Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

The heartland virus was discovered in 2009, when two men were hospitalized in Missouri. The men suffered from fever, diarrhea, low blood cell counts, muscle aches and other symptoms consistent with tick borne <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-identify-100-cases-of-humans-passing-disease-to-animals/">diseases</a>. It was discovered upon further research that the men were infected with a previously unknown virus, which was named “heartland virus” and traced back to lone star ticks.



Since its discovery, over 50 cases of the heartland virus have shown up in people in 11 states in the south and midwestern US. Some of these cases were bad enough to require hospitalization. It is believed that the actual cases of the disease may be higher, as the condition is relatively unknown and tests for the disease are rare. A postmortem test even confirmed that someone in Georgia died of the disease in 2005. Furthermore, research shows that deer in the area have been exposed since at least 2001.&nbsp;



"Heartland is an emerging infectious disease that is not well understood," said study senior author Gonzalo Vazquez-Prokopec, an associate professor at <a href="https://www.emory.edu/home/index.html">Emory University</a>. "We're trying to get ahead of this virus by learning everything that we can about it before it potentially becomes a bigger problem."



Dr. Yomila Romer, formerly a part of the Vazquez-Prokopec lab, led research to look into the connections between the lone star tick and heartland virus. The researchers collected specimens of the lone star tick, both as an adult and as a nymph in different locations and times. Genetic analysis was carried out to detect the heartland virus. Three samples found the virus and the genetics between the samples were very similar. The samples showed very different genetics from the heartland virus outside of state.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



"These results suggest that the virus may be evolving very rapidly in different geographic locations, or that it may be circulating primarily in isolated areas and not dispersing quickly between those areas," explained Vazquez-Prokopec.



Further sample collecting in Georgia suggests that only one in every 2,000 ticks carries the heartland virus. The team plans on carrying out more research on ticks and tick borne illness in the future as diseases and tick health may change with climate change and growth of human populations.&nbsp;



"We will be gathering data to help support tick surveillance efforts by public health officials in Georgia," Vazquez-Prokopec says. "Tick-borne diseases are a real and growing threat and the best way to deal with them is not to panic, but to do the science needed to learn everything we can about them."



The journal is published in the journal <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/">Emerging Infectious Diseases</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

"Heartland virus" found in lone star ticks in Georgia

The heartland virus was discovered in 2009, when two men...

People in many cultures around the world do not consider <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-identify-100-cases-of-humans-passing-disease-to-animals/">animals</a> to be aware of their feelings and emotions. Animal rights groups have fought to change this perception as it has bearing on society’s ability to give legal protection to animals in need. Although progress has been made, to some extent, in changing people’s understanding that mammals have emotions and can feel pain, the legislation in most countries does not recognize other vertebrates, or invertebrates, as having this level of consciousness.&nbsp;



In a recent development in the United Kingdom, however, amendments to the animal welfare legislation are proposed that include invertebrates, such as octopuses, crabs, crayfish and lobsters, in the category of organisms capable of feeling pain and emotion.&nbsp;



“A London School of Economics (LSE) report commissioned by the U.K. government found there is strong enough evidence to conclude that decapod crustaceans and cephalopod mollusks are sentient,” said York University Professor and philosopher Kristin Andrews, the York Research Chair in Animal Minds, who is working with the LSE team.



The declaration follows recent research studies on mammals, fish, octopuses and crabs, showing that these creatures avoid pain and dangerous locations when they can. This indicates that they recognize pain and danger as unpleasant experiences and react in a conscious way to avoid them. In addition, research has shown signs of empathy in some animals, such as cows that become distressed when they see their calf in pain.



“It’s been a real struggle even to get fish and mammals recognized under welfare law as sentient. So, it’s pretty cutting-edge what seems to be happening in the U.K. with invertebrates," said Andrews.



An article written by Andrews and colleague Professor Frans de Waal, director of the Living Links Center at Emory University, discusses the ethical and policy issues that arise once governments consider animals to be sentient. The article, titled "The question of animal emotions," is published today in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>.



Once invertebrates are recognized as having feelings this opens a moral and ethical dilemma, since they cannot say what they feel. It becomes society’s duty to protect them and not allow them to be persecuted or treated cruelly. There will be many people who do not accept that invertebrates have emotions, even though “the research so far strongly suggests their existence,” according to Andrews, who is working on a research project called Animals and Moral Practice.



“If they can no longer be considered immune to felt pain, invertebrate experiences will need to become part of our species’ moral landscape,” explained Andrews. “But pain is just one morally relevant emotion. Invertebrates such as octopuses may experience other emotions such as curiosity in exploration, affection for individuals, or excitement in anticipation of a future reward.”



People will need to view invertebrates differently, should the U.K. animal welfare legislation be amended. Humans will no longer be able to assume that crayfish, shrimps, squids and octopuses don’t feel pain or other emotions. In fact, this may apply to many other vertebrate and invertebrate species as well, which would necessitate our viewing the world rather differently.&nbsp;



“When we’re going about our normal lives, we try not to do harm to other beings. So, it’s really about retraining the way we see the world. How exactly to treat other animals remains an open research question,” said Andrews. “We don’t have sufficient science right now to know exactly what the proper treatment of certain species should be. To determine that, we need greater co-operation between scientists and ethicists.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Do crabs and lobsters have emotions and feelings?

People in many cultures around the world do not consider...

According to a recent study led by the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en">University of Helsinki</a>, repetitive behaviors such as tail-chasing or nervous pacing are more common among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-exhibit-behaviors-similar-to-human-adhd/">dogs</a> that belong to first-time owners. Moreover, dogs living with larger families or exercising less than an hour per day have also been found to engage in behaviors resembling psychiatric conditions such as ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder).



Researchers from the University of Helsinki led by Hannes Lohi, a professor of Veterinary Biosciences and Genetics, surveyed the owners of 4,436 dogs belonging to 22 different breeds, from February 2015 to September 2018. The owners had to describe how often their canine companions engaged in repetitive behaviors such as tail-chasing, surface licking, nervous pacing, staring into space, self-biting, or snapping at their own reflection in the window.



The results showed that 1,315 (approximately 30 percent) of the dogs engaged in such actions, and that the incidence of canine repetitive behavior was strongly associated with the pets’ home environment and lifestyle. Such behaviors were 58 percent more likely among dogs that were their owners’ first pet, compared to those whose owner has previously had other dogs, suggesting that owners’ “expertise” in dealing with dogs may significantly influence their pets’ mental health.



Moreover, dogs that lived with a single person were 33 percent less likely to engage in repetitive behaviors than dogs that lived in larger families. Similarly, those that did not live together with other dogs were 64 percent more likely to exhibit such behaviors.&nbsp;



The amount of daily exercise dogs engaged in also appeared to influence to a large degree the nature of their actions. For instance, exercising for less than one hour per day was associated with a 53 percent increase in the likelihood of developing repetitive types of behaviors.



The scientists found that age and breed were also important factors structuring dogs’ behaviors. Thus, younger (less than two years of age) or older (over eight years) dogs were less likely to behave repetitively. In terms of breeds, repetitive behaviors were most common in German Shepherd Dogs, Pembroke Welsh Corgis, and Chinese Crested Dogs, and least common in Smooth Collies, Lagotto Romagnolos, and Miniature Schnauzers.



These results suggest that canine repetitive behavior is a highly complex issue, associated with a&nbsp; variety of environmental, genetic, and lifestyle factors. Clearly understanding how these factors structure canine behavior could help improve these animals’ welfare.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-07443-6">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Repetitive behaviors in dogs are influenced by many factors

According to a recent study led by the University of...

Dolphins are intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-mammals-play-a-role-in-combating-climate-change/">mammals</a> with complex social behaviors and relationships. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> have found that male bottlenose dolphins maintain social relationships through whistle exchanges.&nbsp;



Previously, male dolphins have been known to use physical contact like petting to connect with strongly bonded allies. This new research shows that male dolphins can also use different tactics to connect with weaker allies through vocal exchanges.&nbsp;



“Many animals, including humans, use tactile contact, touch, to strengthen and reaffirm important relationships. But as the number of close social relationships increases, so too do the demands on the time and space available for relationship maintenance through physical contact," said study lead author Emma Chereskin, from Bristol’s <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/biology/">School of Biological Sciences</a>.



"Male bottlenose dolphins form strategic, multi-level alliances, and we wanted to know how they maintained multiple alliance relationships in large groups.”



To better understand how male dolphins maintain relationships, the scientists relied on nine years of acoustic and behavioral data from <a href="https://www.sharkbay.org/">Shark Bay</a>, a dolphin population in Western Australia.



Groups of males were followed so that researchers could observe their physical and acoustic behavior. By doing so, the research team was able to identify the different approaches to bonding. For example, within dolphin alliances, bonded dolphins engage through physical contact, whereas those that are weakly bonded engage through whistle exchanges.&nbsp;



“This illustrates that these weaker but still key social relationships can be maintained with vocal exchanges," said study senior author Dr. Stephanie King.



The social bonding hypothesis proposes that vocalizations and language have evolved as a form of ‘vocal grooming’ to replace physical grooming as larger groups make physical contact more demanding and can take up more time. This hypothesis does differ when applied to primates, as studies suggest that vocal exchanges among primates happen between bonded individuals and don’t necessarily replace physical bonding.



The study provides new evidence that vocal exchanges can serve as a method of bonding - “but more importantly, and in line with the social bonding hypothesis, that vocal exchanges can function as a replacement of physical bonding, allowing allied male dolphins to ‘bond-at-a-distance’. This evidence in support of the social bonding hypothesis outside of the primate lineage raises exciting new questions on the origins and evolution of language across taxa,” said Chereskin,



The research was funded by The Branco Weiss Fellowship – Society in Science and the National Geographic Society.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Male dolphins whistle to maintain social relationships

Dolphins are intriguing mammals with complex social behaviors and relationships....

Scientists have already studied in great depth the venom of cone snails – predatory marine animals that prowl on the ocean floor, hunting and feeding upon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-killer-whales-ate-fish-not-other-mammals/">fish</a> – and found that it contains chemical compounds that can be adapted to treat chronic pain, diabetes, and other human diseases. In a new study led by the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/">University of Utah</a> and the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a>, an international team of scientists discovered that a particular group of cone snails (Conus rolani) produces a venom compound similar to the hormone somatostatin.



Somatostatin is a hormone that, in humans and many other vertebrates, acts as a multipurpose inhibitor. For instance, it is the main inhibitor of growth hormone, and can be used to treat acromegaly, an excessive growth disorder. Moreover, it also inhibits hormones in the pancreas, as well as signals of inflammation and pain.



“So it’s this hormone that has many, many different functions in the human body,” said study senior author Helena Safavi-Hemami, an adjunct assistant professor at the University of Utah and associate professor at the University of Copenhagen. “But it’s always blocking something. And because of that, it had been an interesting hormone for drug development for some time.”



While studying C.rolani - a species of cone snail that injects venom into fish to leave them sensory-deprived and disoriented and thus an easy prey - Professor Safavi-Hemami and her colleagues discovered that their venom contained a small peptide (chain of amino acids) called Consomatin Ro1 that had a few similarities with somatostatin. This peptide is short, stable, and efficient in the receptors it targets, appearing to activate two of the five human receptors for somatostatin with unique selectivity.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Laboratory studies have shown that Consomatin Ro1 can block pain in mice with an efficiency similar to that of morphine, and thus may be used by cone snails to block pain so their prey does not know it has been struck.



Further research is needed to understand the origin of Consomatin Ro1 in snails, and to assess the potential of the compound to act as an anti-inflammatory and pain reliever in humans. “This gives insight to the development of next-generation therapeutics,” said Christopher Hill, a distinguished professor of Biochemistry at the University of Utah.&nbsp;“More generally, this is a great example of how evolution in the natural world has already developed drug-like natural products that have great potential to improve human health.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abk1410">Science Advances</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cone snail venom could be used to produce painkillers

Scientists have already studied in great depth the venom of...

According to Dr. Peter M. Kistler, many medical professionals advise their patients with heart disease to avoid coffee because coffee can increase their heart rate. However, new research presented at the annual meeting of the <a href="https://www.acc.org/">American College of Cardiology</a> shows this may not be sound advice. The findings suggest that coffee is beneficial to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocoa-beans-reduce-the-risk-of-fatal-cardiovascular-events/">cardiovascular</a> system.



The studies used data from the UK BioBank, and patients were grouped by how much coffee they consumed each day.



One study looked at the effect coffee had on people without heart disease. The researchers analyzed data from 382,535 individuals with no known heart disease.&nbsp;



The experts found that consuming two to three cups of coffee per day lowered the risk of developing several types of heart disease by 10 to 15 percent. However, those who drank one cup of coffee per day had the lowest risk of stroke or heart-related death.&nbsp;



The second study included 34,279 individuals who had been diagnosed with some type of cardiovascular disease. Once again, consuming two to three cups per day seems beneficial because it leads to a lower probability of dying compared to no coffee consumption. Notably, no amount of coffee adversely affected heart rhythm problems.&nbsp;



In fact, the study looked at 24,111 people who had atrial fibrillation and discovered that drinking one cup of coffee a day lowered the risk of dying by almost 20 percent compared to non-coffee drinkers.&nbsp;



The final study attempted to determine if there were any differences in effects based on the type of coffee consumed. They looked at instant vs. ground coffee and caffeinated vs. decaf. Overall, they discovered that the benefits were the same whether someone drank instant or ground coffee.&nbsp;



However, drinking decaffeinated coffee does not provide the same benefits as caffeinated coffee. Although decaf seems to reduce overall cardiovascular disease, it did not minimize incident arrhythmia or heart failure.&nbsp;



The study had some limitations, but the authors believe that coffee positively affects our cardiovascular system. They think this is due to the more than 100 bioactive compounds found in coffee beans. Among other benefits, these compounds reduce oxidative stress and inflammation, boost metabolism, and block receptors associated with abnormal heart rhythms.



The research will be presented at the American College of Cardiology's 71st Annual Scientific Session show.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Two cups of coffee a day keeps the heart doctor away

According to Dr. Peter M. Kistler, many medical professionals advise...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-microplastics-originate-in-european-rivers/">Microplastics</a> in wastewater come in several different sizes, colors and chemical compositions. They include fibers, fragments, pellets and flakes, and originate from the washing of textiles, cosmetic products, the decomposition of plastic packaging, deposition from the atmosphere, and from contaminated runoff. Although wastewater can be treated to remove some of the plastic particles, this involves the use of chemicals that are toxic and disadvantageous for water quality.



In a study that is to be presented at the spring meeting of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) between March 20 and 24, scientists report success in using extracts from common food plants such as okra, tamarind and fenugreek, to remove suspended microplastics during the water treatment process.&nbsp;



Usually, microplastics are removed during water treatment using two methods. Those that float can be skimmed off the surface. The majority, however, are suspended in the water and must be treated with flocculants to make them stick together in clumps and sink to the bottom, where they can be separated from the rest of the water.&nbsp;



Dr. Rajani Srinivasan, principal investigator for the project, points out that some of the substances currently used to remove plastic contaminants are potentially harmful, themselves. This includes the common flocculant, polyacrylamide, which can break down into toxic components under certain conditions. “It doesn’t help if we try to clean up water but add potentially toxic substances to remove the pollutants,” said Dr. Srinivasan.



Dr. Srinivasan and her team from&nbsp;Tarleton State University have had some success in previous research using food-grade plant extracts as nontoxic flocculants to remove textile-based pollutants, such as dyes, from wastewater. They focused specifically on polysaccharides in the extracts because these biopolymers possess the appropriate chemical and biological properties to attract and capture pollutants like dyes or even bacteria.



“I was working with the removal of microorganisms and things like that, and I thought, ‘Why not try microplastics?’” said Dr. Srinivasan.



To investigate, the researchers tested polysaccharide extracts from fenugreek, cactus, Aloe vera, okra, tamarind and psyllium as flocculants to capture microplastics. These plants are usually eaten as foods, but they also sometimes serve as thickening agents. Okra is a potent thickener of stews and soups, and the "goo" it produces, along with slimy extracts from other plants, such as aloe, cactus and psyllium, have been shown to clean water of certain contaminants in the past.&nbsp;



The researchers tested compounds from the individual plants, as well as using combinations of the different extracts. They added the plant extracts to water containing microplastics and then examined the flocculated clumps microscopically. They counted the microplastics in the water before and after treatment each time, to determine how many plastic particles had stuck to the plant polysaccharides during the process.&nbsp;



The results showed that the polysaccharide extracts from okra, when paired with those from fenugreek, worked best to remove microplastics from seawater. The plastics in freshwater were removed most effectively using the extract from okra paired with the polysaccharides produced by tamarind plants. Overall, the plant-based polysaccharides worked as well as, or better than, the traditional flocculant polyacrylamide, depending on the combination of extracts and the water source.



Importantly, the plant-based flocculants can be implemented in existing water treatment processes, without developing additional technology. “The whole treatment method with the nontoxic materials uses the same infrastructure,” said Dr. Srinivasan. “We don’t have to build something new to incorporate these materials for water treatment purposes.”



In the next phase of the study, the researchers plan to identify the optimal ratios and combinations of plant-based flocculants to remove different microplastic types from ocean water, estuary water, freshwater and groundwater. They also plan to take their studies out of the lab and conduct practical studies in the field.&nbsp;



The long-term effects of ingesting these microplastics are not yet known, but it is estimated that people unintentionally consume tens of thousands of these particles every year.&nbsp;Their removal will undoubtedly become more and more urgent in future, and the researchers hope to commercialize their plant-based method so that microplastics can be removed from water on an industrial scale, to ensure cleaner and safer water for everyone to drink.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Okra can help remove microplastics from wastewater

Microplastics in wastewater come in several different sizes, colors and...

New research published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/">PLoS Pathogens</a> shows that white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) can transmit COVID up to five days after infection. Moreover, like humans, the virus reproduces in the upper respiratory tract of deer, especially in the nose.&nbsp;



Study co-author Dr. Diego Diel is an associate professor and director of the <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> Virology Laboratory in the College of Veterinary Medicine's Animal Health Diagnostic Center.



"It's a relatively short window of time in which the infected animals are shedding and are able to transmit the virus," said Dr. Diel.



For the investigation, the researchers infected six captive white-tailed female fawns, who were less than eight months old, along with six adults, who were three to four years of age. Six fawns were used as contact animals, and three were used as controls. For the adult portion of the study, two animals were used as controls.



Over approximately 20 days, the researchers introduced the contact fawns to the virus. They monitored the animals and took biological samples to determine which animals were infected and to learn more about how they carried the virus. Although there is no evidence that humans have caught COVID from deer (evidence points rather to transmissions from humans to deer), the researchers feel this study is important because they believe white-tailed deer could become a reservoir species for the virus. The study authors are particularly concerned about transmission through the hunting of deer in the United States.



"Given the broad practice of deer hunting in the U.S., knowing the sites of virus replication is important to minimize the risks of exposure and transmission from these wild animals that could potentially transmit the virus back to humans," said Dr. Diel.



The researchers hope that by learning more about where the virus replicates, they can educate hunters on the best practices to avoid infection. For example, the study shows that the virus replicates in deer tonsils, lymphoid tissues, and the central nervous system. Hunters might want to take extra precautions when handling these areas.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study shows deer can transmit COVID for up to five days

New research published in PLoS Pathogens shows that white-tailed deer...

Urban areas are often hotter than surrounding countryside. Cities both produce heat as well as trap it with man-made materials like concrete and asphalt, creating “heat islands.” There’s a well known record of people dying during extreme heat events pushed to greater highs due to urban heat islands.&nbsp;



Researchers wondered what impact urban heat has on wildlife, specifically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lead-poisoning-from-hunting-is-killing-europes-most-charismatic-birds/">birds</a>. In a new study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a>, experts have investigated the impact of extreme heat events on urban and forest dwelling great tits (a common songbird).&nbsp;



“Our results suggest that natural populations may be more vulnerable to more frequent extreme heat," said study lead author Dr. Ivett Pipoly of the University of Pannonia.



"We already know several environmental changes that urban populations have adapted, or are adapting, to in cities. It is interesting that urban individuals might adapt better to the climate crisis as well, maybe because they have more experience with heat as they live inside the urban heat island.”



The scientists installed hundreds of nest boxes throughout two Hungarian cities and adjoining forests. From 2013 to 2018, the scientists watched 760 broods, measuring chicks at two weeks old and then recording their survival.&nbsp;



Counterintuitively, chicks in the hotter cities survived the extreme heat events better than their forest dwelling counterparts. Urban birds even showed a small benefit from the heat, while forest birds were smaller and less likely to survive.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The mechanism behind this surprising increased survival of city birds isn’t yet known, and raises more questions than answers. The research also points to the fragility of birds as well as other animals in the face of human caused destruction.&nbsp;



“We could hear about more frequent mass mortality events of wild desert birds, bats and even large herbivores nowadays, which could be a consequence of the vulnerability of natural populations to high temperatures," said Dr. Pipoly.



"It will be extremely important to get more knowledge about the less conspicuous effects of extreme weather events, like the ones we found in great tits, and from several populations with different local environments. Then we can see a more detailed picture of the interactive effects of climate change and urbanization on wildlife and biodiversity.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Extreme heat is harder on birds in the forest than in the city

Urban areas are often hotter than surrounding countryside. Cities both...

Spinosaurus was among the largest terrestrial dinosaurs ever to exist, possibly even larger than the other two contenders for this crown, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/were-there-three-distinct-species-of-tyrannosaurus-rex/">Tyrannosaurus</a> and&nbsp;Giganotosaurus. Its length has been estimated at 15 to 16 meters (49 to 52&nbsp;ft), while its weight was somewhere between 6 and 7 metric tons. This formidable dinosaur had a skull that measured 1.5 meters in length and a massive “sail” structure on its back, supported by enormous bony spines that originated on its vertebrae.



The dinosaur is known from only six partial skeletons, all excavated in North Africa, and its anatomy has led to intense debate about the kind of lifestyle this creature had.&nbsp;



Since fossilized fish scales were present with some of the Spinosaurus bones, it would appear that it was a piscivore (preyed on fish). However, some scientists proposed that, although it had some features of modern crocodiles, its enormous body, bony spines and large sail would have made it unstable and slow while swimming in the water. They thought, instead, that it was probably a terrestrial predator like T. rex.



Others proposed that its excessive length, rather short back legs and unusually small pelvis would have made it an ineffective hunter on land, and that its great mass would have made walking in muddy lagoon or estuarine environments impossible.&nbsp;



A new study, published today in <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>, has taken a different approach to the problem, since anatomical clues left in the fossilized bones have given no obvious answers. Scientists from the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> decided to examine the density of the fossilized bones instead. Bone density is a function of several different factors but, by comparing Spinosaurus bones with the bones of other animals, such as penguins, hippos and alligators, the team hoped to gain new understanding.&nbsp;



“The fossil record is tricky - among spinosaurids, there are only a handful of partial skeletons, and we don’t have any complete skeletons for these dinosaurs,” said study lead author Matteo Fabbri. “Other studies have focused on interpretation of anatomy, but clearly if there are such opposite interpretations regarding the same bones, this is already a clear signal that maybe those are not the best proxies for us to infer the ecology of extinct animals.”



Fabbri and his colleagues put together a dataset of femur and rib bone cross-sections from 250 species of extinct and living animal species, both land-dwellers and water-dwellers. The researchers then compared these cross-sections to cross-sections of bone from&nbsp;Spinosaurus&nbsp;and its relatives Baryonyx and&nbsp;Suchomimus.



“We had to divide this study into successive steps,” said Fabbri. “The first one was to understand if there is actually a universal correlation between bone density and ecology. And the second one was to infer ecological adaptations in extinct taxa.”&nbsp;



Essentially, the researchers had first to show that a relationship exists, in living species, between bone density and choice of aquatic or terrestrial habitat. After that, they could apply this criterion to extinct animals for which habitat choices can no longer be observed.&nbsp;



When selecting animals to include in the study, the researchers had to consider as wide a selection of different species as possible.&nbsp;



“We were looking for extreme diversity,” said Fabbri. “We included seals, whales, elephants, mice, hummingbirds. We have dinosaurs of different sizes, extinct marine reptiles like mosasaurs and plesiosaurs. We have animals that weigh several tons, and animals that are just a few grams. The spread is very big.”



This wide array of different species showed a clear link between bone density and underwater foraging behavior. All the animals that forage underwater have bones that are almost completely solid. This suggests that dense bones have a buoyancy function and help the animal to stay submerged while moving around and hunting. In contrast, the bones of species that spend their lives on land are less dense and contain spongy tissue and a hollow center.&nbsp;



“There is a very strong correlation, and the best explanatory model that we found was in the correlation between bone density and sub-aqueous foraging. This means that all the animals that have the behavior where they are fully submerged have these dense bones, and that was the great news,” explained Fabbri.



When the bones of Spinosaurus&nbsp;and&nbsp;Baryonyx&nbsp;were tested for density, they both had the dense bone structure associated with being able to submerge underwater and hunt for prey. The closely related&nbsp;Suchomimus, however,&nbsp;had bones that were more hollow. It still lived by water and ate fish, as evidenced by its crocodile-like snout and conical teeth, but based on its bone density, it wasn’t actually swimming, stated the authors.&nbsp;



Animals that are heavy also have dense bones, even when they spend their lives on land. “Very heavy animals like elephants and rhinos, and like the sauropod dinosaurs, have very dense limb bones, because there’s so much stress on the limbs,” explained Fabbri. “That being said, the other bones are pretty lightweight. That’s why it was important for us to look at a variety of bones from each of the animals in the study.” Fabbri is excited by the potential for this new approach to reveal more about how dinosaurs lived.



“One of the big surprises from this study was how rare underwater foraging was for dinosaurs, and that even among spinosaurids, their behavior was much more diverse that we’d thought."



Jingmai O’Connor, a curator at the Field Museum and co-author of this study, says that collaborative studies like this one that draw from hundreds of specimens, are the future of paleontology. "They're very time-consuming to do, but they let scientists shed light onto big patterns, rather than making qualitative observations based on one fossil. It’s really awesome that Matteo was able to pull this together, as it requires a lot of patience.”



Fabbri also notes that the study shows how much information can be gleaned from incomplete specimens. “The good news with this study is that now we can move on from the paradigm where you need to know as much as you can about the anatomy of a dinosaur to know about its ecology, because we show that there are other reliable proxies that you can use. If you have a new species of dinosaur and you just have only a few bones of it, you can create a dataset to calculate bone density, and at least you can infer if it was aquatic or not.”



Image Credit: Davide Bonadonna



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Spinosaurus reveals a link between bone density and hunting underwater

Spinosaurus was among the largest terrestrial dinosaurs ever to exist,...

The pandemic has created interest among the scientific community to better understand human-to-wild animal disease transmission. An international research team led by scientists at <a href="https://www.georgetown.edu/">Georgetown University</a> has found that humans give viruses back to animals more often than expected.



The study describes nearly 100 different cases where diseases have undergone “spillback” from humans back into wild animals. This has been seen most recently with SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) spreading in mink farms, zoo lions and tigers, and among white-tailed deer in the wild.



The researchers found that almost half of these cases took place in captive settings like zoos, where veterinarians keep a close eye on animals and are more likely to notice changes in health. Interestingly, more than half of the overall cases were human-to-primate transmission. This is likely because it is easier for pathogens to jump between closely-related hosts, and because endangered great ape populations are carefully monitored.



“This supports the idea that we’re more likely to detect pathogens in the places we spend a lot of time and effort looking, with a disproportionate number of studies focusing on charismatic animals at zoos or in close proximity to humans,” said study lead author Dr. Anna Fagre. “It brings into question which cross-species transmission events we may be missing, and what this might mean not only for public health, but for the health and conservation of the species being infected.”



In Canada and the United States, disease spillback has attracted attention due to the spread of COVID-19 in white tailed deer. <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.02.22.481551v1">Some data</a> suggests that deer have given the virus back to humans in at least one case. This has raised concern amongst scientists and suggests that animal reservoirs might create opportunities for the virus to evolve into new variants.



The study also sheds light on some good news, as it found that artificial intelligence can be used to help anticipate the species at risk of contracting the virus. ”The pandemic gave scientists a chance to test out some predictive tools, and it turns out we’re more prepared than we thought.”&nbsp; said study co-author Dr. Colin Carlson.



The research is part of a National Science Foundation-funded project called the Viral Emergence Research Initiative, or <a href="http://viralemergence.org/">Verena</a>. The Verena team uses machine learning to study the science of the host-virus network. This is a new field that provides critical insights for scientists to understand how and why humans share diseases with animals.



While new technology can help predict spillover, there is still so little we understand about wildlife disease, creating opportunity for continuous research.&nbsp;



“Long-term monitoring helps us establish baselines for wildlife health and disease prevalence, laying important groundwork for future studies,” said Dr. Fagre. “If we’re watching closely, we can spot these cross-species transmission events much faster, and act accordingly.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14610248">Ecology Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Experts identify 100 cases of humans passing disease to animals

The pandemic has created interest among the scientific community to...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.syracuse.edu/">Syracuse University</a> has shed more light on the catastrophic impact of the Chicxulub <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-impact-sparked-two-years-of-darkness/">asteroid</a> 66 million years ago. This asteroid, which struck&nbsp;Mexico’s northern Yucatán peninsula - an impact that ejected material equivalent to an area the size of Connecticut and more than twice as tall as Mount Everest - wiped out 75 percent of animals on Earth, including all the dinosaurs. 



Experts now claim that one of the leading causes of this mass extinction was the redistribution of fine particles of sulfate in the stratosphere after impact, which led to rapid climate change.



&nbsp;“The impact blast and fallout ignited widespread fires, which together with rock dust, soot and volatiles ejected from the crater, blotted out the sun globally in an impact winter that may have lasted years, resulting in the extinction,” said study lead author Christopher Junium, an associate professor of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Syracuse.



According to Professor Junium, although scientists have long implicated that massive perturbations to atmospheric sulfur were the main causes of climate change after the impact, “there has been uncertainty regarding how much reached the stratosphere where its effects on climate would have been greatly magnified.”



The researchers conducted field work along the Brazos River in Central Texas to collect samples of rock that recorded the immediate aftermath of the asteroid impact. Analyzing these samples through novel geochemical techniques, they managed to trace the unique transformations undergone by sulfur aerosols when they rose above the Earth’s ozone layer and were exposed to ultraviolet radiation, creating diagnostic signatures in the stable isotopes of the sulfur gases.



“The unique fingerprints we’ve measured in these impact sediments provide the first direct evidence for the importance of sulfur aerosols in catastrophic climate change and cooling,” explained study co-author Aubrey Zerkle, an expert in sulfur isotopes and the sulfur cycle at the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/">University of St Andrews</a> in Scotland.



The presence of these signatures required enormous amounts of sulfur aerosols in the stratosphere, which returned to the Earth as acid rain and washed into shallow marine areas in the aftermath of the impact. “These sulfur aerosols would have extended the duration of post-impact climate change, taking an already beleaguered biosphere to the brink of collapse,”&nbsp;concluded Professor Junium.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2119194119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New details on the asteroid impact that killed the dinosaurs

A new study led by Syracuse University has shed more...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
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On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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