When we talk about plastic pollution, oceans and rivers dominate the conversation. Beaches lined with plastic bottles have become the symbol of this crisis. Farms and city streets also show clear signs of contamination. But forests? Few would imagine plastic reaching there.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.tu-darmstadt.de/index.en.jsp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TU Darmstadt</a> have shown otherwise. Their study reveals, for the first time, that forest soils carry large amounts of microplastics. 



The particles arrive mainly through the air, settle on leaves, and later end up in the ground. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-may-trigger-rapid-release-of-soil-carbon/">Forests</a>, once thought of as clean and distant, are absorbing pollution every day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-falling-from-the-sky">Microplastics falling from the sky</h2>



Unlike farmland, forests do not receive fertilizers laced with plastic. They do not sit beside landfills or sewage plants. Yet they still collect microplastics. How? The atmosphere delivers them.



Leaves catch the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-matter-helps-soil-hold-water-even-in-conditions-like-mars/">particles</a> first. Rain and falling foliage move them downward. Forests act like large nets that sweep pollution from the sky.



"The microplastics from the atmosphere initially settle on the leaves of the tree crowns, which scientists refer to as the 'comb-out effect,'" explains lead author Dr. Collin J. Weber. "Then, in deciduous forests, the particles are transported to the forest soil by rain or the autumn leaf fall, for example."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-as-storage">Soil as storage</h2>



Once in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-is-losing-nitrogen-along-with-its-climate-fighting-power/">soil</a>, the particles do not stay at the surface. Leaf litter slowly breaks down, and with it, plastics sink deeper. 



Insects, fungi, and other organisms speed up this process. The result is long-term storage of plastics in soil horizons that usually contain decomposed organic matter.



The researchers measured concentrations ranging from 120 to more than 13,000 particles per kilogram of soil. Stocks of up to nearly a million particles per square meter were recorded at some sites. Forest soils, it turns out, rival urban soils in plastic load.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastics-in-forest-soil">Plastics in forest soil</h2>



The team analyzed the chemical makeup of the particles. Polypropylene, polyethylene, and polyamide dominated the samples. These are common in packaging and textiles. 



The particles were mostly fragments and films, not fibers. Most measured less than 250 micrometers, far smaller than a grain of sand.



The similarity between what fell from the air and what lay in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amthropocene-humans-began-causing-global-soil-erosion-much-earlier-than-believed/">soil</a> points to the same source: atmospheric deposition. Other ground-based sources like littering or forestry practices may add some plastic, but their role is minor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-collect-plastics-for-decades">Forests collect plastics for decades</h2>



The story does not end with today’s measurements. The scientists modeled how long it would take to build up current soil levels. 



The answer points back to the 1950s, when plastic production exploded worldwide. For 70 years, forests have been quietly gathering plastic particles from the air.



Even under conservative scenarios, the amounts found in soil today can be explained by steady deposition over decades. Forest soils, like silent records, tell the history of the plastic age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-match-city-pollution">Forests match city pollution</h2>



The surprise is not just the presence of plastics but the quantity. Compared to global data, these German forest soils contain as much plastic as urban soils and often more than agricultural, wetland, or coastal soils. The assumption that forests stand apart from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/">pollution</a> no longer holds.



Forests cover about a third of Earth’s land surface. If all are acting as sinks, the scale of storage is enormous. This changes how scientists think about the global flow of microplastics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-as-indicators">Forests as indicators</h2>



"Our results indicate that microplastics in forest soils originate primarily from atmospheric deposition and from leaves falling to the ground, known as litterfall. Other sources, on the other hand, have only a minor influence," said Dr. Weber.



"We conclude that forests are good indicators of atmospheric microplastic pollution and that a high concentration of microplastics in forest soils indicates a high diffuse input - as opposed to direct input such as from fertilizers in agriculture - of particles from the air into these ecosystems."



Forests, in other words, act like monitors. The amount of plastic in their soils reflects what is falling from the sky across regions and continents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-for-nature-and-people">Risks for nature and people</h2>



What does this mean for ecosystems? Microplastics can change soil structure, affect microbes, and alter nutrient cycles. Over time, this could influence tree growth and forest health. 



The combination of climate stress and plastic pollution could place new pressure on already fragile ecosystems.



"Forests are already threatened by climate change, and our findings suggest that microplastics could now pose an additional threat to forest ecosystems," noted Dr. Weber.



There is also a human angle. The same particles found in forests travel through the air we breathe. What lands on a leaf today may be part of tomorrow’s inhaled dust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-plastic-in-forest-soils">Future of plastic in forest soils</h2>



This study is the first to show, with clear evidence, that forests are major recipients of microplastic pollution from the atmosphere. 



The research raises urgent questions. How do different tree species capture particles? How do seasonal changes affect deposition? And what will decades more of plastic production mean for soils and air?



For now, one conclusion is unavoidable: forests, once considered safe from plastic waste, are firmly part of the story. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02712-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Plastic rain: Forests are trapping microplastics from the sky

When we talk about plastic pollution, oceans and rivers dominate the conversation. Beaches lined with plastic bottles have become the symbol of this crisis. Farms and city streets also show clear signs of contamination. But forests? Few would imagine plastic reaching there. Researchers at TU Darmstadt have shown otherwise. Their study reveals, for the first time, that forest soils carry large amounts of microplastics. The particles arrive mainly through the air, settle on leaves, and later end up in the ground. Forests, once thought of as clean...

In 2024, the planet faced more hot, sticky days than ever before. The American Meteorological Society reported that humid heat days over land rose by 35.6 compared to the 1991-2020 average. That broke the previous record from 2023 by nearly 10 days.



This is not just about hotter summers. Humidity is climbing to levels that make normal cooling impossible. 



When air holds too much moisture, sweat doesn’t evaporate. The body keeps the heat inside, which quickly becomes dangerous.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-body-struggles-in-humid-heat">Our body struggles in humid heat</h2>



Kate Willett from the UK <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Met Office</a> explained the risk clearly. “Your body starts to really struggle to offload heat, and so it can be really dangerous."



Meteorologists track this with a “wet bulb temperature.” They cover a thermometer with a wet cloth. 



Normally, evaporation cools the reading. In muggy conditions, that effect fades, and the wet bulb temperature rises close to the dry one. It represents how oppressive the air feels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humid-heat-around-the-world">Humid heat around the world</h2>



A warmer atmosphere holds more water. That means heavier rains, stronger storms, and more humid days. Willett said 2024 was “exceptionally” humid, second only to 2023.



The numbers tell the story. In the Middle East, South-East Asia, and eastern China, wet bulb temperatures often surpassed 29°C (84°F). 



Some places even touched 31°C (88°F). At that point, being outside for long periods is unsafe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-much-heat-can-humans-take">How much heat can humans take?</h2>



For years, scientists believed survival ended at 35°C (95°F) wet bulb temperature. But research in 2022 lowered the limit. The real danger may begin around 31°C (88°F). 



“30°C and above is where your body is really struggling,” Willett said. That means the danger line is much closer than many assumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-america-s-muggiest-summer">America’s muggiest summer</h2>



The United States faced its own climate crisis as the summer of 2025 began. More than 70 million people endured what scientists have called the muggiest start to a summer in recorded history. 



Across much of the eastern half of the country, the air felt thick and heavy for weeks, with heat combining with record-breaking humidity.



Data showed that parts of 27 states, along with Washington, D.C., experienced an unusual number of days with dew points above 65°F. 



Meteorologists often use this mark as the point when the air shifts from merely noticeable humidity to levels that feel uncomfortable and oppressive for most people. In simple terms, the air felt more like a tropical zone than a typical American summer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humidity-rises-in-u-s-cities">Humidity rises in U.S. cities</h2>



Some cities felt it worse than others. Philadelphia reported 29 separate days when dew points soared beyond 75°F, creating air that many residents described as suffocating. Washington, D.C., had 27 days at this extreme level, while Baltimore experienced 24. 



To put that in perspective, even the National Weather Service office in Tampa, a city used to sticky summers, classifies dew points of 75°F and above as “oppressive.” 



“This has been a very muggy summer. The humid heat has been way up,” said Bernadette Woods Placky from Climate Central.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dew-points-rising-fast">Dew points rising fast</h2>



Dew point measures moisture in the air. It’s the most accurate way to explain humidity. In cities like Washington, Baltimore, and St. Louis, dew points this summer were about six degrees higher than the 1951–2020 average.



Cameron Lee, a climate scientist at <a href="https://www.kent.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kent State University</a>, measured dew points of 82°F at his home in Ohio. 



“There are parts of the United States that are experiencing not only greater average humidity, especially in the spring and summer, but also more extreme humid days,” Lee said. 



The data shows that what used to happen once a year is now happening several times a summer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nights-stay-hotter-with-humid-heat">Nights stay hotter with humid heat</h2>



High humidity keeps heat trapped at night. Normally, the body cools off while we sleep. But this summer, cities from the Ohio Valley to the Atlantic broke records for the hottest overnight lows. 



“What really impacts the body is that nighttime temperature,” said Zack Taylor from the <a href="https://www.weather.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Weather Service</a>. Without cooling, the body doesn’t recover from the day. The strain builds day after day.



Meteorologists link these conditions to both climate change and shifting weather patterns. Persistent high-pressure systems trapped heat, while heavy rains added more moisture. Missing were the cooler air fronts that once offered relief.



“Summers now are not your grandparents’ summers,” noted Marshall Shepherd, a professor at the <a href="https://www.uga.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Georgia</a>.



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Humid heat days are a growing threat to public health

In 2024, the planet faced more hot, sticky days than...

In 2024, the world’s climate continued to break records, with greenhouse gas concentrations and global temperatures reaching unprecedented highs.



The oceans absorbed more heat than ever before. Sea levels climbed to their highest point on record, and glaciers shed more ice than in any prior year.



This year’s State of the Climate report, published by the <a href="https://www.ametsoc.org/ams/">American Meteorological Society</a>, brought together 589 scientists from 58 countries. 



The experts used data from satellites, weather stations, ocean buoys, and ice-core records. For decades, this report has been the go-to snapshot of Earth’s climate - tracking key changes and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-confirmed-as-earths-hottest-year-in-recorded-history/">extreme events</a> across the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenhouse-gases-hit-highest-levels">Greenhouse gases hit highest levels</h2>



Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide all set new records in 2024. Average CO2 levels reached 422.8 parts per million, up 52% from pre-industrial times. The jump from 2023 matched the fastest increase seen in the past 60 years.



Fossil fuel burning and agriculture remain the biggest sources. Rising greenhouse gases are locking in more heat, driving stronger feedback loops like higher water vapor in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-in-2024-what-have-we-learned/">atmosphere</a> and changes in how land stores carbon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-breaks-climate-records-again">Heat breaks climate records again</h2>



For the second year in a row, the planet broke its surface temperature record. Readings were up to 0.72°C (1.30°F) above the 1991-2020 average. 



A strong El Niño that began in mid-2023 and ended in spring 2024 helped push temperatures higher.



Heat extremes weren’t limited to the tropics. Europe, Asia, and South America saw their hottest years yet. Heatwaves lasted longer and struck at times of year when they used to be rare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-rain-and-drought">Extreme rain and drought</h2>



Warmer air holds more moisture, and in 2024 it showed. The atmosphere carried record levels of water vapor. One in five areas on Earth hit all-time highs, double the share from 2023.



Heavy rain events set records too. Dubai saw 250 mm in one day - three times its yearly average. While some places were drowning, others faced persistent droughts and extreme heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-heating-breaks-climate-records">Ocean heating breaks climate records</h2>



From January through June, sea surface temperatures refused to budge from record-breaking highs. 



The global average edged past the 2023 mark by 0.06°C (0.11°F) - a small number on paper, but significant in climate terms. A potent El Niño, layered on top of decades of steady warming, drove the surge.



Vast stretches of ocean endured marine heatwaves - bleaching coral reefs, pushing fish into new territories, and unsettling entire food webs. On average, the seas sweltered through 100 heatwave days in 2024, while cold spells were rare - just nine days across the year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-levels-keep-rising">Sea levels keep rising</h2>



Oceans absorb over 90% of excess heat from greenhouse gases. In 2024, heat content down to 2,000 meters (6,562 feet) reached its highest ever. 



Global sea level hit a new high for the 13th year straight - over 10 centimeters (3.94 inches) above 1993 levels.



Warmer water expands, and melting ice from Greenland, Antarctica, and glaciers adds more volume. The result is higher flood risks and saltwater intrusion into freshwater supplies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-record-heat-at-the-poles">Record heat at the poles</h2>



The Arctic experienced its second-warmest year on record, with autumn setting an all-time high for temperatures.



In August, parts of the North American Arctic endured record high temperatures, and Norway topped 30°C (86°F) in September for the first time that late in the year.



Antarctica’s sea ice stayed far below average. Minimum and maximum extents were the second lowest ever recorded, continuing a run of poor ice years since 2016.



For the second consecutive year, all 58 reference glaciers lost ice in 2024. It was the worst year for glacier loss in the 55-year record. Venezuela lost its last glacier. In Colombia, the Conejeras Glacier vanished completely.



These losses threaten water supplies for farming, hydropower, and drinking water in many mountain regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storms-bring-destruction">Storms bring destruction</h2>



There were 82 named tropical cyclones in 2024, fewer than average but still deadly. Hurricane Helene flooded parts of the U.S., killing more than 200 people. 



Hurricane Milton hit Florida less than two weeks later - setting a state record for the shortest gap between two major hurricanes.



In Asia, Super Typhoon Yagi tore through China and Vietnam, leaving more than 800 dead. Many storms intensified unusually quickly, fueled by warmer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/">ocean</a> waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-changing-climate-reality">Our changing climate reality</h2>



“The State of the Climate report is an annual scientific landmark,” said American Meteorological Society President David J. Stensrud. 



"It is a truly global effort, in which hundreds of researchers from universities, government agencies, and more come together to provide a careful, rigorously peer-reviewed report on our planet’s climate."



"High-quality observations and findings from all over the world are incorporated, underscoring the vital importance of observations to monitor, and climate science to understand, our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-is-just-three-years-away-from-dangerous-carbon-milestone/">environment</a>." 



According to Stensrud, the results affirm the reality of our changing climate, as global temperatures continue to reach record highs.



The research is published in the <a href="https://www.ametsoc.org/ams/publications/bulletin-of-the-american-meteorological-society-bams/state-of-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society</a>.



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State of the Climate 2024: Record heat and rising seas

In 2024, the world’s climate continued to break records, with...

If you live around Naples, you know the ground breathes. Streets crack, the harbor silts up, steam curls from the earth, and swarms of small quakes rattle windows. All that action comes from Campi Flegrei, a wide “supervolcano” caldera that last erupted in 1538.



For years, many scientists have read these signals as classic signs of magma on the move. But two recent studies - one in March 2023 and another in May 2025 - have reshaped the picture.



Together, they tell a story that is both sobering and surprisingly hopeful: Campi Flegrei is still dangerous, but some of its most disruptive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcano-eruptions-alerts-shear-wave-signals-discovered-that-could-transform-early-warning-systems/">behavior may be managed</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-campi-flegrei-in-2023">Studying Campi Flegrei in 2023</h2>



The <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/51/4/397/620796/Discriminating-carbon-dioxide-sources-during" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2023 paper</a> focused on carbon dioxide (CO₂), a gas that volcanoes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-cooling-not-warming-caused-a-major-mass-extinction/">release in large amounts</a>. CO₂ matters because it often increases when magma rises and starts to degas, which can precede eruptions. 



At the Campi Flegrei caldera, CO₂ measurements at the <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/a-Geologic-map-of-the-Solfatara-Pisciarelli-area-from-this-study-UTM-projection_fig2_351100327" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solfatara-Pisciarelli zone</a> rose during the current unrest (which began in 2005), reaching roughly 4,000-5,000 tons per day - among the highest volcanic CO₂ fluxes on Earth. 



If one looked only at that trend, one might conclude that magma was moving upward and a countdown to an eruption had begun.



The authors investigated further. They examined gases such as nitrogen and helium alongside CO₂ and compared the real data to what their models predicted if magma degassing were the only driver. 



The numbers did not line up. 



Beginning in 2005, the gas ratios drifted away from the “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sun-affects-magma-formation-deep-within-the-earth/">pure magma</a>” pattern, matching two surface indicators: hydrothermal temperatures and the steady ground uplift known locally as bradyseism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-was-the-gas-coming-from">Where was the gas coming from?</h2>



What was adding CO₂ if not just magma? The 2023 study pointed to a second source: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-and-trees-predict-volcano-eruptions-when-viewed-from-space-satellites/">the hydrothermal system</a> heating the rocks themselves. 



In plain language, hot, reactive fluids were <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/decarbonation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decarbonating calcite</a> (a carbonate-rich mineral) in the shallow reservoir rocks and releasing additional CO₂. The team estimated that this non-magmatic source contributed about 20-40% of total CO₂. 



That finding did not make the volcano harmless - far from it - but it did change how scientists interpret gas alarms.



A spike in CO₂ at Campi Flegrei does not automatically mean magma is surging. Sometimes it means the hydrothermal system is getting hotter and more pressurized, which can still be hazardous but in a different way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-campi-flegrei-in-2025">Studying Campi Flegrei in 2025</h2>



Fast forward 14 months to May 2025. A second group of scientists <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt2067" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">published a study</a> that asked a bigger question: what, exactly, is driving the recent bursts of earthquakes and the dramatic rise and fall of the ground? 



They pulled together two major episodes of unrest - 1982-1984 and 2011-2024 - then compared the patterns of uplift, seismicity, and subsurface imaging. 



In the lab, they simulated the rocks above the caldera using a setup like a moka pot, the stovetop espresso maker. 



A heated lower chamber (representing a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geothermal-energy-is-cheap-and-clean-and-having-its-moment/">geothermal reservoir</a>) pushed fluid into a cracked “lid” made of Campi Flegrei-like materials. The result of all that detective work was a new model with a crucial twist.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/supervolcano_campi-flegrei_location-satellite-view_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/supervolcano_campi-flegrei_location-satellite-view_1s.webp" alt="Satellite view Phlegraean Fields and Solfatara crater showing a massive caldera supervolcano named Campi Flegrei west of Naples, Italy. It is part of the Campanian volcanic arc, which includes Mount Vesuvius. Credit: Geology" class="wp-image-1982065"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Satellite view Phlegraean Fields and Solfatara crater showing a massive caldera supervolcano named Campi Flegrei west of Naples, Italy. It is part of the Campanian volcanic arc, which includes Mount Vesuvius. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Geology</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-supervolcano-pressure-builds">How supervolcano pressure builds</h2>



The central actor behind the building pressure inside Campi Flegrei is not a blob of rising magma in the upper crust; it is a capped geothermal reservoir sitting beneath the town of Pozzuoli. The caprock above it is fibrous and “self-healing,” which means cracks can seal up quickly. 



When the lid seals, water and steam trapped below it build pressure. Pressure builds until the rocks fracture, the water flashes to steam, producing a burst of shaking and noise - a pattern residents report. 



Interestingly, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-tremors-can-now-be-detected-to-forecast-eruptions/">earthquakes in these sequences</a> tend to start shallow and then deepen over time, which is the opposite of what you would expect if magma or its gases were pushing upward from depth. 



After big episodes, the land actually sinks a bit, consistent with fluids discharging and pressure dropping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Here is the hopeful part. If the main driver of unrest is pressure in a closed, fluid-filled reservoir, then you can manage the fuel. 



You cannot turn off the “burner” heating the system - the deep magmatic heat source - but you can reduce the amount of water available to pressurize the reservoir. 



The researchers propose practical steps: restore and maintain surface-water channels so heavy rains do not funnel into the system; monitor and control <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-has-a-vital-role-in-ecosystem-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groundwater levels</a>; and, where appropriate, relieve pressure by withdrawing fluids through wells. 



Think of it like tending a radiator: keep the system from clogging or overfilling, and bleed off pressure before it blows a gasket.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-campi-flegrei-eruption-risk">Campi Flegrei eruption risk</h2>



What does that mean for eruption risk? It does not mean Campi Flegrei is safe. A <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/what-is-a-supervolcano.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supervolcano caldera</a> with Campi Flegrei’s eruptive history still sits atop a large population. Magma is still present at depth. 



The 2023 work showed that the hydrothermal system has been heating and releasing CO₂ in ways that track with ground uplift, while the 2025 work argues that pressure in the sealed geothermal reservoir can trigger swarms of shallow quakes and potentially steam-driven explosions (phreatic blasts). 



Both of those issues can be destructive, even without lava.



The new approach does not “turn off” a magmatic eruption if deep melt intrudes; it aims to prevent or reduce the kind of fluid-pressure crises that have damaged buildings and frightened residents for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-focus-and-mindset">Shifting focus and mindset</h2>



The key takeaway is a shift in mindset. For decades, <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/observatories/cvo/science/volcano-monitoring" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcano monitoring</a> focused on watching and warning: measure gases, track quakes, map ground motion, and be ready to evacuate. That is still essential. 



But if groundwater and surface runoff are a big part of the problem, civil engineers and geoscientists can work together on prevention.



They can unclog centuries-old drainage canals, divert stormwater, measure groundwater levels like a cardiologist tracking blood pressure, and - where science and policy align - use wells as pressure valves. 



None of this is a silver bullet for Campi Flegrei, or anywhere else. It requires careful design, community buy-in, and constant monitoring. 



But this appears to be a rare case in which a supervolcano’s most pressing threat is not an unstoppable magma surge; it is a pressure system that we might learn to regulate.



The full 2023 study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/51/4/397/620796/Discriminating-carbon-dioxide-sources-during" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a>.



The full 2025 study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt2067" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Supervolcano shows signs of waking up, which is not a good thing, but scientists have a plan

If you live around Naples, you know the ground breathes....

Extreme heat pushes the heart to work harder. On humid days, that strain can quickly shift from tolerable to dangerous - and a new analysis shows just how steeply the risk of weather-related heart problems rises.



Researchers in Dhaka, Bangladesh report that the chance of a cardiovascular emergency visit rises sixfold on days that are both extremely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/">hot</a> and very humid, compared with hot days when the air is much drier.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-humidity-makes-heat-worse">How humidity makes heat worse</h2>



First author Mostafijur Rahman, an assistant professor of environmental health sciences at the Celia Scott Weatherhead School of Public Health (<a href="https://sph.tulane.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SPH</a>) and Tropical Medicine at <a href="https://sph.tulane.edu/trmd/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tulane</a> University, led the research with collaborators in Bangladesh and the United States.



Humidity matters because sweat must evaporate to cool the body, and water-laden air stalls evaporation. The resulting strain raises body <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-heat-cleaner-air-the-surprising-ozone-connection/">temperature</a>, increases skin blood flow, and can load the heart with extra work that some people cannot sustain.



As humidity climbs, the same thermometer reading feels much hotter to the body. That mismatch helps explain why ordinary heat advisories sometimes fail to capture the real risk for people with heart disease.



“These findings show we need to consider heat and humidity together when we discuss any kind of climate change policy,” said Rahman, who noted that the size of the effect surprised the team.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heart-risks-intensified-by-high-humidity">Heart risks intensified by high humidity</h2>



The researchers counted 340,758 emergency department visits for heart conditions during the hot months from 2014 to 2019 and matched those days to weather records. 



Heat alone raised risk on low humidity days, but risk jumped far higher on the muggiest days when relative humidity exceeded roughly 82 percent.



High heat in the analysis was defined as above 84 degrees Fahrenheit, which raised heart related emergency visits even without intense humidity. There was no separate link between humidity alone and heart emergencies, yet humidity amplified heat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-temperatures-are-killing-thousands-across-india/">effects</a> across age and sex groups.



“Hopefully governments will be spurred to develop systems to warn cities of dangerous heat and humidity. We know extreme heat can have a negative health impact, but I never expected such a dramatic increase in risk when high humidity is also factored in,” said Rahman.



The pattern is consistent with clinical experience. When sweat fails to evaporate, the heart must move more blood toward the skin for cooling, while dehydration and electrolyte loss further stress the system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humidity-and-public-health-warnings">Humidity and public health warnings</h2>



Hot extremes are becoming more frequent and more intense as the planet warms, and that trend is evident with every additional 0.9 degrees Fahrenheit of global warming, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (<a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPCC</a>).



Independent research also links moist summer air to higher rates of heart, coronary, and stroke hospitalizations in older adults in the United States, even after accounting for temperature. 



A long-term analysis of about 63 million Medicare beneficiaries found higher cardiovascular hospitalization risks with higher summer-specific humidity.



Laboratory and field <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10231239/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> add biological context. They show that humid heat undermines sweat evaporation and raises the physiologic load on the heart, validating the Dhaka pattern.



These threads point to one conclusion. Health systems and public warnings need to treat humidity as a co-equal driver of heat danger, not just a background variable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-access-to-cooling-matters">Access to cooling matters</h2>



Dhaka’s results are particularly relevant in places where home air conditioning is rare. Recent national survey <a href="https://www.seforall.org/taxonomy/term/38" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reporting</a> in Bangladesh shows that only about 2.28 percent of households owned an air conditioner in 2023, a small rise from 1.6 percent in 2021.



Global analyses identify Bangladesh among countries with large populations at high risk due to a lack of access to affordable, sustainable cooling. Those gaps create exposure that individuals cannot easily avoid during multi day hot spells.



“There are billions around the world, from Southeast Asia to Africa, who are directly impacted by rising temperatures but have little access to air conditioning,” said Rahman. 



Equity is central here. The people least able to afford cooling often live and work in buildings and neighborhoods that trap heat, and they may have the most to lose from heart strain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-to-heat-and-humidity">Adapting to heat and humidity</h2>



Clinicians already flag combined heat and humidity as a risk for people with heart disease, heart failure, high blood pressure, prior stroke, and older age. 



Public guidance now acknowledges that humid heat can drive blood pressure swings and raise hospitalizations for those with cardiovascular conditions.



City agencies should tune heat warnings to humidity, not just temperature thresholds. Emergency managers could extend hours for cooling centers, stagger outdoor work schedules, and coordinate hydration and medication checks with community groups.



Individuals should plan around the weather forecast on humid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-is-just-three-years-away-from-dangerous-carbon-milestone/">hot</a> days. Small steps such as shortening exertion, spacing outdoor tasks, and favoring shaded or air conditioned spaces can spare the heart avoidable stress.



Health systems can prepare for surges. Hospitals and ambulance services can adjust staffing based on heat and humidity forecasts, which now provide advance warning of the most extreme events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heart-risks-of-humidity-are-clear">Heart risks of humidity are clear</h2>



The Dhaka study is observational, and it uses outdoor weather to represent exposure, which cannot capture every indoor environment or personal behavior. 



Even so, the same day link between humid heat and heart emergencies aligns with physiology and persisted across sensitivity tests in the analysis.



Public agencies should incorporate humidity explicitly in heat alert systems. Common composites such as the <a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/apme/61/10/JAMC-D-22-0021.1.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat index</a> were not designed for extreme combinations of temperature and humidity, and updated methods could improve their performance.



The Dhaka data highlight a simple truth: on hot, muggy days, the heart works overtime, and treating humidity as a key hazard in planning can save lives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969725018601?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of The Total Environment</a>.



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Extreme heat and humidity sharply raise heart risks

Extreme heat pushes the heart to work harder. On humid...

River otters have roamed the shores and inlets of Chesapeake Bay for a long time. But there’s still a lot we don’t know about how they interact with their environment. What do they eat? Where do they hang out? And oddly enough - where do they go to the bathroom?



To answer these questions, researchers in Maryland spent nearly a year observing river otters and collecting data on their habits. 



The team, based at the <a href="https://serc.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Environmental Research Center</a> (SERC), analyzed scat samples and habitat use to better understand the otters’ diet, behavior, and exposure to parasites.



Study senior author Dr. Katrina Lohan is a parasite ecologist and head of the Coastal Disease Ecology Laboratory at SERC.



“River otters in the Chesapeake Bay eat a wide range of animals, including those that live in the water and on land. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasites-help-worker-ants-live-much-longer-lives/">Parasites</a>, too, are crucial parts of their diet,” said Dr. Lohan. "We also found that river otters use manmade structures for latrines or choose areas with specific characteristics.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-otter-poop-on-the-dock">Otter poop on the dock</h2>



It all started with an email. A colleague spotted some odd, watery scat on a dock and sent a message to Dr. Lohan. Inside the scat was a bright red worm. 



Cameras later confirmed that the dock had become a favorite toilet spot for a local river otter. This was the beginning of a full-scale study.



Graduate researcher Calli Wise took the lead on collecting samples. Over 11 months, she gathered scat from 18 active otter latrines. On average, each latrine held about 28 scat piles.



“Scats usually smelled strongly of fish and were full of scales or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-invasive-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-mediterranean/">crustacean</a> shells,” Wise said. “We wore gloves and used sterile tools and tubes to collect scat samples, to avoid contamination with other DNA.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-otter-toilets-are-social-hotspots">Otter toilets are social hotspots</h2>



The latrines aren’t just toilets. Otters use them to mark territory with urine and feces, but they’re also social spaces. 



Otters gather there to eat, play, and rest. The latrines often show signs of repeated use: flattened grass, worn vegetation, and nearby cover.



Most were located near the shoreline. The researchers found that otters liked areas with woody debris and easy access to the water. 



Some latrines stood out. Five were found directly on man-made features like docks, boardwalks, or stairs leading to the water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-otter-poop-reveals">What the otter poop reveals</h2>



The team used two main methods to analyze the samples: metabarcoding, which identifies DNA fragments, and traditional microscopy. Both approaches helped piece together what the otters had been eating - and what else they might be spreading.



“We collected most scats in the summer, when river otter diet is likely diverse,” Wise said. “We found evidence of invasive species like common carp and white river <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bright-coloration-in-crayfish-does-not-serve-an-evolutionary-purpose/">crayfish</a> in river otters’ diet.”



The otters also ate American blue crabs, other fish, and crustaceans. Occasionally, they even consumed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ducks-balance-water-pressure-while-diving/">ducks</a> or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-40-of-amphibians-face-extinction-due-to-escalating-climate-threats/">amphibians</a>.



But diet was just one layer. The scat also showed which parasites the otters were exposed to - either through their prey or directly. Most parasites infected teleost fish, the primary type of fish eaten by otters. A few may have infected the otters themselves.



“It is possible that river otters, like other top predators, wouldn’t be able to find enough food to eat without parasites,” noted Dr. Lohan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-parasites-might-be-a-good-thing">Why parasites might be a good thing</h2>



The researchers couldn’t identify every parasite. Gaps in DNA databases made some sequences impossible to match. They also couldn’t link poop to specific otters, so individual diets remain a mystery.



Still, the findings suggest otters might be playing an even bigger role in the ecosystem than we thought.



“Since so many of the parasites are actually infecting otters’ prey, it could mean that river otters are culling sick individuals from the populations they are preying upon,” explained Dr. Lohan.



Removing infected animals could reduce the spread of disease and even affect the gene pool of prey species. Sick animals don’t get to reproduce if they’re eaten. There’s also a potential connection to human health.



“Some of the parasites that infect river otters could potentially also infect humans, who also are mammals,” said Dr. Lohan. “Thus, we could use river otters as ‘disease sentinels,’ and study them to learn about what public health threats occur in certain areas.”



This study opens new questions about how river otters influence, and are influenced by, their environment. Their poop tells stories about what they eat, where they go, what parasites they host, and what role they might play in managing disease in coastal ecosystems.



And in Chesapeake Bay, it turns out those stories often start at a latrine - sometimes even on a dock.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/mammal-science/articles/10.3389/fmamm.2025.1620318/full">Frontiers in Mammal Science</a>.



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What river otter poop reveals about life in Chesapeake Bay

River otters have roamed the shores and inlets of Chesapeake...

On May 12, 2008, central China was hit by one of the deadliest earthquakes in recent memory. The magnitude 7.9 Wenchuan Earthquake struck along the edge of the Tibetan Plateau, triggering violent landslides across the steep slopes of the Longmen Shan - known as the Dragon’s Gate Mountains.



The disaster killed more than 69,000 people, but nearly a third of those deaths weren't from shaking alone. They came from geohazards - including more than 60,000 landslides that came tumbling down the mountains in the hours and days that followed.



Now, after nearly two decades of research, scientists at <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Barbara</a> and the University of Southern California say the story of that earthquake still isn’t over. Their recent study shows that the debris shaken loose by the quake is still working its way through the region’s rivers. 



The team tracked how sediment surged into the Min River and how it changed the river’s behavior - possibly for decades. And their work could help answer a deeper question: Do earthquakes build mountains, or wear them down?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-river-loaded-with-debris">A river loaded with debris</h2>



When the quake hit, millions of tons of rock and soil collapsed into nearby streams. Much of it ended up in the Min River, which runs through the Longmen Mountains. The river became a conveyor belt for that debris.



Geologists call this "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-show-widespread-change-from-human-activity/">sediment flux</a>" - the amount of material a river carries. It shows up in two forms. The first is suspended sediment, fine particles carried in the water, easy to measure. The second is bedload - coarser stuff like gravel and boulders that roll or bounce along the bottom. That’s harder to track.



“Before our work, people mostly focused on the sediment of very fine size,” said Gen Li, an assistant professor in UC Santa Barbara’s Department of Earth Science.



Suspended sediment is routinely measured by agencies around the world. But bedload? That’s trickier. You can’t collect it with a bottle. And during an event like the Wenchuan Earthquake, there's suddenly a lot of it.



Scientists have long suspected that this surge in bedload plays a big role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mega-tsunamis-triggered-by-earthquakes-could-wipe-part-of-us-off-the-map/">post-quake flooding</a>. The idea is simple: if a riverbed fills with debris, the channel gets shallower. Then, when a flood comes, it spills over more easily. But proving this has been a challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-a-dam-became-a-natural-lab">How a dam became a natural lab</h2>



Back in 2001, the Sichuan Provincial Electric Power Company started building the Zipingpu Dam. By 2006, the reservoir began filling, just 20 kilometers downstream from where the Wenchuan Earthquake would later strike. It was an unintentional stroke of luck for science.



That dam turned into the perfect sediment trap. Shortly after the quake, Li and his collaborators - including researchers from the <a href="http://www.cjh.com.cn/eng/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Bureau of Hydrology</a> - began surveying it.



Daily data already existed for suspended sediment. What the scientists needed was the rest of the picture. They set out, year after year, using sonar to map the floor of the reservoir. 



Each expedition added a new layer to their data. Over time, they could measure how much total sediment had built up. From there, they did the math. Total sediment minus suspended sediment equals bedload.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-earthquake-effects-last-a-decade">When earthquake effects last a decade</h2>



After the quake, the amount of total sediment in the Min River grew sixfold. But the real shock came with the bedload, which had increased 20 times. That is not normal. Bedload usually makes up about 20% of sediment in a mountain river. Here, it made up 65 percent.



The result didn’t surprise co-author Josh West. He had suspected that sediment flux would spike after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-detect-major-earthquakes-months-in-advance/">major earthquake</a>, especially in the form of increased bedload.



What did surprise the team was how long it lasted. The elevated sediment flow didn’t return to normal after a few years. It stayed high for at least a decade.



“In fact, from the data we’ve collected so far, there’s no evidence yet of the total sediment flux declining back to background levels,” West said.



“Usually, we think the influence from earthquakes may last, at most, a few years after the main shock,” said Professor Li. “But this data shows that this is not true.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earthquakes-set-off-a-chain-reaction">Earthquakes set off a chain reaction </h2>



The study adds weight to a growing idea among scientists: the danger from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-disasters-are-on-the-rise-but-hazard-plans-are-inadequate/">natural disasters</a> doesn’t stop once the main event ends. Earthquakes can set off a chain reaction. One disaster leads to another.



“Earthquake-triggered landslides are a great example,” West said. “As we prepare for natural disasters, we often think of them as being discrete events. But what’s left out of that is the longer tail that follows.”



In other words, rebuilding too quickly - or rebuilding in the same way, in the same place - can be risky. The land has changed. Riverbeds are higher and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquakes-and-flood-zones-hidden-risks-in-the-pacific-northwest/">flood zones</a> are different. What was once a safe 10-year floodplain may now be a ticking time bomb.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-earthquakes-build-mountains">Do earthquakes build mountains?</h2>



Earthquakes are thought to push up mountain ranges. But they also cause <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landslide-predictions-could-become-94-percent-more-accurate/">landslides</a> that scrape them back down. So which effect wins?



Professor Li looked into this in an earlier study. He used satellite images to estimate that the Wenchuan Earthquake caused about three cubic kilometers of material to slide off the Longmen Mountains. “That is around half of the sediment flux of all the rivers in the world over one year,” he said.



Li also looked at how much rock the quake pushed upward. Turns out, it was about the same. That means the quake may have added and removed equal amounts of mass. Whether the mountain grows or shrinks depends on what happens next.



If the river can carry all that debris away quickly, the mountain stays tall. If the debris piles up and clogs the system, the mountain starts to erode. So far, the Min River has flushed out about 10% of the landslide debris over ten years.



“The fact that the pace was sustained for ten years was a surprise on its own,” West said. But predicting what happens in the next few decades is harder. Watersheds evolve and landscapes shift. The balance is fragile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-questions-remain">Many questions remain</h2>



Professor Li is now investigating why this particular river carried so much bedload. The 2015 Gorkha Earthquake in Nepal, for instance, didn’t trigger the same kind of sediment surge in Himalayan rivers. This suggests other factors are at play.



The rock itself might be the key. Its type, texture, and how it breaks apart all affect how much debris a quake generates. The size of the grains also matters. And how those grains move downstream is still being modeled.



Li’s team is now studying these patterns in more detail - using field data and computer models to understand how sediment flows over time.



“It’s very satisfying to have been able to quantify something that we’ve struggled to quantify before and that has a wide range of relevance, from hazards to long-term consequences for understanding the evolution of topography over long periods of time," said West.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09354-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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How earthquakes move mountains - and what comes next

On May 12, 2008, central China was hit by one...

People who live near active volcanoes need alerts they can trust. False alarms wear down that trust, while missed warnings put lives at risk. Steam-driven blasts, which can erupt with few surface signs, are especially hard to predict.



Scientists are testing a signal within <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/650-foot-mega-tsunami-sends-seismic-waves-around-world-dickson-fjord-swot-mission/">earthquake waves</a> called shear-wave splitting that may help. When seismic shear waves cross cracked, stressed rock, they separate into two directions: one faster and one slower. 



Tracking the magnitude of that split and the direction of the fast wave reveals how cracks are aligned and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supervolcano-campi-flegrei-naples-italy-solfatara-crater-phlegraean-fields-signs-of-waking-up/">how stress changes over time</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-shear-wave-signals">Measuring shear-wave signals</h2>



Shear-wave splitting rises when cracks open in a preferred direction. It stays low when cracks are scattered or stress doesn’t change much. 



This makes the signal useful for spotting shifts in a volcano’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-and-trees-predict-volcano-eruptions-when-viewed-from-space-satellites/">hydrothermal system</a>, where hot water and steam move through fractured rock. 



At <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Ontake" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mount Ontake</a> in Japan, researchers installed 12 stations to monitor these changes.



A team of scientists, led by Professor Mike Kendall from the Department of Earth Sciences at <a href="https://www.earth.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oxford University</a>, set out to test whether larger stress changes during an explosive eruption would cause a larger increase in splitting than during a small event.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-study-learned">What the study learned</h2>



"Seismic anisotropy - or the effect of rock composition and internal fractures on the speed of shear-waves oscillating at right angles to each other - is a well-documented phenomenon," Kendall explained. 



"When we reflected on how anisotropy increases as the pressure inside a volcano builds, we were excited to explore if we could detect these changes, and if this could be a distinctive signal which could be applied to early warning systems."



Kendall and his team compared earthquake signals from Mount Ontake’s 2007 and 2014 eruptions and found that shear-wave splitting parameters varied with eruption size.



In 2007, during a small steam-driven eruption, the splitting pattern held steady.



In 2014, during a <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2016JB013739" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">larger eruption</a>, the delay between fast and slow waves doubled, anisotropy rose from about 3% to 20%, and the fast-wave direction rotated to align with the maximum stress in the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shear-wave-splitting-signal-strength">Shear-wave splitting signal strength</h2>



Their work argues that heating at the base of the hydrothermal system increased cracking and stress before the 2014 blast, pushing the volcano past a threshold that the smaller 2007 event never reached.



They hoped to identify a practical parameter that could flag whether an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-and-trees-predict-volcano-eruptions-when-viewed-from-space-satellites/">eruption was imminent</a> and whether it might be more damaging. 



Because the splitting changes appeared before the eruption began, the parameter can function as both an early alert and a rough indicator of severity.



"The focal mechanisms of volcano-tectonic earthquakes changed drastically before and after the 2014 eruption," noted Professor Toshiko Terakawa, co-author of the study from <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagoya University</a>. 



"Integrating data from shear-wave splitting and earthquake focal mechanisms could provide deeper insights into conditions required for an eruption to occur."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tale-of-two-eruptions">A tale of two eruptions</h2>



The 2007 Ontake eruption was small and had far less impact on nearby communities, while the 2014 eruption was much larger and explosive. 



Taken together, the observations suggest a link between eruption size and the strength of the splitting signal.



"The records around two eruptions on Ontake volcano in Japan have been able to show that the method can not only show changes before eruptions, but that they can potentially help to predict the size of an eruption," added co-author Professor Martha Savage of <a href="https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Victoria University of Wellington</a>.



"This work was an example of how cooperation among people from around the globe can address important societal problems."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shear-wave-signals-and-future-safety">Shear-wave signals and future safety</h2>



This study shows how a threshold in stress and cracking can mark the difference between a minor event and a dangerous one, offering a practical way to sharpen alerts.



"We expect to see these effects at other volcanoes across the globe, not just at Ontake Volcano," said Dr. Tom Kettlety, also from the Department of Earth Sciences at Oxford. 



"As changes in volcanic stress occur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-a-volcano-be-stopped-before-it-erupts-to-give-ample-warning-to-citizens/">prior to an eruption</a>, we anticipate that we would see changes in shear-wave splitting. This could be a valuable tool for early warning of volcanic eruptions, especially for local communities," Kettlety concluded.



For people living near volcanoes, early warning systems are a lifeline, and trust matters. 



Reducing false alarms requires tools that respond clearly to real changes within a volcano, and shear-wave splitting signal detection instruments may be the solution.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://seismica.library.mcgill.ca/article/view/1101" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Seismica</a>.



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Volcano alert: Scientists discover a signal that could transform early warning systems

People who live near active volcanoes need alerts they can...

inscripciones-programa-impulso-digital-pozuelo-de-alarcon - 1

An unassuming green alga that has lived quietly in laboratory flasks for decades just revealed it carries a giant virus so large, and so stealthy, that nobody had noticed it before. 



The find rewrites what scientists thought they knew about how big a virus can grow while still hiding inside a single-celled host.



The work, led by <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=iEhGXaMAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maria Paula Erazo-Garcia</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=JLV6g2AAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frank Aylward</a> of <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a>, shows that the virus, dubbed punuivirus, slips into the alga’s DNA, goes to sleep, then wakes up later to build full virus particles without killing most of its hosts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-giant-punuivirus-matters">Why giant punuivirus matters</h2>



Viruses that integrate and then lie low are common in bacteria, animals, and even humans, but only a handful have been spotted in algae. 



The new study confirms that latent infection strategies also exist in the <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ads6303" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oversized world</a> of giant viruses, whose genomes dwarf those of many bacteria.



These huge pathogens fascinate virologists because they blur the line between virus and cell. Finding one that can go dormant suggests algae, which form the base of many food webs, may quietly shuttle viral genes around ecosystems.



Latent giants also interest evolutionary biologists. Because they cut themselves into host chromosomes, they sprinkle new genes across lineages and may spark sudden leaps in innovation.



Finally, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/herpes-virus-reshapes-human-dna-to-multiply/">virus</a> that waits instead of killing offers hints about how viruses manage long-term coexistence, an issue that matters when scientists engineer viral vectors for vaccines and gene therapies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-and-studying-punuivirus">Finding and studying punuivirus</h2>



“We could definitely see that there was a virus inserted there,” said Erazo-Garcia. She first saw unusual DNA fragments while screening cultures of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, a staple of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-cells-capable-of-photosynthesis-created-for-the-first-time/">photosynthesis</a> research. 



Long-read sequencing confirmed that a 617,000-base-pair viral genome sat inside chromosome 15. 



Electron-microscopy snapshots later caught complete virions roughly 200 nanometers wide budding from a small fraction of cells, even though the cultures looked perfectly healthy.



Because only a few cells ignite the viral program at a time, the infection flies under the radar. The team measured two spikes of viral particles, one early and one late in the week-long growth cycle, showing that timing matters for reactivation.



Parallel tests in Swedish lakes and Dutch coastal waters turned up similar viral DNA in wild relatives, hinting that punuivirus-style infections are not a laboratory quirk but part of nature’s routine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sizing-up-the-genetic-payload">Sizing up the genetic payload</h2>



At 617 kilobases, the giant punuivirus ranks among the largest double-stranded-DNA viruses known. 



Its genome encodes an integrase, an enzyme that pastes viral DNA into host chromosomes, and several <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06356-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fanzor nucleases</a>, mobile genes that can cut DNA using RNA guides, a trick reminiscent of CRISPR systems.



Those nucleases, plus hundreds of other genes, are sandwiched between long terminal repeats and flanked by a six-base target-site duplication, molecular fingerprints that helped researchers pinpoint the insertion site.



The virus also carries hallmarks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/herpes-virus-reshapes-human-dna-to-multiply/">self-sufficiency</a>: DNA polymerase, major capsid proteins, and its own transcription machinery. 



Such complexity suggests punuivirus can fend for itself once it wakes up, relying on the host mainly for raw materials.



The genome lacks obvious “<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4758904/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suicide genes</a>” that would lyse the cell, explaining why infected cultures keep growing. Instead, the virus appears content to release modest numbers of particles while most algae remain alive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-editing-promise-of-punuivirus">Gene editing promise of punuivirus</h2>



Because punuivirus slips its DNA neatly into a host chromosome and later excises full-length genomes, biotechnologists see a potential delivery tool. 



The built-in integrase and Fanzor nucleases might help shuttle large cargos into plant or algal genomes more cleanly than current viral vectors.



“It was not known that this could happen in viruses that are quite so big as this one,” said Aylward, noting that the alga stays healthy even while the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrimp-crisis-alarming-virus-threatens-global-seafood-supplies/">virus</a> inserts and removes giant stretches of DNA.



Fanzor nucleases are guided by short RNA molecules, much like <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6299457/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR-Cas enzymes</a>, but they cut DNA in a different way. 



Harnessing them could broaden the menu of gene-editing tools, especially for organisms where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-used-to-remove-extra-chromosomes-in-down-syndrome-and-restore-cell-function/">CRISPR</a> struggles.



Researchers also want to dissect the molecular alarm clock that flips punuivirus from silent to active. Understanding that trigger could let engineers program on-demand expression of therapeutic genes without permanent activation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-editing-giant-viruses-and-the-future">Gene editing, giant viruses, and the future</h2>



The team plans to map every transcript and protein made during the virus’s two production bursts to learn which genes turn the switch. 



They also hope to test whether environmental cues, light, nutrients, or stress, nudge the virus awake.



Ecologists, meanwhile, will survey lakes and oceans for other dormant giants. If latent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">viruses</a> prove common, their slow-motion gene traffic could reshape how scientists think about microbial evolution and carbon cycling.



The discovery shows that even in 2025, familiar lab organisms can hide astonishing secrets, waiting for a curious grad student and a new sequencing machine to bring them to light.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ads6303" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Giant dormant virus discovered in algae could revolutionize gene editing

An unassuming green alga that has lived quietly in laboratory...

Autumn usually keeps a steady pace. Trees grow through spring and summer, soak up light, store energy, and then shed their leaves when colder days arrive. 



For decades, scientists saw one main climate signal in this process: warmer autumns delayed leaf-fall. But a second pattern has emerged, and it flips the old rule. In many places, leaves are falling earlier - and the trigger isn’t just temperature. It’s water, or the lack of it.



A new study from&nbsp;<a href="http://english.ynu.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yunnan University</a> has mapped the exact drought conditions that make plants call it quits before autumn should start. The work covers more than 70 years of data, from both satellites and field sites, across the Northern Hemisphere above 30° latitude. 



The researchers didn’t just look at whether drought happens - they calculated the&nbsp;thresholds&nbsp;at which plants stop resisting and begin to shut down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drought-triggers-early-autumn">Drought triggers early autumn</h2>



The team built a statistical model called a copula-based Bayesian framework. It was designed to link two important factors: the dryness before autumn and the date plants turn their leaves. 



The “pre-season drought threshold” is the point where plants stop holding on and start senescing. That threshold isn’t the same everywhere. In dry regions such as deserts and shrublands, even a mild drought can cross it. 



In wetter forests, drought has to be much more severe before the change happens. But when it happens, it happens fast. Plants shift from resilience to vulnerability almost overnight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heatwaves-tip-the-balance">Heatwaves tip the balance</h2>



Drought is only part of the story. Heatwaves, especially daytime ones, make things worse. Hot days force plants to lose water faster through their leaves. Soil dries out quickly, and the drought threshold drops - meaning less dryness is needed to trigger leaf-fall.



Nighttime heatwaves have a weaker effect. Stomata stay mostly closed in the dark, slowing water loss. Still, warmer nights add stress by increasing respiration, sometimes without giving plants the energy boost they’d get from sunlight. 



In many regions, the researchers saw a chain reaction: heatwaves lead to meteorological drought, which becomes soil drought, and then leaves start dropping early.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-defenses-have-their-limits">Plant defenses have their limits</h2>



Plants have ways to fight back. A dense leaf canopy shades the soil and stores water. Deep roots pull moisture from far below the surface. These traits - measured as leaf area index (LAI) and ecosystem resilience - delay the moment drought forces plants to stop growing.



But these defenses have limits. In already dry landscapes, even a small drop in water availability can break them. 



The study also found that resilience and LAI depend on rainfall and overall humidity. Wetter conditions strengthen both, while arid conditions weaken them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-droughts-earlier-autumn-seasons">Future droughts, earlier autumn seasons</h2>



The researchers used climate models to see how these drought thresholds might change by the year 2100. The results were clear: more than half of the vegetated land north of 30° latitude will become more sensitive to pre-season droughts. 



In many places, a drought that is considered mild today could have the same effect as a severe drought now.



Northern Eurasia, in particular, may face stronger impacts. There, both droughts and compound drought-heatwave events are expected to push autumn forward more often. 



This means shorter growing seasons, less carbon absorbed by vegetation, and greater pressure on ecosystems that already face other climate stresses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-timing-matters">Why timing matters</h2>



Leaf senescence isn’t just about colour in the forest. It controls how long plants pull carbon dioxide out of the air. An earlier end to the growing season reduces that uptake and can shift some areas from being carbon sinks to carbon sources.



It also affects wildlife. Animals that depend on autumn leaves for food or shelter may find those resources disappearing earlier. Seasonal mismatches can disrupt migration, breeding, and feeding patterns. 



Even farming could feel the impact, as crops and orchards respond to similar drought and heat signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drought-changes-the-timing-of-autumn">Drought changes the timing of autumn</h2>



This study shows that climate change doesn’t just warm the planet - it changes the rules plants live by. 



Knowing the drought thresholds for early leaf-fall can help scientists predict where and when the growing season will shorten. This insight also gives forest managers and policymakers a clearer view of which regions may need help adapting.



In the decades ahead, autumn may still arrive in a blaze of color. But in more and more places, that blaze will come sooner - shaped not by the cool air of fall but by the dry heat of late summer.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62847-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Drought triggers early autumn by forcing leaves to fall

Autumn usually keeps a steady pace. Trees grow through spring...

The constant hum of city life often fades into the background, unnoticed by those who live in it. Yet, behind the sound of passing cars, rumbling trains, and the distant whir of traffic lights, an invisible health risk may be growing. 



Scientists are now uncovering how this steady noise <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stuck-in-traffic-youre-more-likely-to-grab-fast-food/">pollution</a> can do more than disturb sleep - it can shape mental well-being over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traffic-noise-and-mental-health">Traffic noise and mental health</h2>



A new LongITools study, published in the journal Environmental Research, shows a clear link between traffic noise and diagnosed depression or anxiety. It is the first study to investigate long-term exposure in children, adolescents, and young adults.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.oulu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oulu</a> found a sharp rise in mental health risks when traffic noise exceeds 53 decibels (dB) at home. This crosses the safe limit set by the <a href="https://www.who.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Health Organization</a>. 



The findings support urban planning measures, like designing bedrooms on quieter building sides and lowering speed limits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-noise-pollution-as-a-health-threat">Noise pollution as a health threat</h2>



Environmental noise from roads, railways, airports, and construction is Europe’s second-largest environmental health concern. It can damage hearing, disrupt sleep, and trigger emotional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-traffic-cameras-are-preventing-thousands-of-crashes-each-year/">stress</a>. 



Over time, these effects can contribute to cardiovascular issues and neurological diseases.



Noise also activates the body's stress response through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. This can impair emotional regulation, cognition, and behavior - especially in children whose systems are still developing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-noise-exposure-and-mental-health">Noise exposure and mental health</h2>



The study was focused on 114,353 people born in Finland between 1987 and 1998 who lived in the Helsinki metropolitan area in 2007. Participants were tracked for up to ten years, from ages 8 to 21.



Noise exposure was calculated for the most and least exposed sides of each home. Annual averages included road and railway <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stroke-risk-is-elevated-by-air-pollution-and-traffic-noise/">traffic</a> noise, with extra weighting for evening and nighttime hours. 



The researchers examined participants’ medical records to determine whether they had diagnoses of depression or anxiety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clear-patterns-emerged">Clear patterns emerged</h2>



The World Health Organization advises keeping traffic noise below 53 dB over 24 hours. This study found that risks increase at or above this level. Each 10 dB rise in noise at the most exposed side was linked to a 5% higher risk of depression and 4% higher risk of anxiety.



“Our analysis showed that anxiety risk is lowest when traffic noise is around 45 to 50 dB at the quieter side of dwellings but increases significantly after 53 to 55 dB," noted Dr. Anna Pulakka, senior author of the study.



"Above 53 dB, noise becomes a significant psychological stressor for young people regardless of whether an individual sleeps on the quieter or noisier side of a dwelling."



Anxiety links were stronger for males and for those whose parents had no mental health disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-noise-environment-and-health-effects">Noise, environment, and health effects</h2>



The researchers investigated whether air pollution or access to green space could account for the connection between noise and mental health. They found that noise independently impacted mental health, even after accounting for these other factors.



Nighttime noise was strongly associated with depression, supporting the idea that sleep disturbances from noise may be one way it affects mental health.



For anxiety, the biggest impact was seen in places with 60–65 dB noise levels. These places also tended to have more social and environmental challenges, such as poorer living conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



"Our findings support further actions towards reducing traffic noise exposure," explained Yiyan He, lead author of the study.



"For policymakers and urban planners, this should include measures such as ensuring bedrooms are on the quieter side of the dwelling and ensuring there is green space nearby. For transport, quieter tyres or reduced speed limits should also be considered."



Roughly 10% of young people in the study were diagnosed with depression or anxiety by the time they turned 30.



Since traffic noise is something cities can change, it becomes a possible focus for prevention efforts. Lowering noise levels in living areas could help protect mental health, especially during the years when the brain and emotions are still developing.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935125016950?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research</a>.



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Traffic noise exposure increases mental health risks

The constant hum of city life often fades into the...

Mountains have always affected how people live. At high altitudes, the body changes to adapt, such as developing stronger lungs or showing slower growth in babies. Now, scientists think living higher up might also help prevent obesity in children.



As obesity <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-childhood-obesity-rate-is-expected-to-soar-by-2050/">rates</a> keep increasing around the world, especially in young kids, researchers are studying more closely how the environment and the human body work together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-altitude-and-childhood-obesity">High altitude and childhood obesity</h2>



Living high up in the mountains may help protect children from becoming obese. A study looking at more than 4 million Colombian children found that those living at higher altitudes were less likely to have obesity compared to children living closer to sea level. 



Scientists think this could be because the air at high altitudes has less oxygen. With less oxygen, the body works harder and uses more energy, which may help keep weight lower.



Most earlier studies on altitude and obesity focused only on adults, like mountaineers or people living in highland areas. This new research is important because it shows the same link in children. 



Since childhood is a key time for health and growth, the findings suggest that where a child lives - whether in the mountains or lowlands - can influence their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-obesity-rates-are-surging-worldwide/">risk of obesity</a> in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



Fernando Lizcano Losada from the <a href="https://www.unisabana.edu.co" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of La Sabana</a> and colleagues analyzed data from 4.16 million children under five years old. 



The data, collected by the Colombian Institute of Family Welfare, covered 1,123 municipalities. 



The researchers categorized children into four groups based on altitude: up to 1,000 meters, 1,001-2,000 meters, 2,001-3,000 meters, and above 3,000 meters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-obesity-drops-at-altitude">Obesity drops at altitude</h2>



At the lowest altitudes, about 80 in every 10,000 children had obesity. Between 2, 001 and 3,000 meters, prevalence dropped sharply to 40 in 10,000. 



Interestingly, rates rose again above 3,000 meters, reaching 86 in 10,000. The researchers caution that this may reflect limited data from only seven municipalities, with just over 11,000 participants.



“That’s a fair comment,” said David Stensel at <a href="https://www.lboro.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Loughborough University</a> in the UK. He noted the absence of a clear dose-response pattern, which would have strengthened the findings. 



Stensel emphasized that the study is observational, meaning it cannot prove altitude directly prevents obesity.



“They have tried to make sure that they have adjusted for the potential confounding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-genes-may-hold-the-key-to-childhood-obesity/">factors</a>,” such as poverty and deprivation. Still, “you can’t account for everything."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-evidence-from-latin-america">Broader evidence from Latin America</h2>



According to the researchers, similar results have appeared in other high-altitude regions. In Peru, living above 2500 meters was linked with far lower obesity prevalence compared to lowlands.



Studies in Bolivia and Argentina showed children at higher elevations tended to be thinner, though growth restriction was sometimes observed. 



In Ecuador, children in highland regions displayed lower weight but also higher stunting rates compared to coastal children.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-altitude-obesity-and-metabolism">Altitude, obesity, and metabolism</h2>



Lizcano Losada suggests faster metabolism at high altitudes could explain the lower rates. Stensel agrees this is possible. 



“There’s a few studies that have shown resting metabolic rate, or basal metabolic rate, increases when you’re at high altitude,” he noted. 



An earlier 1984 study found mountaineers lost weight at high elevations, partly because fat was burned or excreted rather than stored.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hormones-and-hypoxia">Hormones and hypoxia</h2>



The researchers explained that high-altitude hypoxia can influence hormones like leptin and ghrelin, which regulate appetite. 



Low oxygen activates hypoxia-inducible factors that enhance leptin sensitivity, supporting appetite suppression.



Cold temperatures common in mountainous regions may also increase energy expenditure through thermogenesis. Together, these mechanisms may reduce obesity <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-can-be-passed-down-from-parents-to-kids/">risk</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-poverty-shapes-outcomes">Poverty shapes outcomes</h2>



Not all outcomes are purely biological. The research emphasizes how poverty interacts with altitude. 



Municipalities with moderate poverty often saw higher obesity rates, possibly due to reliance on cheap, ultra-processed food.



In contrast, extreme poverty sometimes correlated with undernutrition rather than obesity. This pattern reflects the “double burden of malnutrition” seen in many low- and middle-income countries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-applications">Future research applications</h2>



Even if altitude helps reduce obesity risk, practical uses remain unclear. “They show us a relationship, and you then need to really design a bespoke study to investigate that hypothesis on its own,” said Stensel.



Lizcano Losada argues that environmental influences vary by region, suggesting that tailored public health advice may prove more effective in addressing childhood obesity. 



The research also supports geographically specific strategies that integrate both biological and social factors for better outcomes.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.07.14.25329127v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medRxiv</a>.



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Obesity is less common in children living at high altitudes

Mountains have always affected how people live. At high altitudes,...

A cave stalagmite has captured a season-by-season record of rain shortfalls during the final centuries of the Classic Maya. The stone’s chemical layers show eight wet-season droughts between 871 and 1021 CE, including one that dragged on for 13 consecutive years.



The pattern aligns with the era’s political turmoil and the halt of monument building at key cities.



Led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>, a new study examined a cave in Mexico’s Yucatán, and managed to isolate rainfall in individual wet and dry seasons across the Terminal Classic period. 



This research adds a precise climate timeline to the historical and archaeological evidence for the Maya collapse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-recorded-in-rock">Rainfall recorded in rock</h2>



Stalagmites grow as mineral-rich water drips from cave ceilings and hardens on the floor. Each layer traps a chemical snapshot of the conditions outside. In this case, oxygen isotope ratios record how much rain fell when a given layer formed.



Earlier work measured lake sediments to gauge <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/">drought</a> severity. Those cores are powerful, but they blur events across longer spans. 



This stalagmite is different. Its annual layers are relatively thick, about one millimeter, allowing the team to pull apart the rainy and dry seasons year by year.



“It hasn’t been possible to directly compare the history of individual Maya sites with what we previously knew about the<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-destroying-a-valuable-record-of-earths-climate/"> climate record</a>,” said lead author Daniel James, who conducted the research while a Ph.D. student in Cambridge’s Department of Earth Sciences.



“Lake sediment is great when you want to look at the big picture, but stalagmites allow us to access the fine-grained detail that we’ve been missing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crops-and-cities-under-strain">Crops and cities under strain</h2>



For farmers, annual averages can be misleading. What matters is the rainy season. If those months fail, harvests fail. 



The new record therefore tracks wet-season drought directly, identifying differences between subsistence and scarcity.



“Knowing the annual average <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-changing-rainfall-patterns-impact-plants-worldwide/">rainfall</a> doesn’t tell you as much as knowing what each individual wet season was like,” James said. 



“Being able to isolate the wet season allows us to accurately track the duration of wet season drought, which is what determines if crops succeed or fail.”



Between 871 and 1021 CE, the stalagmite registered eight wet-season droughts that lasted at least three years. The longest persisted for 13 years. 



Even with reservoirs, canals, and cisterns, a deficit that long would strain food stores, trade, and social order.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-s-mark-on-maya-politics">Climate’s mark on Maya politics</h2>



The Terminal Classic saw southern lowland cities emptied and dynasties ended. Power shifted north, and monument programs faltered. The new drought timeline overlaps those disruptions.



“This period in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mayan-civilization-may-have-been-shaped-by-ingenious-fisheries/">Maya history</a> has been a cause of fascination for centuries," James explained. "There have been multiple theories as to what caused the collapse, such as changing trade routes, war, or severe drought, based on the archaeological evidence the Maya left behind.”



“But in the past few decades, we’ve started to learn quite a lot about what happened to the Maya and why by combining the archaeological data with quantifiable climate evidence.”



At major northern sites, including <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichen_Itza" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chichén Itzá</a>, the carving of dated inscriptions stopped during severe, prolonged droughts. While that does not prove abandonment, it certainly marks a pivot in priorities.



“This doesn’t necessarily mean that the Maya abandoned Chichén Itzá during these periods of severe drought, but it’s likely that they had more immediate things to worry about than constructing monuments, such as whether the crops they relied on would succeed or not,” James said. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasonal-view-of-the-maya-collapse">Seasonal view of the Maya collapse</h2>



Starting in the 1990s, researchers linked a series of droughts to the Maya collapse by comparing regional climate proxies with the dates on monuments.



The new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-americas-13000-years/">stalagmite record</a> builds on that foundation. It delivers the fine-grained detail that bridges climate processes and human decisions at specific places and times.



Researchers noted that earlier studies based on lake sediments offered a broad regional view, but lacked the resolution to pinpoint changes within specific years or seasons. 



Stalagmites, by contrast, allow researchers to match climate shifts to historical events more precisely.



By aligning wet-season failures with changes in building, ritual, and rule, scholars can test how drought pressure unfolded, how cities adapted, and when systems failed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-drought-in-the-record">Beyond drought in the record</h2>



The team, which includes collaborators in the UK, U.S., and Mexico, argues that stalagmites from this and other Yucatán caves can do more. 



They could capture the fingerprints of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-tropical-thunderstorms-are-radioactive/">tropical storms</a> as well as drought, widening the environmental context for Maya history.



“In addition to what stalagmites can tell us about this period in Maya history, they might also be able to tell us about the frequency and severity of tropical storms, for instance,” James said.



“As a case study for fine-grained comparisons between climate and historical data, it’s exciting being able to apply methods usually associated with the deeper past to relatively recent history.”



James, now a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a>, said the next step is to expand the cave network and tighten links to site-by-site archaeology. 



The goal is a shared chronology that can help bring into focus the full sequence of droughts, decisions, and decline.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adw7661" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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What caused the collapse of Maya civilization? The answer was hidden in a cave

A cave stalagmite has captured a season-by-season record of rain...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.



Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.



Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents". In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively. MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.



MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization. The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.



Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.



A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.



This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.



PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.



In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.



As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.



The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.



For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.



The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.



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MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a>



Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.



The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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