Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.who.int/">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) has found that, by the third quarter of 2021 – thus, before the emergence of the highly contagious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-high-transmissibility-and-chance-for-reinfection/">Omicron</a> variant in South Africa in November – 65 percent of the African population already had antibodies against SARS-CoV-2. Since at the time when this data was gathered only four percent of the population of the continent has been vaccinated (to date, this number has increased to 14 percent), the vast majority of these antibodies appear to be the result of natural infection.&nbsp;



But why have hospitalizations and deaths remained so low in West and Central Africa throughout the pandemic? According to Sierra Leone’s health minister Austin Demby, the answers to this question “are relevant not just to us, but have implications for the greater public good.”



Some scientists argue that perhaps Covid-related hospitalizations and deaths are simply not counted in Africa and that, in fact, the pandemic’s toll has been as great on this continent as in many other parts of the world. Indeed, excess mortality data in South Africa shows that during the first two years of the pandemic, over 250,000 more people died than expected from mortality patterns in previous years. Could it be that in other countries there are similar death rates and they are not noticed and reported?



“We have not seen massive burials in Africa. If that had happened, we’d have seen it,” said Dr. Thierno Baldé, the leader of WHO’s Covid emergency response in Africa. “A death in Africa never goes unrecorded, as much as we are poor at record-keeping,” added Dr. Abdhalah Ziraba, an epidemiologist at the <a href="https://aphrc.org/">African Population and Health Research Center</a> in Nairobi, Kenya.&nbsp;



“There is a funeral, an announcement: A burial is never done within a week because it is a big event. For someone sitting in New York hypothesizing that they were unrecorded - well, we may not have the accurate numbers, but the perception is palpable. In the media, in your social circle, you know if there are deaths.”



Sierra Leone’s health minister – a trained epidemiologist – strongly agrees: “We haven’t had overflowing hospitals. We haven’t. There is no evidence that excess deaths are occurring.”&nbsp;



Some scholars argue that high temperatures, the fact that much of daily life is spent outside, the low population density in many areas, and the relatively young population could have been crucial factors that helped spare the Africans from the worst Covid outcomes. However, India has largely similar conditions, and it nearly collapsed under the Delta variant last spring, with over four million estimated deaths.



Perhaps a more plausible explanation would be that many Africans had cross-immunity from being exposed to a variety of other pathogens, including not only other coronaviruses, but also microbes causing deadlier infections such as malaria, Lassa fever, or Ebola. However, this remains an unproven hypothesis in need of investigation. Urgent research is needed to find out if and which of these pathogens might offer cross-protection against SARS-CoV-2. Clarifying this issue is critical not only for solving Africa’s mysterious relation to Covid-19, but also for the future development of better vaccines and treatments worldwide.&nbsp;



A pre-print version of the WHO seroprevalence study can be found <a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.02.14.22270934v1.full">here</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why has Covid-19 largely spared Africa?

A new study led by the World Health Organization (WHO)...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">University of California, Davis</a> has found that infant monkeys conceived while their mothers were naturally exposed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aerosols-in-wildfire-smoke-can-affect-the-climate-for-days/">wildfire smoke</a> shown significant behavioral changes compared to those conceived a few days after the exposure. These findings prove the importance of timing in the effects of smoke exposure during pregnancy, and suggest that exposure to such pollutants could have similar impacts on human infants.



“I think this will have an effect on future studies of exposures in pregnancy, because we’ll know when to look,” said study senior author Bill Lasley, a professor emeritus of Population Health and Reproduction at UC Davis. According to Lasley, existing studies of environmental exposure to pollutants during pregnancy in humans are largely retrospective, since women may not even realize that they are pregnant until weeks into the first trimester.



The Camp Fire – one of the largest and deadliest wildfires in California’s history – began on November 8, 2018 and provided a natural experiment in the effects of smoke exposure. At the peak of the breeding season for rhesus macaques housed in outdoor corrals at the <a href="https://cnprc.ucdavis.edu/">California National Primate Center</a> in Davis, the smoke blanketed the area, exposing many of the pregnant monkeys.



The 89 macaques conceived around that time were born approximately six months later. The researchers divided them into 52 animals conceived on or before November 22 – which were considered to be exposed to wildfire smoke during the first trimester – and 37 that were conceived later.



According to the scientists, the smoke exposed monkey infants showed increases in markers of inflammation, reduced cortisol responses to stress, memory deficits, and more passive temperaments than those conceived later. These effects appear similar to those identified in studies of prenatal exposure to air pollution, and are probably caused by airborne hydrocarbons such as phthalates, which were found in the smoke from the Camp Fire.



Unlike in the case of other mammals, the placenta of primates such as monkeys or humans produces hormones supporting brain development through the adrenal system. “Since fetal adrenal glands are the source of cortisol and other steroids for neurologic development, which determines behaviors, a scenario of a placenta-adrenal-brain axis could be the causal pathway,” explained Professor Lasley.



Further research is needed to clarify whether smoke exposure in humans could cause similar effects. The scientists are now beginning a prospective study on women with implanted embryos as a result of in vitro fertilization, since the time of conception is exactly known if the women are incidentally exposed to wildfire smoke or other types of pollutants.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-29436-9">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wildfire smoke exposure changes behavior of infant monkeys

A new study led by the University of California, Davis...

A 2016 study found that 22 percent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-doubles-the-risk-of-severe-pregnancy-complications/">pregnant</a> women in Colorado had detectable levels of cannabinoids in their bodies. Research shows that exposure to cannabis, including the popular CBD products, during pregnancy put children at risk for health problems.&nbsp;



CBD is seen as non psychoactive and is advertised as helping a host of psychological issues such as anxiety, depression and post traumatic stress disorder. Because CBD is seen as therapeutic and few side effects are noted, it’s used in a whole host of products from tinctures and lotions to food.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The risks of cannabinoid exposure in the womb for the children include risks of obesity, high blood sugar and behavioral problems.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We found that cannabis use during pregnancy was linked to increased fat mass percentage and fasting glucose levels in 5-year-old children,” said Dr. Brianna Moore of the <a href="https://coloradosph.cuanschutz.edu/">Colorado School of Public Health</a>. “We would encourage women to refrain from using any cannabis while pregnant or breastfeeding to minimize adverse health effects in the offspring.”



The researchers tested for cannabinoids in urine samples from 103 pregnant women, and 15 percent of those tested had detectable levels of cannabinoids in their urine. The children of the women who tested positive for cannabinoids had children with higher fat content and higher fasting glucose levels than the children of women without cannabinoids in their urine. This is clear evidence of the negative impact of using cannabinoid products when pregnant. Still yet, the scientists caution that more research is needed to fully understand the full effect caused by cannabis use in pregnant women.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“More studies are needed to understand how exposure to different cannabinoids during pregnancy may impact the offspring,” said Dr. Moore.



The research, which was funded by the National Institutes of Health, is <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jcem/advance-article/doi/10.1210/clinem/dgac101/6554396?login=false">published</a> by The Endocrine Society.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Prenatal exposure to cannabis linked to health risks later in life

A 2016 study found that 22 percent of pregnant women...

Light <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-a-major-risk-factor-for-heart-attacks/">pollution</a> can be a real problem for migratory birds that fly by night. Light can attract but also confuse birds, causing them to fly into buildings and become injured or die.&nbsp;



Some migratory birds are facing more light pollution on both ends of their migrations, according to new research from scientists at the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/">Cornell Ornithology Lab</a> and Colorado State University.



“The southeastern United States, Mexico, and especially Central America are important migration corridors," said study lead author Frank La Sorte of the Cornell Lab. "Evidence that nocturnally migrating birds are encountering increasing light pollution levels within these regions is concerning. Birds largely avoid light during the breeding and non-breeding season. During migration, however, these associations break down as birds travel across a wide range of habitats, including populated areas that contain higher light pollution levels."



Although light pollution is decreasing in some parts of the Americas, the researchers found an increase in about 16 percent of the land area of the western hemisphere. By contrast, only seven percent of the area had a decline in light pollution.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Using eBird, a popular citizen science web service, the scientists looked into the occurrence of 42 species of migratory birds. The bird occurrences were then correlated with light pollution data collected by satellite over 22 years.&nbsp;



The scientists found that all of the birds experienced increases in light pollution, with birds migrating through Central America facing the greatest increases. Conversely, birds living year round in the northeastern US had the smallest amounts of light pollution increases, in fact much of this region has decreased in light pollution.&nbsp;



"Reversing light pollution trends in Central America, especially during the spring, and launching Lights Out programs during intense migration periods could save a substantial number of migrating birds," said study co-author Kyle Horton of Colorado State University. “Reversing light pollution trends in the southeastern United States during the summer breeding season and in Central America during the winter non-breeding season would generate the greatest benefits outside of migration periods."



The researchers hope that by identifying the biggest problem areas of light pollution, a plan might be developed to help migratory birds facing too much light.&nbsp;



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/21508925">Ecosphere</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Light pollution is a growing issue for migratory birds

Light pollution can be a real problem for migratory birds...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/en/university/">University of Bonn</a>, some species of fish such as cichlids and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protruding-eyes-and-snout-improve-stingray-hydrodynamics/">stingrays</a> can perform simple additions and subtractions in the number range of one to five. Although it is not yet known what the animals need their mathematical abilities for, these findings provide strong evidence that fish may have more complex cognitive skills than scientists previously thought.



Researchers have long known that cichlids and stingrays can detect small quantities of objects precisely, and presumably without counting. For instance, they can be easily trained to reliably distinguish quantities of three from quantities of four. However, it appears that both species can even calculate.&nbsp;



“We trained the animals to perform simple additions and subtractions,” said study lead author Vera Schluessel, a professor of Zoology at Bonn. “In doing so, they had to increase or decrease an initial value by one.”



In order to do this, Professor Schluessel and her colleagues used a method that has previously been employed to test the mathematical abilities of bees. They presented the fish with a collection of geometric shapes, such as four squares. The color of the objects signified the arithmetical operation that needed to be performed: blue for addition, and yellow for subtraction.



After showing them the initial group of objects, such as four squares, the fish were presented with two new pictures – one with three and one with five squares. If they swam to the correct picture (for instance to the one with five squares in the “blue” arithmetic task), they were rewarded with food. Over a period of time, they learned to associate the blue color with an increase of one in the amount shown at the beginning, and the yellow number with a decrease of one. Moreover, the fish managed to reliably perform these operations even if the groups of objects were formed of different shapes, such as one triangle, two squares, and one circle.



“So the animals had to recognize the number of objects depicted and at the same time infer the calculation rule from their color,” said Professor Schluessel. “They had to keep both in working memory when the original picture was exchanged for the two result pictures. And they had to decide on the correct result afterwards. Overall, it's a feat that requires complex thinking skills.”



These results are highly surprising, especially considering the fact that fish do not have a neocortex (the part of the brain responsible for complex cognitive tasks in mammals), and confirm the fact that humans often tend to underestimate other animal species, such as fish, which “are quite far down in our favor – and of little concern when dying in the brutal practices of the commercial fishing industry,” according to Professor Schluessel.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-07552-2">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fish are able to perform simple mathematics

According to a new study led by the University of...

When famous dinosaur fossil hunter Barnum Brown discovered the first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/were-there-three-distinct-species-of-tyrannosaurus-rex/">Tyrannosaurus Rex</a> fossils in 1900, he thought its arms were too short to belong to the skeleton. His colleague, Henry Fairfield Osborn, who first described and named this specimen, argued that the short arms may have been “pectoral claspers,” or limbs that hold females in place during copulation - which is analogous to how some sharks’ or rays’ pelvic claspers function.&nbsp;



Since then, the shortness of T.rex’s limbs remained a highly debated issue, with scientists proposing various hypotheses, including waving for mate attraction or social signaling, serving as an anchor to allow the dinosaur to get up from the ground, holding down prey, or stabbing enemies. Some paleontologists even claimed that the arms had no function at all.



In a new study, Kevin Padian – a distinguished emeritus professor of Integrative Biology at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a>, and a curator at the <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/">UC Museum of Paleontology</a> – has proposed a new hypothesis, which he formulated after other paleontologists unearthed evidence that T.rex often hunted in packs, rather than singly, as depicted in many pictures and dioramas.



“Several important quarry sites unearthed in the past 20 years preserve adult and juvenile tyrannosaurs together,” Professor Padian said. “We can’t really assume that they lived together or even died together. We only know that they were buried together. But when you find several sites with the same animals, that’s a stronger signal. And the possibility, which other researchers have already raised, is that they were hunting in groups.”&nbsp;



According to Padian, T.rex’s arms might have shrank in length over several generations in order to prevent accidental or intentional amputation when a pack of T.rexes converged on a carcass with their huge heads and massive, bone-crushing teeth.



“What if several adult tyrannosaurs converged on a carcass? You have a bunch of massive skulls, with incredibly powerful jaws and teeth, ripping and chomping down flesh and bone right next to you. What if your friend there thinks you’re getting a little too close? They might warn you away by severing your arm,” explained Professor Padian.



&nbsp;“Bite wounds on the skull and other parts of the skeleton are well known in tyrannosaurs and other carnivorous dinosaurs. If fewer bite marks were found on the reduced limbs, it could be a sign that reduction worked,” he added.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://app.pan.pl/article/item/app009212021.html">Acta Paleontologica Polonica</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why are Tyrannosaurus Rex’s arms so short?

When famous dinosaur fossil hunter Barnum Brown discovered the first...

In 2014 Robert Dudley, a professor of Integrative Biology at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a> wrote a famous book proposing the so-called “drunken monkey” hypothesis of how humans’ attraction to alcohol emerged and evolved. According to Dudley, our love of alcohol arose millions of years ago, when our ape and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkey-sperm-cells-could-treat-human-infertility/">monkey</a> ancestors discovered that the scent of alcohol led them to ripe, fermenting, and highly nutritious fruits. A new study, in which Professor Dudley collaborated with primatologists from <a href="https://www.csun.edu/">California State University, Northridge</a> (CSUN), provides further evidence that this hypothesis may be true.&nbsp;



The researchers collected fruit eaten and discarded by black-handed spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) in Panama and found that the alcohol concentration in the fruit was typically between one and two percent by volume – a by-product of natural fermentation caused by yeasts that consume the sugars from ripening fruits. Moreover, the scientists also collected urine from these free-ranging monkeys and discovered that it contained secondary metabolites of alcohol, suggesting that the animals were actually using the alcohol for energy.



“For the first time, we have been able to show, without a shadow of a doubt, that wild primates, with no human interference, consume fruit-containing ethanol,” said study lead author Christina Campbell, a professor of Anthropology at CSUN. “This is just one study, and more need to be done, but it looks like there may be some truth to that ‘drunken monkey’ hypothesis - that the proclivity of humans to consume alcohol stems from a deep-rooted affinity of frugivorous (fruit-eating) primates for naturally-occurring ethanol within ripe fruit.”



“The study is a direct test of the drunken monkey hypothesis,” added Professor Dudley. “Part one, there is ethanol in the food they're eating, and they're eating a lot of fruit. Then, part two, they're actually metabolizing alcohol - secondary metabolites, ethyl glucuronide, and ethyl sulfate are coming out in the urine. What we don't know is how much of it they're eating and what the effects are behaviorally and physiologically. But it's confirmatory.”



According to Dudley and his colleagues, the monkeys consume fermented fruits for the calories, and probably do not feel much the inebriating effects of alcohol that humans appreciate. This need for highly caloric intake may similarly have influenced human ancestors’ decisions in choosing which fruits to eat. This idea that humans’ natural affinity for alcohol is inherited from our primate ancestors could help society better understand and deal with the adverse consequences of alcohol abuse.



“Excessive consumption of alcohol, as with diabetes and obesity, can then be viewed conceptually as a disease of nutritional excess,” concluded Campbell.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.211729">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Humans may have inherited a love of alcohol from monkeys

In 2014 Robert Dudley, a professor of Integrative Biology at...

The western United States is facing a heightened risk of heavy rains in areas that were recently scarred by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-can-increase-fires-in-tropical-peatlands/">wildfires</a>, new research warns. Heavy rainfall on burned areas can have devastating impacts, including debris flows, mudslides, and flash floods.



<ul><li>In 2018, debris flows in Montecito, California, caused by a brief and intense rainfall over an area that had burned a month earlier, left 23 people dead and widespread property damage.&nbsp;</li><li>Last year, torrential rains in Colorado’s Glenwood Canyon triggered a massive mudslide in a recently burned area, stranding more than 100 people and closing a portion of the canyon for weeks.&nbsp;</li></ul>



For this study, the research team focused on three regions - Colorado along with California and the Pacific Northwest. More than 90 percent of extreme fire events in these regions will be followed by at least three extreme rainfalls within five years.



This increased frequency came as a surprise for the research team. “Clearly we need to understand the risks better, as this creates a major threat to people and infrastructure," said study co-author Danielle Touma.



By the end of the century, there will be a doubling or more of weather conditions that lead to the risk of extreme wildfires throughout much of the West. Some regions will experience elevated extreme wildfire risk within the next few decades.&nbsp;



The researchers looked at the number of cases in which extreme rainfall is likely to fall on the same region after an extreme wildfire. They found that more than half of extreme wildfire events will be followed within a year by an extreme rainfall event across much of the West. In the Pacific Northwest, virtually all extreme wildfires will be followed within five years by extreme rainfall.&nbsp;



Once every three years, drenching rains in western Colorado or much of the Pacific Northwest may be expected just three months after extreme wildfires - a scenario that was virtually unheard of in recent decades.



Climate change is altering the seasonality of these events. The study found more extreme rains occurring in the early fall in Colorado and the Pacific Northwest, close to the peak fire season of May to September.



“The gap between fire and rainfall season is becoming shorter,” said Touma. “One season of disasters is running into another.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Heavy rainfall poses extreme risks in the Western US

The western United States is facing a heightened risk of...

Many people are familiar with human hostility towards large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predators-help-prevent-biodiversity-loss/">predators</a>. Sometimes we are afraid for ourselves, but most persecution is due to fears of livestock depredation.&nbsp;



In many parts of the world, predator populations are seriously depleted, or in some cases, have been wiped out. Eradication programs combined with habitat loss are severe impediments to the survival of large predators. However, a recent <a href="https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acv.12769">study</a> published in the journal Animal Conservation can give us some hope for the future.



Dr. Lingyun Xiao from the Department of Health and Environmental Sciences at <a href="https://www.xjtlu.edu.cn/en/">Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University</a> explored nomadic herders' relationships with the snow leopards (Panthera uncia) that they share space with on the Tibetan Plateau.



Specifically, they looked at livestock grazing and its impact on the snow leopard and their primary prey, the bharal (Pseudois nayaur). The results may be surprising. Dr. Xiao discovered that although the landscape is dominated by livestock (13 to 1), grazing had no adverse effect on snow leopards or their prey.



Dr. Xiao believes this has to do with the bharals' preferred habitat. Bharals are wild goats that prefer high altitudes and rugged mountains. As you can imagine, these are not places where you would expect to find an abundance of grass. Livestock, such as yak and sheep, desire lower areas such as river valleys with plenty of grass to nibble on. Because the primary prey species of the snow leopard occupies a different niche in the ecosystem, conflicts are minimal.



"We found that the space occupied by snow leopards and humans is actually separated to some extent, the conflict between snow leopards and humans is relatively small, and the coexistence of humans and animals can be achieved."



Dr. Xiao hopes this study encourages conservationists and policymakers to consider the ecological niches of animals when managing large carnivores and creating city plans.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14691795">Animal Conservation</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How snow leopards and nomads coexist on the Tibetan Plateau

Many people are familiar with human hostility towards large predators....

Formononetin is a compound found in a number of crop plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/herbs-and-spices-linked-to-lower-blood-pressure/">herbs</a>.&nbsp; It is a type of isoflavone, related to the hormone estrogen. Along with other other phytoestrogens, it predominantly occurs in plants of the bean family, including green, lima and soy beans. It has been shown to have anti-cancer properties and to help with the formation of new blood vessels.



New research has now also indicated that formononetin may be useful in the treatment of food allergies. Nearly 10 percent of the world’s population suffers from allergy to certain foods or to compounds within those foods, and this can sometimes be fatal. The new research combined advanced computational methods with experimental studies to understand how this plant compound might be used to treat food allergies.



“Our findings show that formononetin is a particularly good therapeutic candidate for treating food allergies,” said Ibrahim Musa, a doctoral candidate in pathology, microbiology and immunology at New York Medical College. “Our research also revealed new mechanisms and targets that can be utilized to design future drugs for treating food allergies and other allergic disorders or to prevent severe anaphylaxis seen in allergic diseases.”



Musa will present the findings of the new research at the annual meeting of the&nbsp;<a href="http://www.asbmb.org/">American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology</a>, to be held April 2–5 in Philadelphia.



Allergic reactions to food occur when a person’s body mistakenly identifies a chemical component in the food as an invading pathogen and then tries to protect the body from this apparent invasion. The presence of the allergen causes the immune system to produce immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies that react to the food in an attempt to neutralize the “threat.” This is what can cause allergy symptoms such as hives, asthma, itching, diarrhea, trouble breathing or even anaphylactic shock.



Previous research has shown that formononetin can decrease the production of IgE, and this makes it a potential candidate in the treatment or prevention of food allergies. In the current study, the researchers turned to an approach known as systems pharmacology, which involves using data from publicly available databases to identify gene and protein targets regulated in food allergy and mast cell diseases. Mast cells also play an important role in IgE-mediated allergic diseases.



Using this approach, they identified possible gene and protein targets involved in allergic reactions to foods. They validated these using cultured cell lines that are commonly used in allergy studies and found that formononetin did influence the expression of gene and protein targets that had been identified using systems pharmacology.



“Our study demonstrates that systems pharmacology can be used to predict drug/ compound–target interaction,” said Musa. “What’s more, the mechanism of action identified for formononetin is also important for other allergic diseases such as allergic asthma and hay fever. This suggests that formononetin, or other therapeutic candidates that decrease IgE production, could be useful for treating these diseases.”



The researchers have developed a mouse model that is allergic to peanuts and they plan to study the effects and side effects of formononetin use in these mice, in the next stage of their research.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant compound offers new hope for people with food allergies

Formononetin is a compound found in a number of crop...

Paradise,View,Of,Moorea,Islands,,Cook's,Bay,,French,Polynesia

The islands of the South Pacific are well-known for their biodiversity. However, their sharp peaks, hot and humid weather, and remote locations have limited scientists’ ability to properly document the multitude of life-forms inhabiting them. Now, a study led by the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a> has provided the first detailed description of the amazing array of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-everywhere/">fungi</a> populating the Polynesian island of Mo’orea.



“Fungi are really important parts of ecosystems,” said study first author Todd Osmundson, a professor of Biology at the <a href="http://archive">University of Wisconsin-La Crosse</a>. “They act as primary decomposers, and in some cases as pathogens that break down decaying organic matter and recycle the nutrients into forms that other organisms can use. They're also really important as symbionts. They live with other organisms and benefit that organism in exchange for other things. For instance, some fungi will attach to the roots of plants and exchange nutrients with them.”



As part of the <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ecosystems/coral-reefs/welcome-moorea-biocode-project">Mo’orea Biocode Project</a> – which ran from 2007 to 2010 and was the first all-taxa-survey of a tropical island that included DNA details of all marine and terrestrial organisms larger than bacteria – the scientists spent months trekking the island in search of new species of fungi. They gathered a total of 553 specimens and sequenced the DNA of 433 of them. Since only a few of the sequenced specimens have exact genetic matches with other known species, the Mo’orea collections are likely to contain an impressive number of new species.



“It's like a treasure trove,” said study senior author Matteo Garbelotto, an adjunct professor of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management at UC Berkeley. “It’s truly uncharted territory in evolutionary biology and biodiversity of the fungal kingdom, and this is one the first attempts to generate baseline information on fungal diversity,&nbsp;not just for Mo'orea, but for the entire and vast Insular Oceania region.”



By comparing the DNA of these fungi to those of other species around the world, the scientists found that the majority of the species – or, rather, their ancestors – may have been carried by easterly winds from Australia or other South Pacific islands.&nbsp;



However, a few of them though may have been brought to Mo’orea by humans travelling from East Asia, South America, or Europe. “In many ways, Mo’orea is not a pristine island, and that actually makes it more interesting to me,” explained Professor Garbelotto.&nbsp;



“The island has completely pristine areas and also has areas that have been inhabited and deeply changed by humans, starting with the arrival of Polynesians 3,000 years ago and continuing until relatively recently with the arrival of the French, the English and the Americans. Compared to places that are completely pristine, Mo’orea is more interesting to me because it's more representative of what the world actually is,” he concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/jbi.14354">Journal of Biogeography</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

"Treasure trove" of fungi discovered on a South Pacific island

The islands of the South Pacific are well-known for their...

Although the sequencing of the human genome was heralded as a breakthrough when it was announced to the world in 2001, the truth was that large sections of chromosomes had not actually been sequenced in full at that time. Twenty years later, and with the help of improved technology for reading longer sections of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-dna-can-be-used-to-monitor-whales/">DNA</a> with high accuracy, scientists have finally been able to fill in the gaps in all 23 chromosomes. The results, published today in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>, reveal hitherto unknown secrets about human evolution and ancestry.



When the current study began, not a single human chromosome had been fully sequenced. The areas where information was missing included mostly the regions around each centromere, the site where a constriction divides the chromosome into two “arms.” The DNA in this region is characterized by multiple, repeating sequences of code that are difficult to tell apart, or to join up correctly when read in short sections. Thanks to the use of new technology that allows ultra-long sections of DNA to be sequenced, it has now been possible to establish the genetic code on all the human chromosomes, from end to end.&nbsp;



“Uncovering the complete sequence of these formerly missing regions of the genome told us so much about how they’re organized, which was totally unknown for many chromosomes,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://www.altemoselab.org/">Nicolas Altemose</a>, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of California, Berkeley, and a co-author of four new papers about the completed genome. “Before, we just had the blurriest picture of what was there, and now it's crystal clear down to single base pair resolution.”



Altemose is first author of one paper that describes the base pair sequences around the centromere. A&nbsp;<a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.05.26.445798v1">paper&nbsp;</a>explaining the methods used for the sequencing will appear in the April 1 print edition of the journal&nbsp;Science, while Altemose’s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.07.12.452052v2">centromere paper</a>&nbsp;and four others describing what the new sequences tell us, are summarized in the journal with the full papers posted online. Four companion papers, including one for which Altemose is co-first author, will also appear online April 1 in the journal&nbsp;Nature Methods.



Until the completion of this study, the reference human genome, known as GRCh38, was used by doctors when searching for mutations linked to disease, as well as by scientists looking at the evolution of human genetic variation. However there were large gaps that remained unsequenced, not only in the area of the centromeres, but also near the telomeres – the terminal ends of each chromosome – and around the genes that code for ribosomal proteins. This meant that not all variations of human genes had been identified, limiting the understanding of genetic diseases.



The newly completed human genome, referred to as T2T-CHM13, was sequenced and analyzed by a team of more than 100 scientists under the auspices of the <a href="https://sites.google.com/ucsc.edu/t2tworkinggroup/">Telemere-to-Telomere Consortium</a>, or T2T, named for the telomeres that cap the ends of all chromosomes. The consortium’s gapless version of all 22 autosomes and the X sex chromosome identifies 3,055 billion base pairs, or nucleotide pairs, the building units from which chromosomes and genes are built. These base pairs form the genetic “code” that determines the activities of cells and is passed on to future generations.&nbsp;



Within the 3,055 billion base pairs, the team also identified 19,969 protein-coding genes. Of these, about 2,000 were new ones, but most of them were no longer functional. In total around 115 of the newly identified genes were probably functional. The T2T team also found about 2 million additional gene variants in the human genome, 622 of which occur in medically relevant genes. These will help doctors to diagnose genetically based illnesses.



"In the future, when someone has their genome sequenced, we will be able to identify all of the variants in their DNA and use that information to better guide their health care,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://www.genome.gov/staff/Adam-M-Phillippy-PhD">Adam Phillippy</a>, one of the leaders of T2T and a senior investigator at the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) of the National Institutes of Health. “Truly finishing the human genome sequence was like putting on a new pair of glasses. Now that we can clearly see everything, we are one step closer to understanding what it all means.”



DNA sequences around the centromere hint at evolutionary past



One area that has brought new understanding is the genetic sequences around the centromere region. The T2T team used the new sequencing techniques to locate the place within the centromere where the kinetochore is found. This is a disc-shaped protein structure that is crucial when duplicated chromosomes are pulled apart into “daughter” cells during the process of cell division. When the chromosomes are separated successfully, this ensures that each daughter cell has a complete set of chromosomes.



“When this goes wrong, you end up with missegregated chromosomes, and that leads to all kinds of problems,” said Altemose. “If that happens in meiosis, that means you can have chromosomal anomalies leading to spontaneous miscarriage or congenital diseases. If it happens in somatic cells, you can end up with cancer – basically, cells that have massive misregulation.”



What the researchers found in and around the centromeres were layers of new nucleotide sequences overlaying layers of older sequences as if, through evolutionary time, new centromere regions have developed repeatedly to bind to the kinetochore. The older regions are characterized by having more mutations and deletions, indicating that they are not functional and are no longer used by the cell. The newer sequences where the kinetochore binds, however, are much less variable, and more functional.&nbsp;



Protein-DNA interactions are critical



Altemose is also interested in finding and understanding the areas in the chromosomes where proteins interact with DNA. “Without proteins, DNA is nothing,” said Altemose, who earned a Ph.D. in bioengineering jointly from UC Berkeley and UC San Francisco in 2021, after having received a D.Phil. in statistics from Oxford University.



“DNA is a set of instructions with no one to read it if it doesn't have proteins around to organize it, regulate it, repair it when it's damaged and replicate it,” explains Altemose. “Protein-DNA interactions are really where all the action is happening for genome regulation, and being able to map where certain proteins bind to the genome is really important for understanding their function.”



The DNA analysis that led to the complete sequencing of the 22 autosomal chromosomes and an X chromosome was conducted on one individual’s genome only. Subsequently, the researchers also sequenced a complete Y chromosome from another individual, a project that took almost as long to complete as it did to sequence the rest of the genome, Altemose said. The analysis of this new Y chromosome sequence will appear in a future publication.&nbsp;



DNA sequences used to trace human lineages



Altemose and his team, which included UC Berkeley project scientist Sasha Langley, also used the new reference genome, T2T-CHM13, to compare the centromeric DNA of 1,600 individuals from around the world. The results revealed major differences in both the sequence and copy number of repetitive DNA around the centromeres. Previous studies have shown that when groups of ancient humans migrated out of Africa to the rest of the world, they took only a small sample of genetic variants with them. Altemose and his team confirmed that this pattern is also seen in the variation of nucleotide sequences around the centromeres. “What we found is that in individuals with recent ancestry outside the African continent, their centromeres, at least on chromosome X, tend to fall into two big clusters, while most of the interesting variation is in individuals who have recent African ancestry,” Altemose said. “This isn’t entirely a surprise, given what we know about the rest of the genome. But what it suggests is that if we want to look at the interesting variation in these centromeric regions, we really need to have a focused effort to sequence more African genomes and do complete telomere-to-telomere sequence assembly.”



Altemose also noted that DNA sequences around the centromere could possibly be used to trace human lineages back to our common ape ancestors. “As you move away from the site of the active centromere, you get more and more degraded sequence, to the point where if you go out to the furthest shores of this sea of repetitive sequences, you start to see the ancient centromere that, perhaps, our distant primate ancestors used to bind to the kinetochore,” Altemose said. “It’s almost like layers of fossils.”



The important role of ultra-long-read nanopore sequencing



The success of the T2T team’s sequencing project is due to improved techniques for sequencing long, continuous stretches of DNA, which helps when determining the order of highly repetitive stretches of chromosomes. Among these are PacBio’s HiFi sequencing, which can read lengths of more than 20,000 base pairs with high accuracy.&nbsp;



“These new long-read DNA sequencing technologies are just incredible; they're such game changers, not only for this repetitive DNA world, but because they allow you to sequence single, long molecules of DNA,” Altemose said. “You can begin to ask questions at a level of resolution that just wasn’t possible before, not even with short-read sequencing methods.” Altemose plans to explore the centromeric regions further in future research, using an improved technique he and colleagues at Stanford developed to locate the sites on the chromosome that are bound by proteins, similar to how the kinetochore binds to the centromere. Meanwhile, the T2T consortium will be working on developing a reference genome that represents all of humanity, rather than just one individual.&nbsp;



It is envisaged that the information from the fully sequenced human genome will contribute to our understanding of chromosome functioning, human disease and genomic variation, as well as giving us clues to patterns of human evolution and movement around the planet.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Complete sequencing of the human genome reveals new findings

Although the sequencing of the human genome was heralded as...

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On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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