">parrotfish</a>, which form a beak, and stacked tooth structures in pufferfish that become dense cutting tools. 



Triggerfish attach teeth using soft tissue for more support, while butterflyfish evolved flexible tooth shafts.



These adaptations allow large-toothed species to exploit unique diets - like coral scraping, detritus collection, or even wood eating.



“When we looked into which species had exceptionally large teeth, we were surprised to find that they also have interesting modifications to the dental system, like the beak of parrotfish," said Peoples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-success-has-limits">Feeding success has limits</h2>



Fish evolution illustrates a simple but powerful rule: you can't always have it all. Both big teeth and mobile jaws help fish survive, but trying to evolve both seems to backfire.



“Many feeding innovations have evolved in fishes, and our results show that it is important to consider the interactions between these traits as some may actually be incompatible with each other," noted Peoples.



“High-speed videography really provides a unique view into fish feeding. IIt often reveals subtle movements and behaviors that you would not notice if only observing the fish in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-hidden-environmental-impacts-of-tropical-fish-aquariums/">aquarium</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bite-hard-or-strike-fast">Bite hard or strike fast</h2>



Fish species that evolved big teeth gave up jaw mobility but gained new dietary options. Species that evolved flexible jaws gained versatility but lost the power to grip or damage prey.



This study highlights how physical constraints can shape evolution. Even in a group as diverse as ray-finned fishes, nature imposes limits. 



Those limits may explain why fish face a fork in their evolutionary path: bite hard or strike fast - but never both.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003225" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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Why fish can’t evolve both powerful jaws and big teeth

In the watery world of fish evolution, feeding is everything....

Most of us think of smartwatches as tools to keep tabs on our steps, sleep, or heart rate. But what if these devices could do more than just track wellness habits? What if they could give us a head start on stopping a pandemic before it spreads?



That possibility is closer than it sounds. A study published earlier this year shows that smartwatches can detect subtle signs of illness hours before a person even feels sick. 



Scientists at <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/index.html">Texas A&amp;M University</a> and Stanford University modeled how this kind of early detection could play a major role in slowing, or even stopping, the spread of infectious diseases like COVID-19 or the flu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smartwatches-sense-symptoms-early">Smartwatches sense symptoms early</h2>



Using a computational model, the research team found that smartwatches could reduce the risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-disease-transmission-between-wildlife-and-humans/">disease transmission</a> by nearly 50 percent. Why? These devices can detect physical changes that occur before symptoms appear.



Dr. Martial Ndeffo-Mbah is an assistant professor in the Texas A&amp;M College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (VMBS), in the Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences.



"Even before a person starts showing symptoms of disease, there are physiological changes that happen to their body - like an increase in temperature or a change in sleeping pattern - that are usually too subtle for a person to notice but that can be detected by a smartwatch," he said. 



The key is catching the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-we-quantify-the-risk-of-a-covid-infection/">infection</a> early. If people get alerted by their smartwatch to potential illness, they can isolate, get tested, and reduce the chance of passing the disease to others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-responding-before-symptoms-hit">Responding before symptoms hit</h2>



People often don’t act until they feel clearly sick - a delay that makes outbreaks harder to control.



"Research on influenza indicates that most people initiate treatment quite late, many days after the onset of symptoms, when they should ideally begin treatment before symptoms begin," said Dr. Ndeffo-Mbah.



"Even in the presymptomatic stage, infected individuals are often contagious; studies have shown that as much as 44% of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-death-toll-of-covid-19-pandemic-revealed/">COVID-19</a> infections were transmitted by presymptomatic individuals."



This delay in action makes it harder to control outbreaks. But smartwatches could change that by detecting symptoms early and making alerts personal and immediate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smartwatches-bring-personal-warnings">Smartwatches bring personal warnings</h2>



Smartwatches could help people take public health guidelines more seriously. By turning early signs of illness into real-time alerts, they make the risk feel immediate, even if you feel fine.



"The protocols for COVID-19 included steps like isolating even after being in contact with someone who is sick, but many people tend to ignore that advice if they don’t feel sick themselves," said Dr. Ndeffo-Mbah.



"With a smartwatch, you could find out in real time - with a high degree of accuracy - if you are starting to get ill, which would hopefully give you a stronger motivation to follow protocols."



Dr. Ndeffo-Mbah noted that while the research focused on two specific respiratory diseases, there is a lot of potential to use smartwatches as a preventative tool for many other illnesses, including RSV. 



"Whenever the immune system responds to infection, there will be physiological changes that a smartwatch could help detect."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smartwatches-fill-testing-gaps">Smartwatches fill testing gaps</h2>



Testing is still critical. It gives people a definitive answer and helps track outbreaks. But smartwatches could help fill a major gap in testing behavior.



"During the COVID-19 pandemic, at-home testing kits became very popular, which is a good thing because they’re a great public health tool," said Dr. Ndeffo-Mbah.



People often use tests only when they feel sick or need to travel, and since they typically test just once, that’s not frequent enough to catch every infection - especially early ones.



"If you can seek treatment early, you may be able to prevent the worst symptoms from occurring, which is particularly important for high-risk and immunocompromised individuals."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wearables-reshape-public-health">Wearables reshape public health</h2>



Getting people to follow health guidelines is never easy. Fatigue, inconvenience, and skepticism often get in the way. 



"If you wake up in the morning and feel a little tired, you’re probably not going to assume that you need to get tested for COVID-19 or the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-flu-may-be-more-harmful-to-the-brain-than-covid/">flu</a>, especially when some of the tests involve nose swabbing and other hassles," said Dr. Ndeffo-Mbah.



Smartwatches may encourage testing and reduce contact before symptoms appear, especially among people missed by traditional methods. The potential is huge, but there’s still work to be done.



"Teams are working on the science and epidemiology side, and developers are working on the technology," he said. "Because there is so much potential good that this technology can do, we are working hard to make sure we get it right."



The future of disease prevention might already be on your wrist. And with the right tools, it could make a difference when it matters most. Pandemics move fast. Smartwatches could help us move faster.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/4/3/pgaf044/8046445">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Smartwatches show promise for early disease detection

Most of us think of smartwatches as tools to keep...

There is an apparent paradox in evolutionary theory. The rate of evolution seems to run like a sprinter over a few million years yet crawl over tens of millions, a pattern so regular that textbooks use it to link microevolution with macroevolution.&nbsp;



For decades, biologists treated that apparent increase in evolutionary rate as biological truth, arguing that young groups diversify faster than old ones, shed species more quickly, and tweak body plans at record pace. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-rate-paradox">Evolutionary rate paradox </h2>



Early molecular studies showed that mutation rates estimated from contemporary samples were 5-20 times higher than those calibrated with fossils drawn from deep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physicists-confirm-the-incredible-existence-of-time-mirrors/">time</a>, jolting confidence in the evolutionary “<a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2023.12.02.569704v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clock</a>.” 



Paleontologists spotted the same mismatch in the rock record: the evolutionary rate in newly arisen dinosaur lineages seemed faster than in lineages that had persisted for tens of millions of years.



Some theorists proposed that ecological opportunity drives early bursts, while competitive saturation dulls the pace later on. 



Others hinted that developmental constraints lock traits into “optimal” configurations and slow further change, an idea that made intuitive sense but resisted firm testing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-statistical-noise-warps-the-picture">Statistical noise warps the picture </h2>



A research team led by Brian C. O’Meara at the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/">University of Tennessee</a> and Jeremy M. Beaulieu at the <a href="https://www.uark.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arkansas</a> has recently investigated this paradox of evolutionary theory. 



O’Meara and Beaulieu built a simulation that treats every evolutionary rate estimate as a fraction - change in trait divided by elapsed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/negative-time-observed-measured-tangible-in-new-quantum-experiments/">time</a> - and then distributed measurement error evenly across every numerator.



Because the denominator (time) varies wildly while the error does not, the ratio traces a <a href="https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Algebra/Algebra_and_Trigonometry_1e_(OpenStax)/12%3A_Analytic_Geometry/12.02%3A_The_Hyperbola" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hyperbola</a> that plummets with age - exactly the pattern that inspired all those stories of adaptation.



“By employing a novel statistical approach, we found that this time‑independent noise … makes it seem like evolutionary rates increase over shorter time frames when, in fact, they do not,” explained O’Meara.&nbsp;



When the team randomized real datasets, shuffling trait differences while leaving times intact, the fake data reproduced more than 85 percent of the scatter found in genuine evolutionary rate studies. This level of mimicry stunned even longtime rate‑modelers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-running-the-numbers">Running the numbers</h2>



The analysis covered molecular substitutions in birds and primates, body‑size shifts in mammals and lizards, speciation surges in flowering plants, and extinction tallies drawn from conservation lists.&nbsp;



Across five independent datasets totaling almost 9,000 evolutionary rate estimates, the fitted curves showed the same steep drop in the first 10 million years followed by a flattening tail, just what the noise model predicts.



In one mammal dataset, the median coefficient of variation for repeated measurements at the same age was 0.59, meaning the standard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traditional-computers-verify-errors-made-by-quantum-computers/">error</a> was more than half the mean value. 



Put differently, five percent of those “measurements” would have placed the Eiffel Tower shorter than a giraffe or taller than twice its real height - an error band that is wide enough to drown any subtle biological signal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viral-evolution-and-the-cosmos">Viral evolution and the cosmos</h2>



The statistical noise idea echoes work on viral evolution, where apparent mutation‑rate “decay” with time has been traced to mutational saturation and sampling bias rather than to fundamental shifts in replication chemistry.&nbsp;



Astronomers face a parallel dilemma: the “<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hubble/nasas-webb-hubble-telescopes-affirm-universes-expansion-rate-puzzle-persists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble tension</a>” arises because recent supernova surveys and ancient cosmic‑microwave‑background data give different expansion rates. 



Some physicists now attribute the Hubble discrepancy, at least partly, to mismatched error structures.



Both cases remind scientists that plotting a ratio (rate) against one of its components (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/time-may-not-just-move-forward-experts-say-it-could-rewind/">time</a>) courts mathematical traps unless errors are modeled explicitly. 



The new study argues that evolutionary biology has been caught in just such a trap, mistaking geometry for genetics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-evolutionary-rate-research">Next steps in evolutionary rate research</h2>



Comparative methods that search a phylogeny for bursts of trait change may flag any young <a href="https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-tree-room/evolutionary-trees-a-primer/clades-within-clades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clade</a> as “rapidly evolving” even when its true rate of change matches the background, simply because less time has accrued to dilute measurement error.



Diversification analyses that exclude small groups with zero speciation events risk overestimating average rates near the present, further skewing the perceived trend. 



O’Meara suggests that researchers of evolutionary theory adopt fixed‑window approaches, examining change per 100,000 years or per 1 million years, much as <a href="https://www.environmentalscience.org/dendrochronology-tree-rings-tell-us" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dendrochronologists</a> study tree rings, thereby holding the denominator constant.



He also urges journals to require explicit error terms for trait means, branch‑length estimates, and dating calibrations - allowing models to partition signal from noise instead of forcing error to zero by fiat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-evolutionary-theory-matters">Why evolutionary theory matters</h2>



Far from closing the doors of research into evolution rates, the work clears the field to tackle fresh questions: which traits truly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-tunneling-allow-particles-break-light-speed-barrier/">speed</a> up or slow down over time, and under what ecological or genetic circumstances? 



With the hyperbolic mirage out of the way, biologists can focus on signals that remain after accounting for error, signals that may illuminate how life diversifies, adapts, and sometimes stalls.



Tools developed for sequencing error in virology or for tip‑dating in paleogenomics could be repurposed to model measurement uncertainty in comparative datasets from diverse branches of the tree of life.&nbsp;



“Biology is rich in mysteries: actually answering one lets us move on to the next,” wrote the authors in an unpublished summary of their work. The statement highlights their view that solving the rate paradox frees, rather than constrains, evolutionary thought.



The study is published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1012458" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Computational Biology</a>.



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Scientists debunk key evolutionary theory as "statistical noise"

There is an apparent paradox in evolutionary theory. The rate...

Killer whales have been spotted doing something unexpected: using seaweed to massage one another.



Experts observed them breaking off pieces of kelp, placing it between themselves and another whale, and rolling it between their bodies. The behavior looks deliberate - and it’s something researchers had never seen before.



The discovery was made by scientists at the Center for Whale Research, working with the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. They used high-quality drone footage to study southern resident killer whales in the Salish Sea, off the coast of Washington State. 



What they saw was new: pairs of whales using kelp together in a way that might count as tool use - a first for marine mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-shared-seaweed">Whales shared seaweed</h2>



Killer whales have long been known to engage in “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-play-with-seaweed-and-roll-in-its-antibacterial-properties/">kelping</a>,” a term used when they rub themselves with seaweed. But this new behavior goes further. The whales aren’t just grabbing kelp for themselves. They’re using it with each other - what the scientists are calling “allokelping.”



What makes this behavior stand out is how the kelp is used. Whales were seen selecting it, trimming it, and then coordinating with a partner to rub it between their bodies. That makes it more like tool-making than simple play.



“We were amazed when we first noticed this behavior,” said Dr. Michael Weiss of the <a href="https://www.whaleresearch.com/">Center for Whale Research</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-favor-kin-for-kelping">Whales favor kin for "kelping"</h2>



The whales didn’t allokelp randomly. Most of the time, they did it with relatives - especially close maternal kin - or whales of similar age. The researchers think it may help strengthen social bonds or even benefit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-skin-disease-threatens-endangered-killer-whales/">skin health</a>.



“Bull kelp stalk is firm but flexible, like a filled garden hose, with a slippery outer surface. I suspect these features make it an ideal grooming tool,” said Weiss.



“What I find remarkable about this behavior is just how widespread it is in the population. Males and females of all life stages and from all three southern resident pods were seen using kelp in this way. All evidence points to it being an important part of their social lives.”



Allokelping was seen on two-thirds of the observation days. Based on the consistency, the researchers think it might be universal within the group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quality-of-drone-footage">Quality of drone footage</h2>



So why hadn’t anyone noticed it before? The quality of drone footage made all the difference.



“This population of whales has been formally studied for 50 years - the best-studied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sign-of-the-times-solitary-orcas-are-hunting-great-whites/">orcas</a> on the planet - and yet major new discoveries can still be made,” said Rachel John, a graduate student studying animal behavior at the University of Exeter.



According to John, the researchers hadn’t noticed ‘allokelping’ before because the videos being collected from their previous aircraft weren’t of high enough quality, but the footage we’re getting now shows this behavior in great detail.



She recalled the moment they realized what they were seeing: “Drone cameras allow us to see things that were invisible to us from boats or the shore. I was watching one of those really close-up videos when I saw something that looked like a brown stick between two whales that were in contact with each other."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kelping-behavior-of-killer-whales">Kelping behavior of killer whales</h2>



John said her team didn’t think much of this at first, but they had also noticed pairs of whales staying in contact with each other for long periods - several minutes at a time.



"We looked back at lots of videos and realized that rubbing kelp between their bodies wasn’t just a one-off thing - it was happening all the time," she noted.



"Once we saw whales breaking off pieces of kelp intentionally, it became clear that this is not just play - this is something important in the social lives of the southern resident killer whales.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-importance-of-touch">The importance of touch </h2>



Professor Darren Croft, of the University of Exeter and the Center for Whale Research, thinks the answer lies in the importance of touch. “We know touch is really important," he said. “In primates - including humans - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-hidden-way-that-humans-feel-and-sense-touch/">touch</a> moderates stress and helps to build relationships."



“We know killer whales often make contact with other members of their group - touching with their bodies and fins - but using kelp like this might enhance this experience."



This behavior may also play a role in skin health. Whales and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-hear-special-whistles-and-change-their-behavior/">dolphins</a> use a variety of strategies to shed dead skin - and this could be yet another adaptation serving that purpose.



“Brown algae like bull kelp also have antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties that may provide further benefits to the whales," Croft said.



Scientists are now working to confirm these initial findings and investigate the social and skin health benefits of this behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-population-on-the-brink">A population on the brink</h2>



As of July 2024, there were only 73 southern resident killer whales left. They don’t breed with other killer whale groups. That makes them a closed population - and a critically endangered one.



Their main food source is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distinctly-different-chinook-salmon-are-part-of-the-same-population/">Chinook salmon</a>, which is also declining. The salmon face pressure from overfishing, habitat destruction, climate change, and pollution. On top of that, whales have to deal with noise and chemical pollution from boats and industry.



Dr. Weiss warned that without significant change, the future of southern resident killer whales looks grim.



“Under the status quo, all of our projections indicate the population will continue to decline," he said. “They are struggling to find enough of the large Chinook salmon needed to survive and successfully rear their young.



“We often think about biodiversity in terms of protecting the phenotypic variation we see in animal populations - such as differences in size, shape, and color. However, conserving cultural and behavioral variation may be just as important."



Dr. Weiss added that allokelping is yet another piece of evidence of the southern residents’ uniqueness. If we lose them, he said, we lose so much more than 73 individual animals or a genetic lineage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vanishing-kelp-forests">Vanishing kelp forests</h2>



The new findings also suggest that the future survival of southern resident killer whales may face an added threat: the decline of kelp forests they rely on for grooming tools. This decline is being driven by rising ocean temperatures linked to global warming.



Protecting the kelp forests where these whales craft their grooming tools could be vital to preserving their unique cultural behavior. It may also help ensure the long-term survival of the southern resident killer whale population.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00450-6?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982225004506%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Current Biology</a>.



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Killer whales use kelp to massage and groom each other

Killer whales have been spotted doing something unexpected: using seaweed...

The hairy frogfish looks more like a tuft of drifting seaweed than a hunter. Yet beneath the mop of filaments sits an anglerfish that can inhale prey faster than most cameras can blink.



Marine ecologist Dr. Maarten De Brauwer of <a href="https://research.csiro.au/environomics/our-people/early-career-researchers-separate-bios/dr-maarten-brauwer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curtin University</a> first noticed that the fish’s lure shines neon orange under blue light, while the rest of the body stays dull. 



His team’s 2016 field <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00338-016-1493-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survey</a> on Philippine reefs linked that glow to free‑swimming worms that share the same color and size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hairy-frogfish-hides-by-copying-reef-textures">Hairy frogfish hides by copying reef textures</h2>



The hairy frogfish belongs to the anglerfish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogfish-lure-their-prey-with-a-built-in-fishing-rod-and-bait/">family</a>, but instead of lurking in the deep it prowls coral rubble in tropical shallows. 



A coat of branching spinules lets it copy the texture of algae, sponge, or coral until the head seems to vanish into the seafloor.



Individuals can swap pattern and shade within weeks, shifting from lemon yellow to mottled black as sediment, light, and growth change around them. 



That rapid makeover is a textbook example of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022519323002801" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Batesian mimicry</a>, a tactic where harmless looks discourage predators while inviting unsuspecting prey.



Sight alone does not give the trick away, because even the fish’s eyes carry radiating stripes that obscure the pupil. 



Only the stubby “arm” formed by the first dorsal spine, called the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/illicium-zoology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">illicium</a>, rises above the camouflage like a tiny fishing pole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-glowing-lure-helps-the-hairy-frogfish">How the glowing lure helps the hairy frogfish</h2>



“These observations indicate a novel function, prey capture, for biofluorescence in coral reef fishes,” wrote De Brauwer. 



Under daylight the illicium ends in a dull worm‑shaped tassel, but blue‑filtered lamps reveal intense <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-59528-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biofluorescence</a> that converts blue light to orange. 



The idea fits a wider pattern, because a survey of 180 fish species found <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0083259" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glowing pigments</a> clustered in cryptic reef lineages. 



<a href="https://www.amnh.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Museum of Natural History</a> ichthyologist <a href="https://www.amnh.org/research/staff-directory/john-s-sparks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. John Sparks</a> noted that “biofluorescence is especially common and morphologically variable in cryptically patterned coral‑reef lineages,” hinting at communication or hunting value.



By matching the fluorescent worms that drift over sandy bottoms at night, the lure likely acts as a living decoy. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-anglerfish-defy-evolutionary-expectations/">fish</a> twitches the tip in arcs and pulses that copy the jellied plankton’s swim, drawing curious gobies and cardinalfish within lunging range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fastest-strikes-on-record">Fastest strikes on record</h2>



Once a victim lines up, the mouth opens twelve times wider than its resting size, pulling in water and prey through rapid <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/striated-frogfish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suction feeding</a>. 



High‑speed videos have timed the attack at just six milliseconds, making the frogfish one of the quickest predators recorded.



That burst happens because elastic ligaments around the jaw store energy while the fish crouches. Releasing the latch snaps the head forward, creating a pressure wave that drags prey inward before the target knows it moved. 



The stomach then stretches like a balloon, letting a four‑inch frogfish swallow a meal almost twice its own length. Mouth, stomach, and even gill covers reset within minutes, ready for the next ambush without swimming far.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hairy-frogfish-lives-without-swimming">Hairy frogfish lives without swimming</h2>



Frogfish seldom swim, preferring a slow shuffle powered by limb‑like pectoral and pelvic fins. The gait looks clumsy, yet it lets the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/">animal</a> creep through branching corals or over sponges without stirring mud.



<a href="https://fishbase.se/summary/Antennarius-striatus.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FishBase</a> records show the species from New Jersey to Brazil and across the Indo‑Pacific, at depths ranging from tide pools to 720 feet. 



Most adults settle below 100 feet where wave surge is gentle, but juveniles often lurk among shore grass beds that teem with shrimp.



Males change color during courtship, trailing females to the surface where a buoyant ribbon of up to 288,000 eggs drifts free. Larvae hatch in open water and later drop to the bottom, beginning the camouflage dance anew.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-findings-mean">What the findings mean</h2>



“Aggressive mimicry allows a predator to masquerade as something harmless to approach prey,” wrote marine zoologist <a href="https://zoolstud.sinica.edu.tw/Journals/44.3/299.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">John E. Randall</a>. Aggressive mimicry, where a predator disguises itself as the prey’s food, shows up in a handful of reef hunters.&nbsp;



The fluorescent lure adds a light signal to that illusion, effective only for animals with visual pigments tuned to blue and green. Future lab tests will measure how often fish reject non‑fluorescent lures compared with glowing ones, refining ideas about sensory ecology.



Understanding these cues may also improve non‑invasive survey methods that use fluorescence to spot cryptic species on night dives. Conservation teams already trial blue‑light transects to count seahorses and pipefish that vanish under white lamps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-protect-hairy-frogfish">How to protect hairy frogfish</h2>



Antennarius striatus sits on the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/16406979/115354869#assessment-information" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN list</a> as “Least Concern,” but habitat loss threatens local populations on polluted coasts. 



Collectors sometimes trawl adults for the aquarium trade, yet demand remains modest compared with bright reef staples like clownfish.



Protecting rubble fields and sea‑grass beds will likely benefit the frogfish alongside countless small invertebrates. Marine parks can also restrict night fishing with lights that might interfere with fluorescent signaling.



Citizen scientists armed with blue torches contribute valuable sightings through photo databases. Each image builds a map of occurrence, molt timing, and lure color that researchers can mine for long‑term trends.



The study is published in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00338-016-1493-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coral Reefs</a>.



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Strangest fish in the ocean walks on the seafloor, changes colors, and uses a fishing lure

The hairy frogfish looks more like a tuft of drifting...

Organs are not molded like blobs of passive clay. They rise from busy landscapes where cells crawl, tug, and signal until form emerges. 



In new work with the humble fruit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-are-more-vulnerable-to-climate-change-than-bees/">fly</a>, researchers watched future muscle cells roam across a juvenile testis, squeeze it like a drawstring bag, and twist the tissue into its adult spiral.



What they learned about this roaming workforce may also explain how tumors invade distant sites. 



Dr. Maik Bischoff of the <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> at Chapel Hill, together with colleagues in the <a href="https://tarheels.live/peiferlab/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peifer Laboratory</a>, led the project and captured the shape‑shifting drama in living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-is-just-three-years-away-from-dangerous-carbon-milestone/">animals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-fly-organs-shaped-by-muscle-cells">Fruit fly organs shaped by muscle cells</h2>



The fruit fly <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/drosophila-melanogaster" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Drosophila melanogaster</a> starts with a smooth, oval testis. Within hours, waves of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/mesenchymal-cell" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mesenchymal cells</a> - motile precursors that resemble fibroblasts - glide over its surface.



These cells do not travel at random; they move as a sheet in a process known as <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/137/12/jcs261549/358091/perspectives-in-collective-cell-migration-moving" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collective cell migration</a>. Coordination keeps gaps from forming and ensures every patch of the organ gets covered.



Most textbooks credit nearby <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22062-epithelium" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epithelial cells</a> with the heavy lifting of organ building, because epithelial sheets act like bricks and mortar. 



The new study shows that migratory peers can be just as important, especially when an organ must change length, curvature, or torsion.



Each <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu3741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">precursor</a> advances roughly one body length every ten minutes, a pace that, scaled to human size, would equal a jog along a football field every hour.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cells-crawl-to-shape-the-fruit-fly-testis">Cells crawl to shape the fruit fly testis</h2>



“Trying to figure it out from static images is like learning the rules of basketball from a handful of screenshots,” said Bischoff. His team labeled the precursors with fluorescent markers and filmed them for six hours.



The videos of fruit fly organs forming revealed alternating bouts of advance and constriction: cells first crawled distally, then tightened the actin belt wrapped around the testis. 



To capture these speeds, the team used a spinning‑disk microscope paired with adaptive optics that collected volumetric stacks every 30 seconds without bleaching the tissue.



The group found that each precursor keeps at least three filopodia in contact with its neighbors, acting like fingers in a zip‑lock seam. When one cell stalled, the seam held firm and force propagated through the sheet, much like hikers roped together on ice. 



The choreography echoed <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/applied-mathematics-and-statistics/articles/10.3389/fams.2023.1163583/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">computer models</a> showing that follower‑guided migration remains robust even when leaders falter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-fly-organs-and-nerve-signals">Fruit fly organs and nerve signals</h2>



Unexpectedly, the roving precursors spoke in the chemical language best known from neural development. The key messenger is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/semaphorin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">semaphorin</a>, and its receptor <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/plexin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plexin</a> sits in the cell membrane acting as a brake and steering wheel at the same time. 



Biochemists often study the pair for their role in guiding axons, but the same duo now turns up in gonad shaping.



Genetic tricks showed that reducing plexin made testis‑wrapping cells clump together, while too much plexin caused them to drift apart. Either imbalance opened holes in the muscle coat. 



The effect mirrors work in vertebrates where <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39490515/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">semaphorin‑plexin circuits</a> can either loosen or tighten junctions depending on context.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-fruit-flies-to-mammals">From fruit flies to mammals</h2>



Intriguingly, fruit‑fly semaphorin‑1b seems to temper plexin rather than activate it, an antagonism that is echoed in mammalian <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11482903/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">semaphorin‑6A</a> that fine‑tunes cortical neuron spacing. 



Downstream of plexin, the small <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/cr2012110" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GTPase R‑Ras2</a> flips between on and off states to regulate integrin‑mediated grip on the underlying matrix, a mechanism previously linked to blood vessel stability.



The fruit‑fly result hints that the same switchboard may tune adhesion in very different tissues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-cancer-cells-move">How cancer cells move</h2>



Cancer cells hijack developmental playbooks when they leave a primary tumor. They often assume a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri2395" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mesenchymal</a> identity, migrate collectively, and "talk" through semaphorin‑plexin signals that were turned down after birth. 



A 2024 <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0024320523001339" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> cataloged over a dozen tumors in which plexin signaling correlated with invasion depth and metastatic load.



“Mesenchymal cells are often overlooked in organ development, but they’re incredibly dynamic and influential,” noted senior author Dr. Mark Peifer.



Because the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21610676/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fly testis</a> is easy to image and manipulate, it offers a rare window into how normal migratory sheets avoid tearing. Tumor clusters face the same engineering problem when they travel through cramped extracellular spaces.&nbsp;



The team’s discovery that a neuron‑style guidance cue balances cohesion and flexibility could explain why <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-91559-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blocking</a> specific semaphorins slows breast cancer spread in mice. 



If the pathway keeps malignant cells together, disrupting it might splinter a cluster into cells too weak to survive alone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-flies-and-organ-development">Fruit flies and organ development </h2>



Beyond oncology, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonfly-larvae-expose-climates-hidden-influence-on-biology/">insights</a> from fruit flies add a control knob for future tissue‑engineering projects. Synthetic organoids usually rely on patterned growth factors and stiff scaffolds, yet they still collapse or fold unpredictably.



Tuning semaphorin or plexin activity could let bioengineers guide cell streams to carve channels, chambers, or helical shells without external molds. 



Pharmaceutical firms already test small‑molecule plexin inhibitors for neuropathic pain; the same toolbox now has potential in regenerative medicine if dosing can be localized.



The approach may also help repair injuries in adults. <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsbiomaterials.2c00039" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Endothelial sheets</a> that line blood vessels regenerate by collective migration, and aberrant R‑Ras signaling is tied to leaky capillaries in diabetes. 



Insights from fruit fly organ development could point to drug targets that restore vessel integrity after trauma or stroke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-transplant-ready-tissues">Building transplant-ready tissues</h2>



Finally, Bischoff’s high‑speed imaging of fruit flies, which records thousands of cell paths in deep tissue, sets a new standard for studying morphogenesis. 



Combining it with optogenetic switches that toggle plexin within seconds might reveal how transient pulses of adhesion control long‑term shape.



 Such precision will be essential for building transplant‑ready tissues where every curve counts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu3741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Muscle cells crawl across fruit fly organs to build body structures

Organs are not molded like blobs of passive clay. They...

Some people believe the moon landing was staged. Others say dinosaurs never existed. Despite overwhelming evidence to the contrary, such conspiracy theories thrive. But what truly drives these beliefs? Is it loneliness, narcissism, or a need to feel special?



A new study from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a> takes a different angle. It shifts the focus from emotional needs to cognitive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-people-believe-conspiracy-theories/">misjudgment</a>. The research shows that overconfidence and misperception about social agreement fuel conspiracy thinking. 



People who believe in conspiracy theories are often unaware of how isolated their views really are. They think they’re part of a larger consensus. But in reality, they stand nearly alone.



This mismatch between belief and reality is not only puzzling. It is also dangerous. With the rise of online misinformation, understanding this psychological pattern has never been more urgent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conspiracy-believers-are-very-confident">Conspiracy believers are very confident </h2>



Overconfidence is a key trait of those who hold conspiracy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conversations-with-ai-chatbots-can-reverse-reduce-conspiracy-theory-beliefs/">beliefs</a>. In the Cornell study, the researchers tested participants on numeracy and visual perception. 



Despite performing poorly, conspiracy believers thought they had done well. This wasn't a one-off event. It was consistent across different types of tasks. Participants routinely overestimated their own abilities.



But that wasn’t the most striking finding. These individuals also assumed that others agreed with them. According to the data, conspiracy believers thought they were in the majority 93 percent of the time. In most cases, they weren’t even close.



“This group of people are really miscalibrated from reality,” said Gordon Pennycook, associate professor of psychology. "In many cases, they believe something that very few people agree with. 



"Not only is it something that doesn’t make a lot of sense, based on what we know about the world, but they also have no idea how far out in the fringe they are. They think they are in the majority in most cases, even if they’re in a tiny minority.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-people-believe-conspiracy-theories">Why people believe conspiracy theories</h2>



Past studies often blamed conspiracy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-stars-conspiracy-theory-may-have-been-officially-put-to-rest/">thinking</a> on narcissism or the need to appear unique. This new work paints a more cognitive picture. 



Belief in false ideas doesn’t always arise from intentional bias. Sometimes, it's just poor self-evaluation.



To reach these conclusions, researchers conducted eight separate studies involving 4,181 U.S. adults. Four of the studies focused on individual levels of overconfidence. 



Participants were not just asked to take standard tests. Instead, they engaged in tasks where real performance couldn’t easily influence their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physicists-confirm-the-incredible-existence-of-time-mirrors/">perception</a>. 



In one case, they had to guess images that were heavily obscured, so difficult that they might as well have been guessing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-unmeasurable">Measuring the unmeasurable</h2>



Overconfidence is tricky to measure. People who are least competent are often the least aware of it. 



To bypass this issue, the team created tasks where the outcome was disconnected from actual ability. This allowed them to isolate confidence as a trait, rather than a result of success.



“Participants have little reason to believe that they did well - allowing higher estimated performance to more directly index higher levels of trait overconfidence without being confounded by actual performance,” noted the researchers.



With this method, the team could see a clear pattern. People who held strong conspiracy beliefs were more likely to inflate their test performance. They were also more likely to assume their beliefs were widely shared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conspiracy-believers-think-most-people-agree">Conspiracy believers think most people agree</h2>



In the next phase of the study, participants were asked about well-known conspiracy theories. 



The theories included claims like the Apollo moon landings being faked, Princess Diana’s death not being accidental, and the idea that dinosaurs never existed.



While these theories have been widely debunked, belief in them persists among some. The key insight was not just in who believed these claims - it was how they perceived the beliefs of others. 



Even when only a small minority shared a belief, those participants thought the majority agreed with them. This gap between actual consensus and perceived consensus is central to the problem.



Overconfident individuals assume that what they believe must be common knowledge. That assumption makes them resistant to correction. If you think most people agree with you, why would you change your mind?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-internet-spreads-belief-in-conspiracies">Internet spreads belief in conspiracies</h2>



The internet has expanded the reach of conspiracy theories. Social media allows fringe ideas to spread quickly and widely. Once isolated views now find instant communities of believers. 



But the issue is deeper than just access to bad information. It’s about how people process that information and how confident they are in their own views.



Pennycook points to the changing information landscape. This “expanded marketplace for conspiracy theories” makes it easier than ever to find validation online, but the underlying overconfidence makes that validation feel unnecessary. People don’t seek opposing views because they don’t think they need to.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-challenge-in-correcting-beliefs">Real challenge in correcting beliefs</h2>



Efforts to counter misinformation often focus on facts. But facts alone may not be enough. If someone is unaware of their own errors, they won’t see the value in correction. This cognitive barrier makes misinformation harder to dislodge.



“The people who most need help distinguishing truth from falsity are the least likely to recognize that they need it," noted the researchers.



This creates a cycle that feeds itself. The more confident someone is in their beliefs, the less they question them. The less they question, the more isolated they become from reality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-way-we-talk-about-truth">Rethinking the way we talk about truth</h2>



This research changes how we think about conspiracy theories. It suggests that tackling misinformation requires more than better education or clearer facts. We need to find ways to address overconfidence directly.



Helping people recognize the limits of their own knowledge could be the first step. Only then can they begin to question what they believe and understand how few others might actually agree with them.



The fight against conspiracy thinking might start not with facts, but with humility. And that may be the most difficult challenge of all.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/01461672251338358" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin</a>.



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Overconfidence makes conspiracy believers think they're right

Some people believe the moon landing was staged. Others say...

Synthetic chemicals known as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances - commonly called PFAS - are quietly contaminating soil and water across the country. 



Used in everything from mascara to nonstick pans, these substances are at the center of a growing environmental crisis.



The chemicals don’t break down in nature. Once they’re in the environment, they stick around for good. That’s a serious problem for people, wildlife, and ecosystems. But a team of scientists may have found a surprising solution, and it starts in the dirt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-bacteria-target-pfas-toxins">Soil bacteria target PFAS toxins</h2>



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.unicatt.it/">Catholic University</a> in Piacenza, working with collaborators from the University of Padua, have discovered nearly 20 species of bacteria capable of breaking down PFAS.



The researchers found these bacteria in soil contaminated by industrial waste in the Veneto region of northern Italy. 



PFAS are notoriously tough to get rid of. Their strength comes from a powerful bond between carbon and fluorine atoms, which makes them <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposure-to-forever-chemicals-costs-billions-in-the-us/">resistant to heat, oil, and water</a> - and almost impossible to biodegrade.



That’s why they’re often called “forever chemicals.” But this same strength is what makes them so harmful. PFAS can build up in soil, crops, and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-people-in-the-u-s-rely-on-contaminated-groundwater/">drinking water</a>, with potential links to serious health problems like diabetes and hormone disruption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pfas-contamination-leads-to-discovery">PFAS contamination leads to discovery</h2>



In Vicenza, high levels of PFAS contamination - upwards of 1,000 ng/L - have been detected in aquifers, soil, crops, and tap water. 



The source is likely a nearby factory. Faced with this environmental threat, researchers from the Catholic University set out to find microbes that might be able to degrade these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-deadly-and-widespread-environmental-pollutants/">pollutants</a>.



The team collected soil samples from polluted sites in Veneto, focusing on Vicenza and Padua provinces. The goal was to isolate bacterial strains that not only survive in PFAS-laden environments but actively break the chemicals down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-meet-modern-tools">Microbes meet modern tools</h2>



To find the right <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-strain-identified-that-can-eat-forever-chemicals/">bacteria</a>, the researchers combined two approaches. First, they used traditional microbiology methods to grow and isolate bacteria from the soil. 



Next, the team used DNA metabarcoding to identify which microbial species were present and analyze their potential for PFAS degradation.



“We obtained these PFAS-eating bacteria through a process called 'enrichment,' which involves growing them in media where they only have PFAS to feed on," explained Professor Edoardo Puglisi, who led the research.



"We already have the complete genomes of these 20 PFAS-eating strains,” the expert continues, “and information on the degradation rates for each one.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-capabilities-of-the-bacteria">Testing the capabilities of the bacteria</h2>



Working with the university’s chemistry department, the team measured how well these bacteria degraded PFAS in controlled tests.



"In collaboration with the chemistry group in our department, we have measured the degradation efficiency of PFAS, reaching values in some cases above 30%, which is very high for this class of compounds," Puglisi said.



"Tests are now underway on various PFAS, which will be followed by initial lab experiments to verify their remediation capabilities under more representative conditions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-biodegradation">The future of biodegradation</h2>



According to Puglisi, the team is studying these strains in more detail and analyzing their genomes. "They are classified in the genera known in the field of bioremediation such as Micrococcus, Rhodanobacter, Pseudoxanthomonas, and Achromobacter."



Puglisi noted that these bacteria are easily cultivated in the laboratory and they usually are not harmful to humans.



"Furthermore, it is possible that genome analysis could lead to the discovery of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-regulation-controlling-cells-to-improve-medical-treatments/">genes</a> involved in biodegradation that could be exploited biotechnologically in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-pfas-eating-bacteria">Significance of PFAS-eating bacteria </h2>



Although PFAS pollution isn’t going away anytime soon, these new findings offer a glimmer of hope. Identifying PFAS-eating bacteria marks a key step toward sustainable cleanup of contaminated environments.



The ability of these microbes to use PFAS as their sole carbon source is especially promising, showing real potential for natural degradation of even the most persistent compounds.



It’s still early, but if the results hold up in the field, they could reshape how we tackle toxic waste. And the best part? The solution might already be under our feet.



The team presented their findings at the European SETAC conference in Vienna in May 2025.



Image Credit: Unsplash/CC0 Public Domain



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Bacteria that eat 'forever chemicals' discovered in contaminated soil

Synthetic chemicals known as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances - commonly...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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