<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grapevines-could-offer-a-breakthrough-alternative-to-plastic-packaging/">Plastic</a> bags are everywhere, and too many slip into rivers and onto beaches. A new analysis finds that policies that either charge a small fee per bag or prohibit them outright cut the share of bags found during shoreline cleanups by 25 to 47 percent.



The study combed through hundreds of city, county, and state rules passed between 2017 and 2023. It matched those policies to more than 45,000 volunteer cleanups across the United States to see what actually changed on the ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-ran-the-study">Who ran the study</h2>



The research was coauthored by <a href="https://www.udel.edu/academics/colleges/ceoe/departments/smsp/faculty/kimberly-oremus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kimberly L. Oremus</a> of the University of Delaware’s School of Marine Science and Policy (<a href="https://www.udel.edu/academics/colleges/ceoe/departments/smsp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UDEL</a>). 



Oremus and her collaborator set out to measure litter, not just shopping behavior, so the results speak to what ends up in nature.



The team relied on citizen science, meaning trained volunteers recorded what they collected during beach, river, and lake cleanups. 



They drew on <a href="https://www.coastalcleanupdata.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TIDES</a>, a public database that stores those counts in one place so researchers can analyze patterns across time and place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-plastic-bag-policies">Studying plastic bag policies</h2>



To isolate the effect of bag policies, the authors used a Difference-in-Differences (<a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/research/population-health-methods/difference-difference-estimation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DiD</a>) approach that compares places with and without new laws over the same period. 



That design helps rule out unrelated trends that affect everyone, such as national shifts in shopping or packaging.



The headline result is simple. In communities with full bans or fees, the share of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-from-plastic-bottles-linked-to-high-blood-pressure-and-heart-problems/">plastic</a> bags in the litter mix fell relative to similar places without policies, and the decline grew in the years after a law took effect.



State level rules tended to be more reliable in the data than city or county policies. Effects looked similar along coasts and rivers, with hints of larger gains along lakes where winds and currents spread litter differently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-policy-fees-vs-bans">Plastic policy: Fees vs. bans</h2>



Fees change the default at every checkout and discourage taking a bag when you do not need one, which reduces both thin and thicker bag use.



Other <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/carrier-bag-charge-summary-of-data-in-england/single-use-plastic-carrier-bags-charge-data-for-england-2024-to-2025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> points in the same direction outside the United States. England reports an almost 98 percent drop in single use carrier bags at major retailers since its charge began.



Policies that only restrict thin bags often allow thicker <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agricultural-soil-is-now-the-worlds-biggest-plastic-dumping-ground/">plastic</a> labeled as reusable. 



Those partial bans showed the smallest and least precise effects in the analysis, which is consistent with shoppers substituting one kind of plastic for another.



Some states also pass preemption <a href="https://www.ncsl.org/environment-and-natural-resources/state-plastic-bag-legislation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">laws</a> that block cities and counties from regulating bags at all. When local governments cannot act, the study’s data suggest statewide policies become especially important.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-and-entanglement">Wildlife and entanglement</h2>



The cleanup records include notes on animals found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-in-99-percent-sea-turtles-organ-tissue-reproductive-system/">entangled in debris</a>. 



In areas with bag policies, the presence of entangled animals dropped by roughly 30 to 37 percent, although the authors caution that the estimates are imprecise and more data are needed.



That finding aligns with what we know about <a href="https://www.nrdc.org/stories/single-use-plastics-101" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">single-use-plastics</a>. Thin bags linger in water and along shorelines, where they can snag, smother, or be eaten by turtles, birds, and fish.



Many studies track what happens at store checkouts, but fewer track what ends up outdoors. Shoreline cleanups offer a window into that last step in the chain from purchase to pollution.



Across the study period, the share of bags among collected items rose overall, but it rose less where bag laws existed. That pattern is exactly what you want to see if policies are slowing the flow of litter into the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-plastic-policy-steps">Global plastic policy steps</h2>



A small, universal fee is a simple tool that nudges behavior without banning choices. Full bans can work too, and the analysis shows both approaches reduce the share of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glass-bottles-contain-more-microplastics-than-plastic-containers/">plastic</a> bags found during cleanups.



The mix of policies should match local conditions. In places with more bag litter to begin with, impacts were largest, so targeting high problem areas with fast action can deliver quick gains.



Plastic bag rules are only one part of the picture. Negotiators from 175 countries are working toward a plastics treaty under <a href="https://www.unep.org/inc-plastic-pollution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNEP</a> that could standardize action on a wider set of products and chemicals.



The study notes that bottles, caps, and other items did not decline when bag policies passed. That is a signal that targeted rules for other single use products would be needed to curb overall litter.



Adopt a modest fee or a full ban that applies across retail and restaurant settings, and keep the text simple so it is easy to enforce. Pair the policy with clear signs at checkout and with retailer reporting that tracks compliance.



Measure results in the same way the researchers did. Recruit volunteers, log items in TIDES, and watch how the litter mix changes year over year so the policy can be adjusted as needed.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp9274" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Studies confirm that a small tax definitely helps curb plastic pollution

Plastic bags are everywhere, and too many slip into rivers and onto beaches. A new analysis finds that policies that either charge a small fee per bag or prohibit them outright cut the share of bags found during shoreline cleanups by 25 to 47 percent. The study combed through hundreds of city, county, and state rules passed between 2017 and 2023. It matched those policies to more than 45,000 volunteer cleanups across the United States to see what actually changed on the ground. Who ran the study...

Scientists have been drilling and removing ice cores in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-emperor-penguin-officially-listed-as-endangered/">Antarctica</a> for many years with the aim of identifying characteristics of Earth’s atmosphere and climate dating back hundreds of millennia. The concentration of carbon dioxide in air bubbles trapped in the ice gives clues about levels of this greenhouse gas in the past, and the ratios of different water isotopes present in the ice can reveal how temperatures in the Antarctic have changed.&nbsp;



Using information derived from Antarctic ice cores, scientists have previously identified that, going back 800,000 years, the Antarctic climate consisted of a succession of long, cold ‘glacial’ periods interspersed roughly every 100,000 years with warm "interglacial" periods (of which the last 11,000 years is the most recent).&nbsp;



Now, in a new study of ice core data, an international team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a> has analyzed temperature changes on a seasonal scale, recording all the winter and summer temperatures going back 11,000 years to the start of the Holocene Period. Published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05411-8">Nature</a>, this study is the very first seasonal temperature record of its kind, from anywhere in the world.



“The goal of the research team was to push the boundaries of what is possible with past climate interpretations, and for us that meant trying to understand climate at the shortest timescales, in this case seasonally, from summer to winter, year-by-year, for many thousands of years,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://www.colorado.edu/instaar/tyler-jones">Tyler Jones</a>, lead author on the study, and assistant research professor and fellow at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.colorado.edu/instaar/">Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research</a>&nbsp;(INSTAAR).



The researchers used data from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) Divide ice core, which is the longest ice core ever drilled by U.S. researchers. It was removed from a dome of ice in central West Antarctica in 2011 and measures 11,171 feet (3405 meters), which is over 2 miles long. This core contains atmospheric and climate data from as much as 68,000 years ago, although the researchers only used sections dating back 11,000 years.&nbsp;



For this study, the scientists analyzed a continuous record of water-isotope ratios from the WAIS ice core. The ratios between the concentration of these isotopes (elements with the same number of protons but different atomic masses) reveal information about past temperatures and atmospheric circulation, including transitions between ice ages and warm periods in Earth’s past.



In addition to providing the first data on summer and winter temperature changes in the recent past, the study also validates one aspect of a long-standing theory about Earth’s climate that has not been previously proven. It shows that seasonal temperatures in Polar Regions respond to Milankovitch cycles.&nbsp;



A century ago, Serbian scientist Milutin Milankovitch hypothesized that cyclical orbital changes in the Earth’s movement around its axis and around the sun, affect how much solar radiation reaches its surface, and can thus drive long-term climate changes and trigger the start and end of glaciation periods (ice ages).&nbsp;



“I am particularly excited that our result confirms a fundamental prediction of the theory used to explain Earth’s ice-age climate cycles: that the intensity of sunlight controls summertime temperatures in the polar regions, and thus melt of ice, too,” said Kurt Cuffey, a co-author on the study and professor at the University of California Berkeley.



It was not a straightforward matter to measure seasonal changes in Earth’s temperature from ice cores, due to their short timescales. Water isotopes tend not to stay in one place in the upper ice sheet, but instead move around in interconnected pathways (similar to the air pockets in Styrofoam) as they change states between vapor and ice, over decades or centuries, before solidifying. This process, known as diffusion, can “blur” the finely detailed data that the researchers were trying to examine.&nbsp;



Luckily the high-quality ice cores from the WAIS allowed high-resolution measurements down to seasonal level. This, along with recent advances in ice core analysis during the past 15 years, enabled the team to correct for the diffusion present in the data and obtain the detail they sought.



“Even beyond that, we had to develop new methods entirely to deal with this data, because no one’s ever seen it before. We had to go above and beyond what anyone’s done in the past,” said Jones.



“This research is something that humans can really relate to because we partly experience the world through the changing seasons – documenting how summer and winter temperature varied through time translates to how we understand climate,” he added.



These finely detailed data on long-term climate patterns of the past also provide an important baseline for other scientists, who study the impacts of greenhouse gas emissions on our present and future climate. By knowing which planetary cycles occur naturally and why, researchers can better identify the human influence on climate change and its impacts on global temperatures. Interestingly, they are confident that the current period of warming is not related to any Milankovitch cycles, but is instead the result of human-produced greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.



This particular study has a long history of its own. For more than three decades, researchers at&nbsp;<a href="https://www.colorado.edu/instaar/research/labs-groups/stable-isotope-lab">INSTAAR’s Stable Isotope Lab</a>&nbsp;at CU Boulder have been studying a variety of stable isotopes – non-radioactive forms of atoms with unique molecular signatures – found everywhere from inside ice cores and permafrost to the air in our atmosphere. Jones joined the lab in 2007 as a master’s student and has never left.



“I have this distinct memory of walking into my advisor, Jim White’s office in about 2013, and showing him that we would be able to pull out summer and winter values in this record for the last 11,000 years – which is extremely rare. In our understanding, no one had ever done this before,” said Jones. “We looked at each other and said, ‘Wow, this is going to be a really big deal.’”



It then took almost a decade to work out how to cope with problems such as diffusion, and how to interpret the data from ice cores drilled many years earlier.&nbsp;



The team’s next step is to attempt to interpret high-resolution ice cores in other places – such as the South Pole and in northeast Greenland, where cores have already been drilled –to understand our planet’s climate variability better.



“Humans have a fundamental curiosity about how the world works and what has happened in the past, because that can also inform our understanding of what could happen in the future,” said Jones.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Tracking seasonal temperature changes over 11,000 years

Scientists have been drilling and removing ice cores in Antarctica...

As global temperatures continue to rise, there is an urgent need to improve crop resilience and food security. A new study from the <a href="https://www.earlham.ac.uk/">Earlham Institute</a> has revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-testing-the-resilience-of-wheat-yields/">wheat</a> containing exotic DNA from wild relatives can boost yields by more than 50 percent in hotter weather conditions.



"Wheat is among the most widely cultivated crops in the world with more than 216 million hectares grown annually, most of which is produced under temperate conditions," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Heat stress is one of the major abiotic stressors that impacts global wheat production, reducing leaf area, crop duration and the efficiency of photosynthesis and respiration3 as well as reducing floret fertility and individual grain weight. Together, these physiological consequences negatively impact productivity with potential devastating effects."



"For example, in 2010, Russia saw a 30% reduction in wheat yield during their hottest summer in 130 years5. Cases like this could become commonplace as global warming causes temperatures to rise and extreme weather events to become more frequent."



Professor Anthony Hall noted that while wheat is responsible for around 20 percent of the calories consumed globally, it is uncertain whether the crops we are planting today will be able to cope with tomorrow's weather. “To make matters worse, developing new varieties can take a decade or more so acting quickly is vital.”



In collaboration with the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT), the experts conducted a two-year field study in Mexico’s Sonora Desert to evaluate wheat crops under heat stressed conditions. The team analyzed 149 spring wheat lines, including widely-used elite varieties and those selectively bred to include DNA from wild relatives



“Crossing elite lines with exotic material has its challenges,” said study co-author Matthew Reynolds. “There’s a well-recognized risk of bringing in more undesirable than desirable traits, so this result represents a significant breakthrough in overcoming that barrier and the continued utilization of genetic resources to boost climate resilience.”



Ultimately, the researchers determined that plants bred with exotic DNA produced a 50-percent higher yield compared to wheat without this DNA. The experts also found that under normal conditions, exotic wheat lines did not perform any worse than elite lines.



“As we try to produce more food from less land to feed a growing global population, we urgently need to future-proof the crops we’re planting so they can thrive in an increasingly hostile climate," said study co-author Benedict Coombes. “The key to this, we are increasingly finding, may lie within largely untapped genetic resources from wheat’s wild relatives and landraces.”



“This is science we can now use to make an impact almost immediately,” said Professor Hall. “We’ve done the field trials, we know what genetic markers we’re looking for, and we’re starting conversations with wheat breeders so this is hopefully going to be the first of many steps to contribute to global food security in the coming years."



“The discoveries we’re making, and the action we’re taking, will hopefully mean people around the world can continue to have nutritious food on their plates.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-022-04325-5">Communications Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wheat with exotic DNA is much more heat tolerant

As global temperatures continue to rise, there is an urgent...

From a biological perspective, islands are special places. Their isolation from mainlands leads to more rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-changes-our-understanding-of-mammal-evolution/">evolution</a> and results in the formation of unique forms of plants and animals that are found nowhere else on Earth. Madagascar is one such island. It is the fifth largest island in the world, and is known for its diversity of endemic and unique species. Sadly, many of these species are now threatened with extinction as they struggle to adapt to habitat loss, exploitation and climate change.



Approximately 90 percent of all Malagasy plants and animals occur on this island and nowhere else. Among the mammals there are more than 100 endemic species of lemurs, which are adapted to the many different habitats found on the island. There is also the cat-like fossa, which is a formidable predator, and in excess of 20 species of tenrecs. The remarkable diversity of unique animals and plants reflects the fact that the island has been isolated for about 88 million years after it split from the Indian landmass.



A team of biologists and paleontologists from Madagascar, Europe and the United States set out to understand the extent to which Madagasy mammals have been perturbed by human disturbance. They were concerned that so many of the mammal species are facing threats to their existence and set out to ascertain exactly what is at stake if environmental change and human pressures on the island wildlife continue.



The team, led by biologists from the University of Groningen (Netherlands), Naturalis Biodiversity Center (Netherlands) and the Association Vahatra (Madagascar), first established a new dataset describing the evolutionary relationships of all 249 species of mammals that were present on Madagascar at the time that humans settled permanently on the island, around 2,500 years ago. They established that of the 249 mammal species, 30 are now extinct, and a further 120 are listed in the IUCN’s Red List as threatened with extinction.



The experts estimated how long it took all these species to evolve from their common ancestors, and could then extrapolate how long it took this level of biodiversity to evolve. In this way the researchers predicted the length of time it would take for evolutionary processes to “replace” all the endangered mammals, if they were to go extinct.&nbsp;



Using a computer simulation model based on island biogeography theory, the team found that it would take approximately 3 million years to regain the number of mammal species already lost from Madagascar in the time since humans arrived. However, if currently threatened species go extinct, it would take much longer: about 23 million years of evolution would be needed to recover the same number of species.&nbsp;



Put simply, this is really bad news. “It's abundantly clear that there are whole lineages of unique mammals that only occur on Madagascar and that have either gone extinct or are on the verge of extinction, and if immediate action isn't taken, Madagascar is going to lose 23 million years of evolutionary history of mammals, which means whole lineages unique to the face of the Earth will never exist again,” said study co-author Steve Goodman, MacArthur Field Biologist at Chicago’s <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> and Scientific Officer at Association Vahatra in Antananarivo.



The staggering time it would take to recover this diversity surprised the scientists: “It is much longer than what previous studies have found on other islands, such as New Zealand or the Caribbean,” said lead researcher Luis Valente.&nbsp;



The results of this new research, published in the scientific journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-35215-3">Nature Communications</a>, suggest Madagascar has reached a biodiversity tipping point and that an extinction wave with deep evolutionary impact is imminent unless immediate conservation actions are taken. However, the study finds that, with adequate conservation action, we may still preserve over 20 million years of unique evolutionary history on the island.&nbsp;



“It was already known that Madagascar was a hotspot of biodiversity, but this new research puts into context just how valuable this diversity is. These findings underline the potential gains of the conservation of nature on Madagascar from a novel evolutionary perspective," said Valente.



That doesn’t mean that, if we let all of the lemur, tenrecs, fossas and other unique Malagasy mammals go extinct, evolution will recreate them if we just wait around for 23 million more years. “It would be simply impossible to recover them,” said Goodman. Instead, the model means that to achieve a similar level of evolutionary complexity, whatever those new species might look like, would take 23 million years.



This urgent conservation work is made difficult by inequality and political corruption that keeps land-use decisions out of the hands of most Malagasy people, noted Goodman. “Madagascar’s biological crisis has nothing to do with biology. It has to do with socio-economics.” But while the situation is dire, “we can't throw in the towel. We’re obliged to advance this cause as much as we can and try to make the world understand that it’s now or never.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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It's "now or never" for Madagascar’s endangered mammals

From a biological perspective, islands are special places. Their isolation...

Scientists have long known that salt marshes are a major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-earths-new-lakes-affect-the-carbon-budget/">carbon</a> sink and can be of critical help in carbon sequestration efforts. However, they are also highly dynamic ecosystems that constantly change with seasons and tides. By focusing on the Sage Lot Pond on Cape Cod, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.mbl.edu/research/research-centers/ecosystems-center">Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL) Ecosystems Center</a> has now investigated how seasonal cycles and the ocean dynamics affect the amount of carbon stored in New England marshes.



“In our recent study, we asked: how does marsh respiration (the conversion of organic carbon to carbon dioxide) vary as a function of temperature, both of air and sediment? This can help us understand how climate change, particularly warming, alters respiration rates in a marsh,” said study lead author Joanna Carrey, an associate professor of Environmental Science at <a href="https://www.babson.edu/">Babson College</a>, who conducted this research during a postdoctoral fellowship at MBL.&nbsp;



The scientists examined gas exchange from the Sage Lot Pond marsh system over 16 months between 2014 and 2016, by installing static gas chambers in six plots, ranging from high elevation marsh (which is flooded by tides just a few days per month) to low elevation marsh (flooded twice daily). The chambers were used to record the amount of carbon dioxide released in the atmosphere each second for four minutes straight.



The analysis revealed that each degree of warming correlated with an exponential increase in carbon dioxide emissions. “But what was surprising is that we found higher temperature sensitivity in the low marsh habitat. That means for each degree of warming, there was significantly more carbon dioxide released from the marsh at lower elevation relative to the high-marsh habitat,” Carey&nbsp;explained.



The fact that low marshes stored more carbon had seemed a beneficial thing for natural carbon sequestration, particularly since sea-level rise is resulting in the conversion of high-marsh to low-marsh environments. However, this study shows that, as the world continues to warm, these benefits may be diminished, since CO2 is also released there at a significantly higher rate with increasing temperatures.



In addition, the researchers found that the Sage Lot marsh environment loses much more respired carbon to the ocean via ebbing tides than it does directly through vertical fluxes to the air. Thus, although some of the respired carbon will be returned to the atmosphere as a CO2 flux from the sea, a part of it most likely remains dissolved in the ocean for an extended period – maybe even thousands of years – thereby enhancing the carbon sequestration value of salt marshes.



In future research, the scientists aim to study also nitrogen loads and emissions by using the same methods, as well as to examine how their findings might extend to other marshes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2022JG006832">Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Low marshes emit more CO2 as temperatures rise

Scientists have long known that salt marshes are a major...

A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">University of California, Riverside</a> (UCR) has moved a step closer to finding a sustainable use for the hundreds of millions of tons of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/converting-plastic-waste-into-valuable-chemicals/">plastic waste</a> produced annually which frequently ends up clogging streams and rivers, and polluting the world’s oceans. The experts discovered a method to convert this waste into a highly porous form of charcoal or char that can capture carbon and could potentially be added to soils to improve water retention and aeration of farmlands, as well as to fertilize the soils as it breaks down.



The scientists mixed polystyrene (the type of plastic used for Styrofoam&nbsp;packaging) or polyethylene terephthalate (PET - the material often used to make water and soda bottles) with corn stover (the leftover stalks, husks, leaves, and cobs). This mixture was then cooked with highly compressed hot water, in a process called hydrothermal carbonization.



This study followed an earlier successful effort to use corn stover alone to produce activated charcoal that could help filter pollutants from drinking water. The researchers initially wanted to test whether activated charcoal produced from a combination of corn stover and plastic could also be an effective water treatment medium. Although this charcoal absorbed only about 45 percent of vanillin in test water samples – thus making it a rather ineffective medium for water cleanup – its potential use as a valuable soil additive remains an important discovery.



“It could be a very useful biochar because it is a very high surface area material,” said study senior author Kandis Leslie Abdul-Aziz. “So, if we just stop at the char and not make it in that turn into activated carbon, I think there are a lot of useful ways that we can utilize it.”



“I feel like we have more of an agnostic approach to plastic recycling when you can throw it in (with biomass) and use the char to better the soil. That’s what we’re thinking,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c04815">ACS Omega</a>.  



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Plastic waste could be used as a valuable soil additive

A team of researchers from the University of California, Riverside...

As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-made-droughts-20-times-more-likely/">droughts</a> are becoming increasingly frequent due to climate change, scientists are struggling to discover new ways of helping plants to adapt to prolonged water stress. Now, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://btiscience.org/">Boyce Thompson Institute</a> and <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> has provided a comprehensive picture of gene expression changes in response to water stress in the tomato fruit (Solanum lycopersicum), identifying genes which could help plant breeders develop fruits that are more resilient to drought conditions.



“We identified genes that are involved in water stress response in the tomato fruit,” said study senior author Carmen Catalá, an expert in the molecular regulation of fruit formation at Boyce Thompson. “We can now begin to select candidate genes that could help breeders develop fruit that can adapt to drought conditions, and not just tomatoes but also grapes, apples, and fleshy fruit in general. That is a long-term potential application of these data.”



The scientists examined gene expression in tomato leaves and six fruit organs (pericarp, placenta, septum, columella, jelly, and seeds) in both growing and ripe fruit under four different water stress conditions (none, mild, intermediate, and strong).&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that each of the organ tissues changed in unique ways over time. “Less than one percent of the expressed genes that were affected by water stress were shared among all six fruit tissues, and more than 50 percent of the affected genes were specific to a single tissue,” Catalá explained.



Surprisingly, the experts also identified some positive effects associated with (mild) drought, including an increase in the level of lycopene – an antioxidant with documented health benefits – in ripe fruit, and higher levels of starch biosynthesis, which could yield sweeter tomatoes.



Moreover, the findings suggest that tomatoes could be “trained” to be more resistant to future droughts. “When we sowed the seeds from treated plants, we found that the seedlings from stressed tomatoes showed improved recovery from water stress in comparison to seedlings from control tomatoes,” said study first author Philippe Nicolas, a postdoctoral fellow in Plant Research at Cornell.



The scientists identified several genes whose expression was induced by water stress in mature seeds that could play a crucial role in conferring drought tolerance to the next generation of plants. “The range of genes affected by water stress shows how complex plants can be, and that basic research is critical to identifying ways to make fruits, vegetables and grains more resistant to drought, a vital step in feeding the planet sustainably,” concluded Diane Okamuro, a program director in National Science Foundation’s <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/div/index.jsp?div=IOS">Division of Integrative Organismal Systems</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://beta.nsf.gov/now-leaving-43363334d7b588e059c47d2921?external_url=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fplphys%2Farticle-abstract%2F190%2F4%2F2557%2F6711401%3FredirectedFrom%3Dfulltext&amp;back_url=https%3A%2F%2Fbeta.nsf.gov%2Fnews%2Ffinding-genes-help-fruit-adapt-droughts">Plant Physiology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Scientists find genes that help fruit adapt to droughts

As droughts are becoming increasingly frequent due to climate change,...

Coastal lagoons&nbsp;are transitional environments between inland and marine aquatic systems. They are of great ecological and economic importance, and provide valuable ecosystem services, such as generating food for humans and other animals. However, they are fragile environments and are subject to pressure from several different human activities, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-caused-one-million-deaths-in-africa-in-2019/">pollution</a>.&nbsp;



In a recent review, published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120366">Environmental Pollution</a>, experts from Spain, Colombia and Chile identified and summarized the advances in research on microplastic (MP) pollution in coastal lagoons across the world. They searched peer−reviewed publications on this topic, published in English and Spanish, between the years of 2000 and 2022. In total, 57 relevant publications were found, with data on MP abundances and their characteristics in 50 coastal lagoons from 20 countries on different continents, including Europe (32 percent), Asia (20 percent), Latin America and the Caribbean (18 percent), Africa (12 percent), North America (10 percent), and Oceania (8 percent).



Although 58 percent of the lagoons studied have some form of environmental protection status&nbsp;(e.g., Ramsar Convention on wetlands of international importance, biosphere reserves, areas of importance for wildlife conservation), none of them was immune to contamination from microplastics. Fiber/filament and fragment shapes, and&nbsp;polyethylene, polyester, and&nbsp;polypropylene&nbsp;polymers were the predominant microplastic pollutants present.&nbsp;



“In these natural habitats, peak levels of microplastic pollution result from a combination of several factors. For example, the residence time and water renewal rate of lagoons, the nearby location of large urban and industrial developments with insufficient waste management, river and outfall discharges, seasonal climate fluctuations, natural phenomena (hurricanes, typhoons, etc.) and the typology of microplastics,” says study first author Ostin Garcés-Ordóñez, a member of the Consolidated Research Group in Marine Geosciences.



Coastal lagoons with slow, or very slow, water turnover rates are the most susceptible to high microplastic pollution. In the case of the Mosquito Lagoon in Florida (USA), it takes 200-300 days to renew 50 percent of the water, and therefore microplastics entering this lagoon can remain in this ecosystem for considerable periods of time.



“During the rainy season, the concentration of microplastics also increases in surface water compared to the dry season, a phenomenon that has been observed in the lagoon of Rio Lagarto (Mexico) and in the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta (Colombia), with maximum levels in areas where the most intense human activities are recorded,” says Garcés-Ordóñez.



Globally, the coastal lagoons most affected by MP pollution are found in Lagos (Nigeria), Sakumo (Ghana) and Bizerte (Tunisia), in close proximity to large urban centers that have no waste or sewage treatment systems. However, the study also found that the highest concentrations of microplastics have been detected in Barnes Sound and other small lagoons in a protected area in the north of Florida Bay (USA); in this case, they were transported there by hurricanes, from polluted areas further afield.



The study also reviewed the impact of microplastics on 96 different species of fish and found a maximum impact on fish that inhabit the coastal lagoons of Bizerte and Ghar El Melh in Tunisia. Fish are of great commercial interest and are also one of the best-studied groups of organisms when it comes to microplastic impacts. The study found that the species&nbsp;Liza aurata&nbsp;(golden grey mullet) and&nbsp;Sarpa salpa (dreamfish or salema) had intakes of up to 65 microplastics per individual. Mollusks, are also seriously affected, with levels of up to 17 microplastics per individual. The mollusks with the highest MP loads were Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) found in the Mosquito Lagoon (USA).



Regarding the Iberian Peninsula, coastal lagoons are relatively few in number and small in comparison with other coastal lagoon systems in the world. Most of them are associated with the lower courses of rivers and their former mouths, as well as with the coastal drift of sediments, as is the case of the marshes of Empordà, the Ebro delta, the Valencia lagoon or the lagoon system of the Portuguese Algarve.



“The environmental state of these lagoons is variable and changes over time. Some suffer the effects of pollution from urban, industrial and agricultural sources, such as the Valencia lagoon and the Mar Menor in Murcia, where there have recently been massive deaths of fish due to episodes of anoxia,” notes Professor Miquel Canals, director of the UB&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ub.edu/portal/web/dp-dinamica-terra-ocea/">Department of Earth and Ocean Dynamics</a>&nbsp;and a leading member of the research team.



“The Mar Menor, which is the largest coastal lagoon in Spain, has unique characteristics among the Iberian coastal lagoons, given the high salinity of its waters as a result of its permanent communication with the open sea and the presence of several volcanic islets. Episodes of drought can have notable effects on some of these lake systems, as is already happening in the marshes of the Empordà or in Doñana.'



The study reveals the presence of microplastics in the water column, sediments and fish in the coastal lagoons of the Mar Menor (Murcia), the Pletera (Catalonia) and in Ria Formosa and Aveiro (Portugal). "In Spanish lagoons, an average of 20.1 ±2.9&nbsp; microplastics per kilogram of the digestive tract has been found in sea bream (Sparus aurata) in the Mar Menor, and an abundance of up to 2.5 microplastics per individual in the eastern mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) in the restored Pletera lagoon in Girona", says Canals.



The review highlighted the fact that microplastics can end up being accumulated in certain areas of coastal lagoons, or they can be exported out to the sea, depending on the influence of seasonal weather, hydrodynamics, anthropogenic pressures, and the types of MPs involved.



“We can certainly say that the different environmental matrices of coastal lagoons –i.e., waters, sediments and organisms living in these habitats – are receptors of microplastics and are affected by the pollution they cause. However, we do not yet know to what extent coastal lagoons are ultimate sinks for microplastics,” says Canals.



“This is related to the characteristics and dynamics of each lagoon, as well as to the quantities and properties of incoming microplastics. Thus, some lagoons may be true sinks while others may function as temporary sinks in the microplastic cycle, easing, for example, their transfer from river systems to beaches and the marine environment. Such criteria could be used to classify coastal lagoons according to the balance between inward and, eventually, outward fluxes of microplastics.



The scientists found it challenging to combine data from all the different published studies on coastal lagoons all over the world. This was due to the fact that the research reported in these studies made use of a variety of different methods to assess the presence and impacts of microplastics.&nbsp;



“In many parts of the world, research is limited by the limited availability of financial, human and infrastructure resources (e.g. Raman or Fourier-Transform infrared spectrometers to characterize the composition of plastic polymers),” says Garcés-Ordóñez. “Extensively applying both simple and more advanced methodologies will answer many open questions about the dynamics of microplastics in these environments or the role of lagoons as temporary or permanent microplastic sinks,” he adds.



Ideally, the scientists would like to see preventative measures that stop microplastics from entering the lagoon systems in the first place. As Miquel Canals notes, “the best way to tackle and minimize the problem of microplastic pollution in general, and in coastal lagoons specifically, is to stop it from entering natural systems from the roots. It is necessary to act on the sources and the causes that favor their arrival in coastal lagoons and the rest of the ecosystems.”



Achieving this goal would require a series of combined actions at global, regional, national and local levels. Initially there would have to be an adequate regulatory framework, and then this would have to be implemented effectively. Actions would need to be taken to minimize plastic waste generation at all levels, for example by proper management of waste and wastewater discharged into aquatic ecosystems, and by instituting strategies to eliminate the accumulation of large waste in the environment.



“It is obvious that these examples are only some of the existing options, which should also be accompanied by environmental education and monitoring programs in order to be able to assess their effectiveness objectively. Other options, such as the recovery of microplastics from the natural environment, are not, for the moment, viable,” concludes Miquel Canals.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Coastal lagoons have high loads of microplastics

Coastal lagoons&nbsp;are transitional environments between inland and marine aquatic systems....

Parasites may fill us with revulsion and disgust, but they are integral components of ecosystems and play important ecological roles. They regulate host populations, and influence food webs, competition and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-at-risk-from-palm-oil-expansion/">biodiversity</a>, even shaping community and ecosystem structure. In fact, there are way more parasitic species than there are predators, indicating how widespread this life-history strategy is in nature.&nbsp;



However, while we are deeply concerned about the impacts of global warming on the species we value (think birds and mammals), we don’t often imagine how the world’s parasites will be affected. In a new study, researchers from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> and colleagues have made use of fish specimens preserved in museum collections over the past 140 years to assess long-term trends in parasite populations.&nbsp;



“People generally think that climate change will cause parasites to thrive, that we will see an increase in parasite outbreaks as the world warms,” said lead author&nbsp;<a href="https://environment.uw.edu/faculty/chelsea-wood/">Chelsea Wood</a>, a UW associate professor of aquatic and fishery sciences. “For some parasite species that may be true, but parasites depend on hosts, and that makes them particularly vulnerable in a changing world where the fate of hosts is being reshuffled.”



The current study focused on eight species of fish caught in Puget Sound, the second largest estuary on mainland U.S. These species are common in the collections of natural history museums and most of the specimens came from the UW Fish Collection at the Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture. While mammals and birds are preserved with taxidermy, which retains parasites only on skin, feathers or fur, fish are preserved in fluid, which enters their tissues and thus also preserves any parasites living inside them at the time of their death.&nbsp;



The researchers had to dissect and open up the preserved fish specimens and identify any parasites they found inside the body. They counted the parasites before returning the specimens to the preserving fluid. In total, the scientists found 17,259 parasites, of 85 types, in the 699 fish specimens.



“It took a long time. It’s certainly not for the faint of heart,” said Professor Wood. “I’d love to stick these fish in a blender and use a genomic technique to detect their parasites’ DNA, but the fish were first preserved with a fluid that shreds DNA. So what we did was just regular old shoe-leather parasitology.”



The results of the study show that, for some parasite species, numbers decreased dramatically between 1880 and 2019, in fish from Puget Sound. These parasites included multicellular species of arthropods (animals with an exoskeleton), such as crustaceans, as well as what Wood describes as “unbelievably gorgeous tapeworms:” the&nbsp;Trypanorhyncha, whose heads are armed with hook-covered tentacles.&nbsp;



Those parasite species that suffered the largest population declines were the ones that are dependent on three or more host species during their lifecycle. Some parasites have a single host species, but most require more than one and will travel between host species. For example, the eggs of some parasites are carried in one host species, the larvae emerge and infect another host and the adult may reach maturity in a third host before laying its own eggs.



For parasites that rely on three or more host species during their lifecycle – including more than half the parasite species identified in the study’s Puget Sound fish – analysis of historic fish specimens showed an average decline in abundance of 11 percent per decade. Of 10 parasite species that had disappeared completely by 1980, nine relied on three or more hosts.&nbsp;



“Our results show that parasites with one or two host species stayed pretty steady, but parasites with three or more hosts crashed,” said Professor Wood. “The degree of decline was severe. It would trigger conservation action if it occurred in the types of species that people care about, like mammals or birds.”



“Parasite ecology is really in its infancy, but what we do know is that these complex-lifecycle parasites probably play an important role in pushing energy through food webs and in supporting top apex predators,” added Wood, who is one of the authors of a 2020 report laying out&nbsp;<a href="https://www.washington.edu/news/2020/08/03/new-studies-show-how-to-save-parasites-and-why-its-important/">a conservation plan for parasites</a>.



To understand the possible causes of these declines, the researchers investigated three factors over the 140 year time span; the abundance of the fish species in Puget Sound, pollution levels in the estuary, and water temperature at the ocean surface. The variable that best explained the decline in parasites was sea surface temperature, which rose by 1 degree Celsius (1.8 degrees Fahrenheit) in Puget Sound between 1950 and 2019.



For the parasite species that require multiple hosts to complete their lifecycle, warming temperatures just need to affect one of the hosts and this will prevent the parasite from reproducing successfully. These parasites are thus vulnerable to disruption at any point along the way.&nbsp;



“This study demonstrates that major parasite declines have happened in Puget Sound. If this can happen unnoticed in an ecosystem as well studied as this one, where else might it be happening?” Wood said. “I hope our work inspires other ecologists to think about their own focal ecosystems, identify the right museum specimens, and see whether these trends are unique to Puget Sound, or something that is occurring in other places as well.”



“Our result draws attention to the fact that parasitic species might be in real danger. And that could mean bad stuff for us – not just fewer worms, but less of the parasite-driven ecosystem services that we’ve come to depend on.”



The research is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2211903120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Marine parasites are vulnerable to warming oceans

Parasites may fill us with revulsion and disgust, but they...

A new study of vegetation across New York City and densely populated surrounding areas has found that, on summer days, photosynthesis by trees and grasses absorbs a massive amount of the carbon dioxide emissions produced by vehicles and other greenhouse-emitting sources. This surprising discovery highlights the underappreciated importance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-green-spaces-are-urgently-needed-to-improve-health/">urban green spaces</a> in the carbon cycle.



By using fine-grained vegetation maps, the scientists documented massive amounts of previously unrecognized greenery scattered in small spots even in highly developed areas, and found that they are performing a substantial role in the exchange of hazardous atmospheric gases. Since urban areas account for over 70 percent of human CO2 emissions – with New York City as the U.S.’s number one emitter, and third largest in the world – these findings are highly significant, showing that even individual street trees, little backyard gardens, overgrown vacant lots, and other small greenery can play an outsize role in carbon absorption.



“There is a lot more greenery than we thought, and that’s what drives our conclusion,” said study lead author Dandan Wei, a climate expert at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a>. “This tells us that the ecosystem matters in New York City, and if it matters here, it probably matters everywhere else.”



“Most people have assumed that New York City is just a grey box, that it’s biogenically dead. But just because there’s a concrete sidewalk somewhere doesn’t mean there’s not also a tree that’s shading it,” added co-author Roísín Commane, an atmospheric chemist at the same university.



The analysis revealed that tree canopies cover about 170 square kilometers of New York City (about 22 percent of its area), while grasses account for another 94 square kilometers (12 percent of the city’s area). By examining carbon emissions from June to August 2018, the researchers found that the total uptake from the city’s trees and grasses equaled up to 40 percent of a summer afternoon’s total emissions from all sources.



Unfortunately, in relatively chilly New York, carbon uptake occurs only during the local growing season, roughly from mid-April to mid-October. However, vegetation in cities with warmer climates most likely plays an even larger role in carbon uptake.



In future research, the scientists aim to characterize coverage by species, and thus figure out the relative benefits of different types of trees and grasses. “More trees are always going to be better, no matter what they are. But we could use an assessment of which ones are the best,” Wei concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aca68f">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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New York City greenery absorbs vast amounts of carbon

A new study of vegetation across New York City and...

Abstract,Ocean,Design,Template,With,Underwater,Part,And,Sunset,Skylight

By using samples from an almost century-old, ongoing survey of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-plankton-glow-predators/">marine plankton</a>, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California, San Diego</a> has found that increasing levels of manmade chemicals found in some parts of the world’s oceans might play an important role in monitoring the impact of human activity on ecosystem health, and may be used in the future to examine the connections between ocean pollution and land-based rates of childhood and adult chronic diseases.



“This was a pilot study to test the feasibility of using archived samples of plankton from the Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) Survey to reconstruct historical trends in marine pollution over space and time,” said senior author Robert K. Naviaux, an expert in Mitochondrial Medicine and Complex Chronic Disorders at UC San Diego. “We were motivated to explore these new methods by the alarming increase in childhood and adult chronic disease that has occurred around the world since the 1980s.”



“Recent studies have underscored the tight linkage between ocean pollution and human health. In this study, we asked the question: Do changes in the plankton exposome (the measure of all exposures in a lifetime) correlate with ecosystem and fisheries health? We also wanted to lay the groundwork for asking a second question: Can humanmade chemicals in plankton be used as a barometer to measure changes in the global chemosphere that might contribute to childhood and adult illness?”



The scientists collected plankton specimens from three different locations in the North Pacific between 2002 and 2020, and assessed their exposure to a variety of humanmade chemicals, including pharmaceutic products, persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as industrial chemicals, phthalates and plasticizers (substances derived from plastics), pesticides, and personal care products.



The analysis revealed that, although many of these products have decreased in amount during the past two decades, nearshore areas closest to human activities and subject to terrestrial runoff or aquaculture still had high level of various chemicals that impacted plankton. Moreover, perfluoroalkyl substances – a type of chemicals commonly used to enhance water-resistance in various everyday products (such as packaging, clothing, or cookware), which seem to impact human health by inhibiting mitochondrial proteins - were prominent in the plankton exposome, as were phthalates, which are known to disrupt endocrine functions.



“Plankton are responding to the chemicals in their exposome, in part by changes in their own mitochondria that change their biology, and so too, I would argue, are humans. It is my hope that the use of our methods by research groups around the world will reinforce the connection between ecosystem health and human health, and provide new tools to monitor how the human chemical footprint has changed over the past century. Follow-up studies by epidemiologists and marine ecologists are needed to test if and how the plankton exposome correlates with important medical trends in nearby human populations like infant mortality, autism, asthma, diabetes, and dementia,” Naviaux concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.161222">Science of the Total Environment</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Marine plankton hold a long record of ocean health

By using samples from an almost century-old, ongoing survey of...

The results of a new study modeling the effects of the world’s current emission reduction pledges has concluded that it’s no longer about whether we will overshoot the 1.5 degree Celsius warming target or not; it’s now about how much we will overshoot. This is a stark and sobering finding, against the backdrop of the 2022 United Nations Climate Change Conference (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/on-a-highway-to-climate-hell-cop27-begins-in-egypt/">COP27</a>) currently taking place in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt.



According to the study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41558-022-01508-0">Nature Climate Change</a>, it is now highly likely that the world is going to warm past the 1.5 degree rise in average temperature, set as a goal of the 2015 Paris Agreement. The world’s current climate pledges are simply insufficient&nbsp;to limit global warming to this level, say the researchers from the Department of Energy’s Pacific Northwest National Laboratory(PNNL), the University of Maryland and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. However, the experts note there is still time to adopt mechanisms that can limit the extent of the overshoot.



Although exceeding the 1.5-degree target appears inevitable, the researchers say that countries can minimize the time spent in a warmer world by adopting more ambitious climate pledges and decarbonizing faster. Their study suggests various mechanisms whereby the overshoot period is shortened, in some cases by decades, and the researchers say this will be critical in reducing the extent of the damage.&nbsp;



“Let’s face it. We are going to breach the 1.5 degrees limit in the next couple of decades,” said corresponding author and PNNL scientist Haewon McJeon. “That means we’ll go up to 1.6 or 1.7 degrees or above, and we’ll need to bring it back down to 1.5. But how fast we can bring it down is key.”



According to the study, every second shaved off the overshoot translates to less time spent courting the most harmful consequences of global warming, from extreme weather to rising sea levels. Forgoing or delaying more ambitious goals could lead to “irreversible and adverse consequences for human and natural systems,” said lead author Gokul Iyer, a scientist alongside McJeon at the Joint Global Change Research Institute, a partnership between PNNL and the University of Maryland.



“Moving fast means hitting net-zero pledges sooner, decarbonizing faster, and striking more ambitious emissions targets,” said Iyer. “Every little bit helps, and you need a combination of all of it. But our results show that the most important thing is doing it early. Doing it now, really.”



During COP26 in 2021, the same research team found that the then updated pledges could substantially increase the chance of limiting warming to 2 degrees Celsius over pre-industrial levels. In their new paper, the authors take an additional step in proposing how to move the needle from 2 to 1.5 degrees.



“The 2021 pledges don’t add up to anywhere near 1.5 degrees – we are forced to focus on the overshoot,” said PNNL scientist Yang Ou, who co-led the study. “Here, we’re trying to provide scientific support to help answer the question: What type of ratcheting mechanism would get us back down and below 1.5 degrees? That’s the motivation behind this paper.”



The researchers modelled the predicted consequences of 27 scenarios involving different levels of emissions and climate actions, from the least ambitious to the most. They tracked the effect on global warming if each of these pathways was followed, in order to identify particular approaches that could limit temperature rise or, indeed, return the world to the desired 1.5 degree average temperature rise after overshooting this goal.&nbsp;&nbsp;



As a starting point, the researchers assumed that countries will meet their emissions pledges and long-term strategies on schedule. If countries do uphold their nationally determined contributions through 2030 and follow a two percent minimum decarbonization rate, for example, global carbon dioxide levels would not reach net zero this century.



However, in the more ambitious scenarios, they model the extent to which warming is limited when countries decarbonize faster and advance the dates of their net-zero pledges. Their results underscore the significance of “ratcheting near-term ambition,” which entails rapid reductions in carbon dioxide emissions from all sectors of the energy system, immediately and through 2030.



Taking the most ambitious path outlined could even bring net-zero carbon dioxide emissions by 2057. Such a path, the authors write, is marked by “rapid transformations throughout the global energy system” along with the scaling up of “low-carbon technologies like renewables, nuclear energy, as well as carbon capture and storage.”



“The technologies that help us get to zero emissions include renewables, hydrogen, electric cars, and so on. Of course those are important players,” said Iyer. “Another important piece of the puzzle is the technologies that can remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, like direct air capture or nature-based solutions.”



The most ambitious scenarios outlined in their work are meant to be illustrative of the pathways on offer. But the central takeaway remains clear throughout all modeled scenarios: if 1.5 degrees is to be re-attained sooner after we warm past it, more ambitious climate pledges must be adopted.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Global warming will exceed 1.5 degrees, but by how much?

The results of a new study modeling the effects of...

From April to May 2019, the coral reefs close to the French Polynesian island of Moorea in the central South Pacific Ocean suffered prolonged and severe thermal bleaching, despite the absence of El Niño conditions that year, a phenomenon which intrigued oceanologists around the world. 



Now, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://hkust.edu.hk/">Hong Kong University of Science and Technology</a> has investigated this surprising and apparently paradoxical event, and discovered that it was related to passage of anti-cyclonic eddies which elevated sea levels and concentrated hot water over the coral reef, leading to a massive underwater marine heatwave that was invisible from the sea surface.



Most studies of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reef-fish-struggle-to-recognize-competitors-after-coral-bleaching/">coral bleaching</a> rely on sea-surface measurements of water temperatures, a method that cannot fully capture the threats from ocean heating to various ecosystems, including coral reefs. By analyzing data collected at Moorea over a period of 15 years (from 2005 to 2019) through a combination of remotely sensed sea-surface temperatures and high-resolution, long-term in-situ temperatures and sea level anomalies, the Hong Kong experts found that the passage of anti-cyclonic eddies in the open ocean near the island raised sea levels, pushing internal waves down into deeper water. As a result, internal wave cooling was shut down in early 2019, leading to unexpected heating over the reef and large-scale coral bleaching and mortality.



Interestingly, in contrast with the situation in 2019, the reefs near Moorea did not undergo significant bleaching mortality in 2016, regardless of the prevailing El Niño conditions which decimated many shallow reefs worldwide. Since relying solely on sea-surface temperature data would have predicted only moderate bleaching in both 2016 and 2019, the new findings stress the importance of collecting temperatures across the whole range of depths that coral reefs occupy.&nbsp;



“The present study highlights the need to consider environmental dynamics across depths relevant to threatened ecosystems, including those due to the passage of underwater ocean weather events.&nbsp;This kind of analysis depends on long-term, in situ data measured across ocean depths, but such data is generally lacking,” said study lead author Alex Wyatt, an expert in Ocean Science at Hong Kong.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Our paper provides a valuable mechanistic example for assessing the future of coastal ecosystems in the context of changing ocean dynamics and climates.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-35550-5">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Hidden heatwave led to massive coral bleaching event

From April to May 2019, the coral reefs close to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic pollution.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-threat-in-urban-air">Invisible threat in urban air</h2>



City dwellers face an unseen danger with every breath. New findings from Emory University researchers suggest that fine particulate matter from <a href="http://earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicle emissions may significantly elevate the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease</a>. The study examined brain tissue samples from 224 individuals who had confirmed diagnoses and volunteered their brains for scientific research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disturbing-connections-emerge">Disturbing connections emerge</h2>



Scientists analyzed neuritic plaques — protein clusters that characterize Alzheimer's — while mapping each participant's exposure to PM2.5 particles based on residential location and surrounding traffic density. The correlation proved more alarming than anticipated. Individuals experiencing higher pollution exposure showed nearly double the likelihood of elevated plaque accumulation in brain tissue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-matters">Timing matters</h2>



The research team discovered that pollution exposure during the final year before death demonstrated the strongest association with brain changes. This timeline suggests relatively rapid impacts from environmental toxins on neural health. The connection remained robust even after accounting for various demographic and health factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-vulnerability-patterns">Genetic vulnerability patterns</h2>



Perhaps most concerning, people lacking the APOE gene—which naturally predisposes individuals to Alzheimer's — exhibited more than twice the susceptibility to pollution-related brain damage. Study author Dr. Anke Huels noted this indicates environmental elements like air contamination could trigger the disease in cases where hereditary factors don't explain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-implications">Public health implications</h2>



These findings, published in <a href="https://www.neurology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a>, underscore the critical importance of air quality regulations in urban planning. The research suggests that implementing stricter emission controls and promoting alternative transportation could serve as powerful tools in Alzheimer's prevention.



As cities worldwide grapple with growing traffic congestion and aging populations, this study highlights an urgent need for comprehensive approaches to environmental health that protect both our lungs and our minds.



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Traffic fumes may trigger Alzheimer's

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-earth-became-a-frozen-wasteland">When Earth became a frozen wasteland</h2>



Imagine Earth as a giant snowball, frozen solid from the North Pole to the equator. This wasn't the plot of a science fiction movie – it was our planet's reality 700 million years ago during an extreme ice age that has puzzled scientists for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery">The discovery</h2>



Australian researchers from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> have finally cracked one of geology's greatest mysteries: what caused the Sturtian glaciation and why it persisted for an unprecedented 57 million years. This period occurred long before dinosaurs roamed the Earth, when no complex plants or multicellular animals existed.



Dr. Adriana Dutkiewicz, the study's lead author, describes a world completely unlike today's climate. "Imagine the Earth almost completely frozen over," she explained. "The planet was blanketed in ice from poles to equator, and temperatures plunged."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-combination-of-climate-factors">The combination of climate factors</h2>



The research team discovered that this massive freeze resulted from a "double whammy" of geological events. First, plate tectonic activity reduced volcanic carbon dioxide emissions to historically low levels. Volcanic activity typically releases CO2 into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that keeps Earth warm.



Simultaneously, weathering of volcanic rocks in what is now Canada actively absorbed atmospheric CO2, further reducing greenhouse gas concentrations. When atmospheric carbon dioxide levels dropped below 200 parts per million – less than half of today's levels – glaciation engulfed the entire planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-climate-implications">Modern climate implications</h2>



Published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a>, this research provides crucial insights into Earth's climate system. While geological climate changes occur over millions of years, the study emphasizes that human-induced climate change is happening at a pace ten times faster than previously observed natural changes, highlighting the urgent need to understand our planet's delicate climate balance.



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What caused the planet's longest ice age

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY 57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.



The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.



The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.



The full study was recently published in <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.



Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.



Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents". In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively. MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.



MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization. The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.



Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.



A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.



This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.



PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.



In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.



As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.



The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.



For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.



The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.



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MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a>



Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.



The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



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Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

[sendtonews key="fxH3eJHEkQ-2010196-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Saturn,-,High,Resolution,3d,Images,Presents,Planets,Of,The

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

[sendtonews key="Ccjk8KEMzv-2550719-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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