Rainforest,Destruction.,Gold,Mining,Place,In,Guyana,,South,America.,Amazon

Gold mining in Peru has moved into sensitive wetland areas and is releasing a lot of stored carbon. These wetlands are peatlands, waterlogged soils built from partly decayed plants that lock away carbon for centuries.



Peat loss turns a slow natural carbon vault into a fast source of emissions. That is why scientists are sounding the alarm about new mining scars in remote corners of the Amazon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peatlands-carbon-and-mining">Peatlands, carbon, and mining</h2>



<a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/global-peatlands-assessment-2022" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peatlands</a> hold an outsized share of the world’s soil carbon and help stabilize climate over long timescales. They cover a small slice of land area yet store a huge fraction of carbon underground.



Lead researcher <a href="https://www.ifgg.kit.edu/english/staff_householder.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">J Ethan Householder</a> is with the Wetland Department, Institute of Geography and Geoecology at Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany (<a href="https://www.ifgg.kit.edu/english/index.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IFGG</a>). 



His team’s field work and satellite analyses focus on peat swamps in southeastern Peru.



The term carbon stocks refers to the amount of carbon stored in plants and soils. In peat, most of that carbon sits below the surface in thick, oxygen poor layers that decompose very slowly.



These peat swamps also support biodiversity, the variety of living species in an ecosystem. When mining drains or digs up peat, both the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-storage-mystery-emerges-in-the-southern-ocean/">carbon</a> bank and the living communities take a hit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-satellites-saw">What the satellites saw</h2>



The study analyzed more than three decades of images from <a href="https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/satellites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Landsat</a>, a U.S. satellite program that produces consistent pictures of Earth’s surface each year. 



That time series lets researchers pinpoint when forests were cleared and when bare mine pits appeared.



They mapped mining scars along rivers in <a href="https://7wonders.org/south-america/peru/madre-de-dios/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Madre de Dios</a>, a region in Peru that has seen a rapid spread of small operations. The scars are easy to spot because forest gives way to sand and water filled pits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-carbon-release-from-mining">Massive carbon release from mining</h2>



In a new paper, the team reports that mining has removed more than 550 hectares of peatland, with over half of that loss happening in just the last two years. 



They estimate that 0.2 to 0.7 million tons of carbon have already been released, and they identify 63 of 219 peatlands showing evidence of mining at their edges.



They also find that mining inside peat now accounts for 9 percent of all mining in the area and could reach 25 percent by 2027 if current trends hold. 



The analysis flags more than 10,000 hectares of peat at immediate risk, with a potential release of 3.5 to 14.5 million tons of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-ocean-holds-carbon-hidden-mechanisms-revealed/">carbon</a> if those areas are disturbed.



“The rapid proliferation of gold mining inside peatlands appears to be of such scope as to be an existential threat to the entire peatland complex,” wrote Householder. The numbers and the geographic pattern point in the same direction.



The team also tracked where mining is advancing. An outward front has been pushing into the alluvial plain at about 330 feet per year, and that front is reaching the peat rich margins where swamps are most common.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-mining-is-pushing-into-peatlands">Why mining is pushing into peatlands</h2>



Rivers are the main highways in this part of the Amazon, so early mines hugged the banks. 



As miners followed gold bearing sediments inland, access paths, machinery, and makeshift camps increased, lowering the barrier to work in wetter ground.



Peatlands sit on the outer edges of the river plain where water pools for most of the year. 



Once miners arrive with pumps and hoses, it gets easier for others to follow, especially where law enforcement relies on boats and cannot easily reach new clearings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-driven-destruction">Human-driven destruction</h2>



A long term remote sensing <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/10/12/1903" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> record shows that mining has been a major driver of deforestation in southeastern Peru. 



Many operations are small and informal, and the work is a source of income for thousands of families.



Processing often uses mercury, a toxic metal that binds to fine gold particles. 



One river focused <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2015/em/c4em00567h" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> documented elevated mercury in sediments and fish downstream of mining hubs and found that a large share of carnivorous fish exceeded health guidelines for mercury in tissue.



Communities that rely on river fish face real exposure risks. This adds a public health layer to the climate and ecosystem costs of tearing up peat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mining-made-this-carbon-bomb">How mining made this carbon bomb</h2>



The researchers combined annual vegetation change with a classifier that separates mining from other forest losses. That approach reduced false alarms from seasonal flooding or quick regrowth after storms.



They then overlaid those mine maps with peat maps to see where pits and ponds overlap organic soils. That allowed them to calculate both the area lost and the likely carbon released.



Peat stores carbon more densely than nearby upland forests. When miners dig pits, drain water, or burn cleared vegetation, oxygen speeds up decay and carbon escapes into the air.



Even small patches can have outsized impacts because a few feet of peat can hold as much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-atoms-in-your-body-took-a-400000-light-year-journey-through-space/">carbon</a> as a much larger area of non peat forest. That is why a few hundred hectares of loss matter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next</h2>



The results point to three priorities that do not require new technology. 



Map the edges of active peatlands at high resolution, monitor hot spots in near real time, and keep heavy equipment out of places where peat depth is greatest.



Local voices and science can work together to steer enforcement and restoration budgets to the areas of highest risk. 



Peat that stays wet and shaded keeps its carbon, and that is the simplest way to avoid adding more heat trapping gases to the air.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/adb868" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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Ticking 'carbon time bomb' has been unleashed in the Amazon rainforest by gold miners

Gold mining in Peru has moved into sensitive wetland areas and is releasing a lot of stored carbon. These wetlands are peatlands, waterlogged soils built from partly decayed plants that lock away carbon for centuries. Peat loss turns a slow natural carbon vault into a fast source of emissions. That is why scientists are sounding the alarm about new mining scars in remote corners of the Amazon. Peatlands, carbon, and mining Peatlands hold an outsized share of the world’s soil carbon and help stabilize climate over long...

Ever felt curious about the roles that tiny leaf-eating insects play in forest ecosystems? Recent research might just have some answers for the question. As it turns out, these creatures could be influencing the world's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/">forests and our climate</a> more than we had ever imagined.



At the forefront of this fascinating study is Bernice Hwang, the paper’s lead author and a former technician at the U.S. Forest Service.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-and-forest-dynamics">Insect and forest dynamics</h2>



"The findings of this study provide an improved understanding of the intricate relationship between&nbsp;herbivorous insects&nbsp;and&nbsp;forest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-forests-2024-new-solutions-for-a-better-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>," Hwang stated.



Hwang, alongside other dedicated researchers, already had a substantial understanding of how large herbivores impacted nutrient cycles in forests.&nbsp;



However, the effects of leaf-eating insects on forest carbon and nutrient cycling remained relatively unknown.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-quest">A global quest</h2>



The initial step taken by the research team involved the establishment of a global network of 74 test plots, all within 40 mature, undisturbed broadleaved forests.&nbsp;



Green leaves and leaf litters in these forests were analyzed for concentrations of elements such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and silica.&nbsp;



The team also took into account leaf production, insect feeding habits, and other shifts in nutrient levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insects-role-in-forests">Insects’ role in forests</h2>



Christian Giardina and other researchers discovered that insects play a significant part in releasing and circulating essential nutrients in forest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-play-an-overlooked-role-in-the-climate-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>. This trend was especially prominent in warmer climates, like those experienced in tropical forests.



The findings unveiled a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">profound link</a>; a warming climate directly impacts how plants and herbivores interact.&nbsp;



The alteration in these relationships could potentially have deep-seated consequences for carbon and nutrient cycling in broadleaved forests on a global scale. This discovery is crucial in a world dealing with the ever-looming threat of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-our-forests">Protecting our forests</h2>



This study not only broadens our understanding of the hidden intricacies within forest ecosystems but also throws light on areas that might need conservation efforts.&nbsp;



Nels Johnson of the Pacific Southwest Research Station emphasized the importance of this research in ecological studies. "I believe this analysis will be a benchmark to compare against for its field."



Many questions remain unanswered. What specific actions can we take based on these findings? How can this knowledge be applied to protect our forests and therefore, our planet? 



As we step into an uncertain future, the importance of understanding these minute details of our ecosystem has never been more important.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-forest-management">Implications for forest management</h2>



The insights gained from this study have significant implications for forest management practices worldwide. Understanding the role of herbivorous insects in nutrient cycling can help forest managers develop more effective conservation strategies.&nbsp;



For instance, practices that promote biodiversity can enhance the resilience of forest ecosystems to climate change.&nbsp;



By recognizing the interplay between insects and plants, forest managers can make informed decisions about pest management and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shock-study-insects-are-also-declining-in-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">restoration efforts</a>, ultimately fostering healthier forests that can better withstand environmental pressures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



This enlightening exploration into the intricate relationship between plants, insects, and their shared ecosystem underscores the profound interconnectedness and delicate balance of nature.&nbsp;



As we emerge armed with this new knowledge, we must reflect on our roles as stewards of these forests. How will we respond to this challenge and what steps will we take to ensure the survival and prosperity of our planet's forests?



Moreover, the integration of such ecological findings into public policy can foster a more sustainable approach to land use and conservational practices.&nbsp;



By actively engaging communities in forest protection initiatives, we can cultivate a deeper appreciation for our natural resources, ensuring their longevity for future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-forests-and-insects">Future research on forests and insects</h2>



In light of the findings, it becomes imperative to explore several avenues for future research that could deepen our understanding of the interactions within forest ecosystems.



One potential direction is to conduct long-term observational studies that track changes in insect populations and their corresponding effects on nutrient cycling across various climatic zones. 



Additionally, investigating the specific mechanisms through which insects facilitate nutrient availability could provide insights into optimizing forest health and productivity. 



This research could extend to studying the impact of biodiversity loss on insect function within the ecosystem, as well as examining how different forest management practices can enhance or impede these critical processes. 



Ultimately, such inquiries will contribute not only to scientific knowledge but also to crafting actionable strategies for sustainable forest stewardship in an era of rapid environmental change.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-50245-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Tiny leaf-eating insects have a huge impact on forests

Ever felt curious about the roles that tiny leaf-eating insects...

In today's socio-environmental landscape, two imminent threats are converging upon our delicate coastal ecosystems: seawater flooding and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-kills-ocean-embryos-during-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic pollution</a>. 



A new study has surfaced with alarming findings: the presence of these two stressors together can significantly impact the growth and reproductive capabilities of coastal plant species.



"Coastal ecosystems face a multitude of pressures including plastic pollution and increased flood risk due to sea level rise and the frequency and severity of storms," noted the study authors.  



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focusing-on-hidden-coastal-threats">Focusing on hidden coastal threats</h2>



Ecosystems function in complex interdependencies, where minor changes can have profound bearings on the entire web of life. 



The study signals how two escalating issues - increased plastic use and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change-induced flooding</a> - can pose a severe combined threat. 



This puts a strain on the plants, leading to altered growth patterns, short-term suppression of photosynthetic efficiency, and eventually compromising ecosystem health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-case-study-in-environmental-stress">A case study in environmental stress</h2>



The research, led by experts at the University of Plymouth <a href="https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/schools/school-of-biological-and-marine-sciences" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Biological and Marine Sciences</a> and the International Marine Litter Research Unit, focused on a robust coastal species known as the buck's horn plantain.



Endemic to various corners of the globe - from Europe, Asia and North Africa, to the United States, Australia, and New Zealand - this plant species often proliferates in beach shingle and sand dune habitats.



Experimenting with this hearty plant, the research team cultivated it in soil containing conventional or biodegradable plastics for over a month. 



The plants were then inundated with seawater for 72 hours, replicating the type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/100-year-floods-will-likely-be-annual-events-by-the-end-of-the-century/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flooding events</a> that are becoming more common due to storms and coastal storm surges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disconcerting-coastal-findings">Disconcerting coastal findings </h2>



Upon analyzing metrics such as plant survival, plant size, photosynthetic efficiency, and flower production post the flooding event, the team made some disconcerting observations. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-pose-a-greater-threat-to-some-ocean-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microplastics</a> took a toll on the plants' reproduction, while flooding led to an increased rate of tissue death.



"This research highlights the potential for microplastics, composed of conventional and biodegradable plastic, to detrimentally affect plant functioning. Moreso, it indicates that the effect of microplastics can be magnified by other environmental factors such as rising sea levels and coastal flooding," said study lead author Dr. Winnie Courtene-Jones.



"Studies such as this help us appreciate the potential harm posed by microplastics to a range of organisms, and ecosystem resilience generally."



The findings underline the urgency to understand and address the threats posed by microplastics and climate change, especially when they converge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intensifying-effects-on-coastal-plants">Intensifying effects on coastal plants</h2>



As we move forward, it is crucial to take into account the combined impact of pollution and flooding, as their effects can be dangerously pronounced when they occur together.



"Coastal dunes and grasslands play a critical role in supporting biodiversity, but are coming under increasing threat from climate change and a number of other environmental factors," said study senior author Dr. Mick Hanley. 



"That is particularly worrying given that both microplastic pollution and coastal flooding are projected to worsen and intensify over the coming decades unless ambitious global actions are implemented."



Indeed, the time is ripe to take swift, decisive action on a global scale to salvage the health and resilience of our ecosystems from these mounting stressors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solutions-for-coastal-ecosystem-preservation">Solutions for coastal ecosystem preservation</h2>



The convergence of plastic pollution and seawater flooding presents a formidable challenge, yet there is a growing consensus on the importance of integrating innovative solutions to mitigate these threats. 



Key strategies include enhancing waste management systems, promoting the usage of biodegradable materials, and implementing robust coastal management policies. 



Community engagement and education also play vital roles. By fostering awareness of the impacts of plastic pollution and climate change on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-turbidity-helps-protect-coastal-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastal ecosystems</a>, we empower individuals to contribute to sustainable practices.



Furthermore, collaborative efforts among researchers, policymakers, and local communities can harness local knowledge and scientific research to develop effective conservation strategies tailored to specific ecosystems. 



It is imperative that we act collectively to promote resilience within our coastal habitats, ensuring they continue to support biodiversity and provide essential resources for future generations. 



“Think globally, act locally” is a guiding principle that must resonate in our collective pursuit of ecological sustainability.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749124012879?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Pollution</a>.



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Coastal plants endangered by plastic pollution and flooding

In today's socio-environmental landscape, two imminent threats are converging upon...

When was the last time that you felt the sting of a rose's prickle? Did you know that these thorns could reveal astonishing secrets about plant evolution?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-and-roses-prickles">Evolution and roses prickles</h2>



Roses, nightshades, eggplants, and even certain rice crops have a mutual, rather prickly feature - they sport protrusions, technically known as prickles. 



These prickles have been intriguing researchers and even hopeless romantics for ages due to their ubiquity across vastly different plant species. How is it that an adaptation as unique as prickles could <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-are-picky-when-choosing-their-mate-for-fertilization/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolve</a> independently in such unrelated species?



Enter James Satterlee, a postdoc researcher at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (<a href="https://www.cshl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSHL</a>). Along with his colleagues, Satterlee takes us on an enlightening journey into the heart of this botanical enigma.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roses-eggplants-and-nightshades">Roses, eggplants and nightshades</h2>



Satterlee's journey into the world of plant prickles began during a tour of a field, managed by his advisor, Professor &amp; HHMI Investigator Zachary Lippman, where hundreds of nightshades were grown. He soon found himself marveling at the striking prickly features of many of these nightshades and decided to dig deeper.



Joining forces with scientists in Spain, Satterlee launched an analysis of eggplants that led him to a gene family known as LONELY GUY (LOG). 



These genes, typically associated with promoting cell division and expansion, presented a surprising twist when certain LOG mutations were discovered to also eliminate prickles in eggplants.



Could LOG-related genes be the key to understanding how prickles emerge and disappear across various plant species over millions of years?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-collaboration-to-decode-roses-prickles">Global collaboration to decode roses prickles</h2>



Eager to answer this question, Satterlee, Lippman and their team started to sieve through previously published studies, reaching out to collaborators worldwide. 



The investigation extended from studying specimens at the New York Botanical Garden to using genome editing techniques at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a> to eliminate prickles in desert raisins, an Australian native berry.



The researchers even collaborated with a colleague in France to suppress prickles in roses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-log-ical-conclusion">The LOG-ical conclusion</h2>



After a thorough investigation, the team established an association between prickles and LOG-related genes in about 20 different species. 



This major finding not only opens up the potential to engineer prickle-free plants but also significantly contributes to our understanding of convergent evolution - a concept explaining how unrelated species independently develop similar traits.



“You’re really asking about life in general - evolution of traits," said Lippman. "How do they emerge? How are they modified? What are the underlying mechanisms? What can we learn about things we take for granted?” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-agriculture">Implications for agriculture</h2>



The implications of this research extend far beyond the realm of botanical curiosity. By understanding the genetic basis for prickles, scientists can potentially engineer crops that are not only more palatable but also less challenging to harvest. 



Imagine a world where eggplants grow without their prickly exterior, making them more accessible to consumers and reducing the wear-and-tear on agricultural workers. 



Furthermore, this research could enhance biodiversity in agricultural systems by allowing for the cultivation of a wider variety of crops without the fear of prickly deterrents, promoting both ecological balance and food security.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-science-and-rose-prickles">Bridging science and rose prickles</h2>



At the heart of this exploration of prickles lies a profound human connection to nature. The story of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-blooming-92-days-earlier-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant evolution</a> is not merely about survival; it is a narrative that inspires awe and wonder about the complexity of life itself.



As we uncover the intricate mechanisms behind such features, we foster a deeper appreciation for the diversity of the natural world. 



Furthermore, the journey of scientists like Satterlee serves as a reminder of the collaborative spirit that embodies scientific inquiry - a synergy that crosses borders and disciplines, ultimately enriching our understanding of life.



Through this lens, we are encouraged to consider not only the scientific implications but also the ethical and cultural dimensions of our interactions with the botanical world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-future-opportunities">Growing future opportunities</h2>



What does this mean for us? Apart from the obvious convenience for gardeners spared from the pricks of rose thorns, this discovery could potentially introduce us to new fruit varieties, like the desert raisins, in our local supermarkets.



At the very least, next time you snag your hand on a thorn, you'll appreciate the rich <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-shed-their-flowers-quickly-for-protection-from-microbes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary history</a> it represents.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ado1663" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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How and why roses evolved to have such harsh thorns and prickles

When was the last time that you felt the sting...

A recent study led by the Smithsonian proposes a unique plan to preserve Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> by cryogenically storing biological materials on the moon.&nbsp;



The moon's permanently shadowed craters are cold enough to maintain these materials without electricity or liquid nitrogen.&nbsp;



The research, published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biae058/7715645" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BioScience</a>, involves multiple Smithsonian institutions and outlines a comprehensive plan for a lunar biorepository.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-lunar-biorepository-nbsp">The lunar biorepository&nbsp;</h2>



The idea is inspired by the <a href="https://www.croptrust.org/work/svalbard-global-seed-vault/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Seed Vault</a> in Svalbard, Norway, which serves as a backup for global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enormous-loss-of-crop-diversity-found-in-recent-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop diversity</a>. However, the lunar biorepository would store animal cells, which require much colder temperatures than seeds for preservation.



The research team, including members from the <a href="https://nationalzoo.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian’s National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute</a> (NZCBI), Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History, and Smithsonian’s National Air and Space Museum, suggests that the moon's environment offers a unique solution to the challenges of cryopreservation on Earth.&nbsp;



“Initially, a lunar biorepository would target the most at-risk species on Earth today, but our ultimate goal would be to cryopreserve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">most species on Earth</a>,” said Mary Hagedorn, a research cryobiologist at NZCBI and lead author of the paper. 



The team's vision includes a public entity that would involve international cooperation and governance, akin to the structure of the Svalbard Global Seed Bank.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-storage-on-the-moon">Biodiversity storage on the moon</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/man-in-the-moon-craters-are-200-million-years-older-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>'s polar craters, which never receive sunlight, maintain temperatures as low as -410°F (-246°C). These conditions are perfect for cryogenic storage without the need for additional cooling resources.&nbsp;



The study emphasizes that this passive cooling method could mitigate risks associated with the potential failure of electrical systems, which is a concern for Earth-based repositories.&nbsp;



Samples could be stored in lunar caves or structures with thick walls made of moon rocks to protect them from space radiation, which can damage DNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cryopreservation-of-skin-cells">Cryopreservation of skin cells</h2>



As a proof of concept, the team successfully cryopreserved skin samples from a reef fish known as the starry goby. The choice of fibroblasts - skin cells - over other cells like sperm or eggs is due to the ease of preservation and collection.&nbsp;



Fibroblasts can be harvested from an animal's skin, making them more accessible for a wide range of species. For animals without skin, such as certain invertebrates, the researchers propose using other biological materials, like larvae or reproductive cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-research-nbsp">Expanding the research&nbsp;</h2>



The next phase of the project involves rigorous testing on Earth and aboard the International Space Station to simulate the lunar environment.&nbsp;



These tests aim to determine the best packaging methods for protecting the samples from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetic-field-solar-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radiation</a> and microgravity during transport and storage on the moon. The team is actively seeking collaborators and funding to expand their research and develop practical solutions for the biorepository.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conserving-earth-s-biodiversity-on-the-moon">Conserving Earth's biodiversity on the moon</h2>



The proposal is not merely a contingency plan for catastrophic events on Earth but also has potential implications for future space exploration. “We aren’t saying what if the Earth fails - if the Earth is biologically destroyed this biorepository won’t matter,” Hagedon said.&nbsp;



“This is meant to help offset natural disasters and, potentially, to augment space travel. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-life-has-inhabited-earth-since-the-very-first-cell-scientists-found-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Life</a> is precious and, as far as we know, rare in the universe. This biorepository provides another, parallel approach to conserving Earth’s precious biodiversity.”



The researchers' vision for a lunar biorepository offers a novel and potentially revolutionary method for preserving Earth's biodiversity.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-cooperation-is-needed">Global cooperation is needed </h2>



By leveraging the unique environmental conditions of the moon, they aim to create a fail-safe repository that could protect countless species from extinction due to natural disasters or other threats.&nbsp;



The initiative calls for global cooperation and further research to make this ambitious project a reality.



“Realizing a lunar biorepository will require collaboration by a broad array of nations, cultural groups, agencies, and international stakeholders to develop acceptable sample holding, governance, and long-term plans,” said the researchers.&nbsp;



“Protecting Earth's life must be a top priority in the rush on the Moon sites for industries and many types of science.”



According to the experts, the next steps include expanding our partnership base, especially to include laboratories and agencies who work in space research.&nbsp;



The team also plans to extract and cryopreserve fibroblast cells from the fins of fishes and test their packaging under space-like conditions on Earth.



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Proverbial "Noah's Ark" built on the moon will preserve Earth's biodiversity

A recent study led by the Smithsonian proposes a unique...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-forecast-the-future-of-monarch-butterflies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monarch butterflies</a>, easily identifiable by their vivid orange and black wings, are facing a serious threat due to the disappearance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoring-milkweed-could-save-the-eastern-monarch-butterfly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milkweed</a>, their sole food source as caterpillars.&nbsp;



The reduction of milkweed has put monarch populations at risk of extinction.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-milkweed-gardens-for-monarchs">Urban milkweed gardens for monarchs</h2>



Recent research published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution/articles/10.3389/fevo.2024.1444460/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a> indicates that urban milkweed gardens can play a crucial role in providing habitat for monarchs.&nbsp;



Study lead author Karen Klinger is a geographic information systems analyst in the Keller Science Action Center at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Field Museum</a>.



“In this study, we found that monarchs can find the milkweed, wherever the milkweed is, even if it’s in planters on balconies and rooftops,” said Klinger.&nbsp;



“Milkweed gardens can be in all shapes and sizes, and any milkweed garden can contribute habitat for monarchs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monarch-migration-relies-on-milkweed">Monarch migration relies on milkweed</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-butterfly-migration-sparked-by-a-surge-in-vegetation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a> of monarchs is one of the most extraordinary among insects, involving a multi-generational journey from Mexico to Canada and back.&nbsp;



The eastern monarch population starts in Mexico and travels northward, laying eggs on milkweed plants along the way. Each generation moves further north until they reach southern Canada.&nbsp;



At the end of summer, a special “super generation” of butterflies makes the long trip back to Mexico to overwinter.



This migration pattern heavily relies on the availability of milkweed, which has drastically decreased due to the use of pesticides in agriculture, particularly in the Midwest.&nbsp;



As a result, monarch populations have plummeted, leading to their consideration for endangered species status by the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> and the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">US Fish and Wildlife Service</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-in-urban-milkweed">Decline in urban milkweed </h2>



“If we don’t do anything soon, monarchs are going to be in serious trouble,” warned Aster Hasle, a lead conservation ecologist at the Field Museum’s Keller Science Action Center and co-author of the paper.



Given the decline in rural milkweed, scientists have explored the potential of urban milkweed gardens to fill the gap.&nbsp;



“There was a call for all hands on deck, to plant milkweed across all sectors of the landscape, but people discounted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-nature-affect-human-health-in-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban areas</a>, because if you look at some mapping of urban areas, it looks like it’s completely developed, with no availability for milkweed plants,” Klinger explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-milkweed-plants-in-urban-settings-nbsp">Milkweed plants in urban settings&nbsp;</h2>



Klinger was involved in a 2019 study by Field Museum scientists, which demonstrated that urban areas could support milkweed in various locations, such as yards, alleyways, and rooftops.&nbsp;



The recent follow-up study engaged over 400 community scientists who monitored milkweed plants in their urban settings for monarch eggs and caterpillars.



The team collected extensive data over four years, totaling 5,905 observations from 810 milkweed patches.&nbsp;



The results showed that monarchs are attracted to gardens with common milkweed and a diversity of blooming plants, which provide necessary nectar. Moreover, mature milkweed plants were more effective in supporting monarch reproduction.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-gardens-and-monarch-conservation-nbsp">Urban gardens and monarch conservation&nbsp;</h2>



“We encouraged participants who had planters on balconies, who had planters on rooftop decks, and we saw some of the most amazing things,” Klinger recalls, noting one instance where a rooftop planter housed five large caterpillars.



These findings underscore the importance of urban gardens in monarch conservation. While larger gardens with a variety of plants are ideal, even small contributions can make a significant difference. “Plant the species that works the best for you and your garden,” Klinger advised.&nbsp;



In support of these efforts, Illinois Governor JB Pritzker signed the MONARCH Act, which restricts homeowners associations from prohibiting native plantings and provides assistance for creating native and pollinator-friendly gardens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



Monarchs serve as indicators of broader <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-ecosystems-are-needed-to-prevent-future-pandemics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological health</a>, as their extensive migration covers a vast area.&nbsp;



“Monarchs need a lot of the things that other insects need, like blooming flowers, so what’s good for monarchs is good for other pollinators too. And we’re in the midst of a global insect decline, so it’s important to help,” Hasle said.&nbsp;



Supporting urban milkweed planting not only aids monarchs but also benefits the broader ecosystem, highlighting the critical role of these efforts in conservation.



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Milkweed gardens are needed to save monarch butterflies

Monarch butterflies, easily identifiable by their vivid orange and black...

Cotton is an integral part of everyday life, being used in everything from clothing to bed linens.&nbsp;As climate change intensifies, cotton farmers face the threat of lower yields due to challenges like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-drought-crisis-un-warns-of-unprecedented-emergency/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a> and heat. 



However, new research offers hope for developing drought-resistant cotton varieties.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-cotton-production-nbsp">Global cotton production&nbsp;</h2>



The study authors noted that upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) is the world's top renewable textile fiber, supporting a multibillion-dollar industry with a global production of 120.2 million bales of cotton.&nbsp;



“It is a major economically important crop for the U.S. and for Arizona, where upland cotton is planted on ∼50 000 ha, mainly in the semi-arid environment of the low desert using surface irrigation to complement limited <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-forecast-more-extreme-precipitation-ahead/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">precipitation</a>,” wrote the researchers.



“Cotton productivity in semi-arid areas of the Southwestern U.S. is severely threatened by global climate change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-drought-risk">Climate change and drought risk</h2>



The experts pointed out that increasing climatic variability is responsible for hotter summers, with day and night temperatures far above the thermal optimum (30/22 °C) for the crop, and lower and erratic rainfall patterns which expose cotton plants to an increasing risk of drought.&nbsp;



“Therefore, revealing the physio-genetics mechanisms that regulate cotton's response to arid conditions is of primary interest,” wrote the researchers.



“Specifically, this information can be leveraged for the development of new elite cotton cultivars with improved adaptation to hotter and drier climatic conditions that are predicted in the near future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-cotton-responds-to-water-stress">How cotton responds to water stress</h2>



In their recent study, published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pbi.14402" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Biotechnology Journal</a>, the team examined how 22 varieties of upland cotton respond to drought conditions in Arizona's low desert.&nbsp;



The researchers identified two key regulatory genes, GhHSFA6B-D and GhDREB2A-A, that are crucial for helping cotton plants manage water stress while maintaining fiber production.&nbsp;



These genes function like conductors, orchestrating other genes involved in drought response and fiber development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-tolerance-and-fiber-yield">Stress tolerance and fiber yield</h2>



“We were excited to discover this direct link between stress tolerance and fiber yield maintenance,” said study co-author Andrew Nelson, an assistant professor at the <a href="https://btiscience.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Boyce Thompson Institute</a>. 



“It appears that over time, cotton plants have evolved this regulatory mechanism to help them cope with dry conditions while still producing the fibers that are so economically important.”



A particularly notable discovery involved the gene GhIPS1-A, which produces an enzyme that helps protect plants from drought stress.&nbsp;



The researchers observed that only one copy of this gene, inherited from the cotton plant's African ancestors, responds to the regulatory gene GhHSFA6B-D. This suggests that the cotton plant's drought resilience has deep evolutionary roots, predating its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-origin-of-horse-domestication-has-finally-been-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domestication</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fiber-production-in-drought-stressed-plants-nbsp">Fiber production in drought-stressed plants&nbsp;</h2>



The study also revealed a tiny genetic variation near the GhIPS1-A gene that appears to influence fiber production under water-limited conditions.&nbsp;



“This single DNA letter change was associated with higher fiber production in drought-stressed plants,” noted study co-author Duke Pauli, an associate professor at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>. “Such small genetic differences could be valuable targets for breeders looking to develop more resilient cotton varieties.”



Given the increasing frequency and severity of droughts due to climate change, the development of cotton varieties that can thrive with less water is crucial.&nbsp;



The research provides valuable insights and genetic targets to guide these breeding efforts. It also emphasizes the importance of maintaining genetic diversity among cotton varieties, as the range of drought responses observed underscores the need for adaptability in crops facing changing conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regulatory-mechanism-conserved-across-time">Regulatory mechanism conserved across time</h2>



According to the experts, the specialized regulatory mechanism they identified in this study seems to have emerged in cotton well before domestication, most likely reflecting an evolutionary conserved stress response mechanism, similar to that observed in Arabidopsis.&nbsp;



However, this mechanism appears to have undergone additional selection after speciation in order to provide evolutionary advantages under water-limited conditions.&nbsp;



Further research is needed to clarify these mechanisms and develop breeding methods suited to the ongoing environmental crisis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study-nbsp">Broader implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



In a world grappling with environmental challenges, understanding how critical crops like cotton respond to stress at the molecular level is vital.&nbsp;



This study not only advances scientific knowledge but also lays the groundwork for more resilient and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-diversity-is-key-to-sustainable-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable agriculture</a> amidst climate change.&nbsp;



The insights gained from this research are essential for ensuring the continued availability of cotton, a staple of the global textile industry, in the face of an uncertain environmental future.



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Genetic secrets of cotton will make it more climate resilient

Cotton is an integral part of everyday life, being used...

Shellfish waste is emerging as a revolutionary solution to the persistent problem of short shelf life for produce and fruits - a challenge that has cost consumers and the agricultural industry millions of dollars each year. 



This unexpected ally in the fight against food waste has come to light through research conducted by the <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a>.



The innovative use of shellfish waste promises to extend the freshness and safety of agricultural harvests, potentially transforming produce preservation across the globe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-the-power-of-shellfish">Discovering the power of shellfish</h2>



The researchers have unlocked an extraordinary use for what was once simply regarded as disposal material - shellfish waste.



By tapping into the potential of crab and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-improve-cement-with-shrimp-shell-nanoparticles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shrimp shells</a>, the experts have ingeniously engineered a versatile material that extends the shelf life of agricultural harvests.



This remarkable innovation could dramatically transform the preservation of produce across the globe, offering a sustainable and effective solution to a longstanding problem.



The derived material forms a microscopic nanocrystal layer on treated produce, effectively removing harmful chemical residues. This not only safeguards the taste and appearance of the produce but also significantly extends its shelf life. 



The result is fresher, safer fruits and vegetables that last longer, benefiting both consumers and the agricultural industry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-than-freshness">Bigger than freshness</h2>



"This work offers a viable solution to improve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-could-be-greatly-reduced-with-better-labels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food safety</a> associated with our daily life," said Qin Wang, one of the study's collaborators.



Food safety is a crucial consideration given that pesticide residues on fruits and vegetables have been associated with severe health issues, such as increased cancer risks, Alzheimer's disease, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-shellfish-solutions-for-produce">Innovative shellfish solutions for produce </h2>



Most households use various cleaning solutions, such as vinegar, baking soda, hydrogen peroxide, and ozone, to get rid of pesticides and herbicides from their produce. 



However, these methods have proven to be either ineffective or detrimental to the produce's aesthetics and flavor. 



Moreover, the vigorous washing process often required can result in "micro-wounds" on the fruits' surface, which not only diminishes their visual appeal but also shortens their shelf life.



To combat this pervasive problem, the research team developed a novel porous material comprising chitosan, abundantly found in shellfish waste, and copper, recognized for its potent antimicrobial properties.



The material was sprayed on strawberries and proved successful in absorbing and neutralizing chemical residues. This advanced coating not only significantly increased the fruit's shelf life but can also be easily rinsed off, ensuring a safe and user-friendly consumer experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safe-and-effective-technology">Safe and effective technology </h2>



By leveraging natural waste materials, this solution offers a sustainable, effective, and consumer-friendly approach to produce preservation.



This technology is not just effective but remarkably safe too. Its components are listed in the Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) category by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, ensuring that it poses no risk to consumers. 



Beyond its safety profile, the shellfish waste solution is also easy to implement, cost-effective, and highly scalable. These attributes make it a practical option for widespread adoption, from small-scale farms to large agricultural operations.



By revolutionizing the way we store and consume our produce, the technology represents a major breakthrough in food safety and preservation.



It has the potential to drastically reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/transforming-food-waste-compost-into-biodegradable-bioplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food waste</a>, enhance the nutritional quality of our diets, and contribute to a more sustainable and environmentally friendly agricultural system. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainability-and-environmental-impact">Sustainability and environmental impact</h2>



In addition to its benefits for food safety and shelf life, this innovative preservation technique also promotes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-food-systems-are-gaining-momentum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainability</a> by addressing the issue of shellfish waste.



Each year, millions of tons of shellfish are discarded, contributing to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-deadly-and-widespread-environmental-pollutants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental pollution</a> and waste. 



By repurposing this material, researchers are not only reducing landfill contributions but also creating a valuable product that can benefit consumers and farmers alike.



This sustainable approach aligns with global efforts to minimize waste and foster circular economies. As producers and consumers become increasingly conscious of their environmental footprint, adopting such eco-friendly practices can contribute to a healthier planet while enhancing the quality of our food supply.



The synergy between food preservation and environmental responsibility signifies a promising future for our health and the health of our planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/matter/abstract/S2590-2385(24)00323-0?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2590238524003230%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matter</a>.



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Shellfish waste can be used for fresher, safer produce

Shellfish waste is emerging as a revolutionary solution to the...

There's nothing like that first cup of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-energy-boost-from-your-morning-cup-of-coffee-may-be-a-placebo-instead-of-the-caffeine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee in the morning</a>. Across the world, consumers are savoring more than 2.2 billion <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/paper-coffee-cups-not-so-eco-friendly-after-all/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee cups</a> on a daily basis, many of which include Arabica and Robusta coffee.



With over 100 million farmers globally catering to our coffee indulgence, we must ask ourselves - where do these precious beans come from?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-future-of-coffee">Exploring the future of coffee</h2>



Coffee beans that kickstart the routines of millions every day usually belong to one of two species - Coffea arabica or Coffea canephora (fondly known as Robusta or Conilon coffee).&nbsp;



Arabica beans have historically held the coffee throne, favored for their distinct flavor and aroma. However, an impending crisis is brewing. By 2050, it is predicted that about 80% of Arabica production could be hit by climate change.



Felipe Ferrao, a research assistant scientist from the University of Florida, and colleagues from the RD2 Vision (France) and Incaper Institution (Brazil), are on a quest to find coffee cultivars that could potentially replace Arabica in the long term.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robusta-coffee-a-resilient-alternative">Robusta coffee: A resilient alternative</h2>



Two avenues could potentially supplement&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-genome-adapted-to-climate-changes-over-millennia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arabica</a>: adapting coffee cultivation practices to new environments and focusing on the more resilient species.



The latest research led by the University of Florida hints that Robusta might be the hero we need to keep our morning pick-me-ups intact.



“If you consider that nowadays, about 60% of coffee beans commercialized around the globe are from Coffea arabica, the coffee industry is looking for alternatives,” said Ferrao. "This is how and where Robusta coffee emerges as a good candidate.”



In recent decades, Robusta coffee production has seen a 30% increase, while also demonstrating its robustness against economic and environmental uncertainties.&nbsp;



“Overall, the species produces more coffee than Arabica, using fewer inputs, such as fertilizer and water. As its name suggests, the plant is more robust,” noted Ferrao.



“While the demand for Robusta coffee likely won’t decrease, our biggest challenge is to meet the demand for quality and productivity required by the coffee chain. In this sense, genetics and breeding studies can provide basic elements for a better understanding of diversity and factors that affect quality.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robusta-climate-smart-coffee-for-the-future">Robusta: Climate-smart coffee for the future</h2>



The research team evaluated both Robusta/Conilon and Arabica coffee for multiple traits in three high-altitude locations in Brazil over five years.&nbsp;



The goal was to assess whether Robusta cultivars had the potential to yield a robust crop in alternative climates and, importantly, whether they also delivered on taste.



Their findings? Robusta demonstrated a high adaptability to high altitude regions, thus aligning with good production and flavor profiles. This makes it a fitting candidate for the "coffee of the future - climate-smart coffee.”



The study proposes that Robusta can offer three key characteristics for future coffee cultivars:



<ol>
<li>Sustainability – The ability to produce more with less.</li>



<li>Quality – Delivering a good flavor to meet consumer demand.</li>



<li>Plasticity – The capacity to adapt to new production systems.</li>
</ol>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-new-grounds-in-florida">Testing new grounds in Florida</h2>



Both encouraged and intrigued by their success with Robusta in Brazil, the scientists are now exploring its potential to grow in Florida. 



“Here in Florida, we have some trials to test both Robusta and Arabica coffees in different locations. When compared to Brazil, the differences in the soil properties, rainfall distribution, temperature and weather events will certainly impact the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-birds-and-the-bees-boost-coffee-production/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee production</a> and its quality,” said Ferrao.



The Florida-based team, including researchers from the Tropical Research and Education Center (TREC) in Homestead and Gainesville, are now testing coffee as an alternative crop for Florida growers.



The trials mark the first time such a diverse set of coffee materials is tested under Floridian conditions.



As global consumers, we can only wait to see whether the promise of Robusta will percolate through to our morning cup, as science continues brewing alternatives to secure a climate-smart future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-technology-in-coffee-sustainability">Technology in coffee sustainability</h2>



Technology plays a vital role in promoting sustainable coffee production. Innovations like precision farming and climate modeling are emerging. These advancements help farmers optimize their practices. They enable better adaptation to changing environmental conditions.



Precision agriculture uses data and technology to monitor factors like soil moisture, nutrient levels, and pest populations. By leveraging these insights, farmers can make informed decisions about irrigation, fertilization, and pest management, resulting in more efficient resource use and less environmental impact.



Moreover, advanced climate modeling tools enable researchers and farmers to predict how&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-plants-fight-climate-change-with-a-genetic-weapon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>&nbsp;will impact growing regions. By understanding these trends, they can proactively adjust cultivation methods, select more resilient varieties, and manage risk effectively.



As the industry continues to face challenges from climate change, the integration of technology into sustainable practices will be essential. By embracing innovation, we can not only safeguard the future of agricultural products but also enhance the livelihoods of farmers and the quality of our morning brew.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/csc2.21298" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Crop Science</a>.



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Robusta coffee could save our morning brew from climate change

There's nothing like that first cup of coffee in the morning....

In the vast and diverse world of biodiversity, unexpected alliances sometimes form. In Australia's wilderness, a curious bond has developed between an endangered rat and an invasive weed.



Off the coast of Port Lincoln, South Australia, lies Reevesby Island. It is home to an endangered creature, the greater stick-nest rat, and an invasive weed, the African boxthorn. 



A recent study reveals an intriguing twist to this survival narrative - our threatened rodent seems to prefer the invasive weed to native vegetation.



The research was led by Annie Kraehe, a Ph.D. candidate at the College of Science and Engineering, <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a>. 



Together with scientists from both Flinders University and the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Adelaide</a>, she unearthed this surprising secret.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-weed-in-rat-feces">Invasive weed in rat feces</h2>



Kraehe spent weeks examining the fecal pellets of the stick-nest rat. It was here she discovered the key evidence - plant remnants from the boxthorn shrub. 



This small, inconspicuous animal was feeding on one of Australia's most invasive weeds.



Despite the boxthorn accounting for just over a tenth of available vegetation, it made up over half of the rat's diet. 



Further observations revealed that the stick-nest rat's presence was more predominant in areas with higher boxthorn abundance. 



The timid rodent wasn't just dining on the boxthorn, it was using it for nesting and shelter too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-bittersweet-revelation">A bittersweet revelation</h2>



Flinders University Associate Professor Vera Weisbecker, a co-author on the study, underscores the strangeness of this discovery. 



Invasive weeds like the boxthorn pose a significant threat to Australia's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>. It's certainly unexpected to find our endangered rodent thriving in this supposedly degraded habitat.



Greater stick-nest rats build large communal homes out of sticks and stones. These guinea pig-sized rodents were declared extinct on mainland Australia by 1930, primarily due to invasive predators like cats and foxes. 



Now, the only existing wild populations are confined to offshore islands, out of the reach of such predators. But danger still lurks in the form of predatory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>.



With its dense foliage, the African boxthorn provides excellent cover from these raptors. This, according to Weisbecker, might be why the rats prefer nesting in boxthorn thickets. 



It's a survival strategy that's not just limited to our furry friend - the little penguins of South Australia also find better protection from predators in boxthorn vegetation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefit-or-detriment">Benefit Or detriment?</h2>



As one of Australia's most notorious weeds, African boxthorn disrupts wildlife and livestock movement and often prevents access to water sources due to its formidable thorns and dense, impenetrable thickets. 



But perhaps these exact characteristics make it appealing to the greater stick-nest rat?



Yet, the researchers caution against seeing this as some sort of redemption for the invasive weed. Their findings merely depict the rat's use of the boxthorn. 



"We merely show that African boxthorn is being used by stick-nest rats. Further research is needed to understand if the animal actually benefits from the&nbsp;weed, and how this potential benefit compares to the&nbsp;destructive effects&nbsp;on the rest of the ecosystem," says Kraehe.



"The fact that the stick-nest rat is flexible enough in its food choices to thrive on African boxthorn is encouraging for efforts to re-establish the species elsewhere.



There's also the significant concern that the continued spread of the boxthorn could displace native vegetation, leading to the collapse of the island's ecosystem, and ultimately affecting the rats themselves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balance-between-rats-and-invasive-weed">Balance between rats and invasive weed</h2>



As researchers delve deeper into this dynamic, the relationship between the greater stick-nest rat and African boxthorn serves as a compelling case study in ecosystem interactions. 



The delicate balance between an endangered species and an invasive plant highlights the complexities of ecological systems, where species adapt to their surroundings in unexpected ways.



The boxthorn provides shelter and food. However, its rapid growth could endanger the stick-nest rat's survival. This proliferation also threatens other native plants and animals that depend on indigenous vegetation.



Understanding these complex relationships is essential for creating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemists-could-be-key-to-prevent-animal-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation strategies</a> that protect biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead">Looking ahead</h2>



Flexibility in dietary choices, according to Kraehe, is a positive sign for the stick-nest rat. It opens up possibilities for re-establishing the species elsewhere. 



However, more research is needed to understand the ideal food plants and habitats for this rare rodent.



This remarkable partnership between a threatened rat and an invasive weed invites deeper probing into the resilience of Australia's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boosting-crop-colors-with-gene-editing-can-improve-weed-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique fauna</a>. 



But it also crystallizes the sheer unpredictability and complexity of ecosystems and the creatures that inhabit them.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/WR/WR23140" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildlife Research</a>.



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Endangered rat strangely uses invasive weed for food and shelter

In the vast and diverse world of biodiversity, unexpected alliances...

Traditionally, we have always believed that&nbsp;photosynthesis&nbsp;by plants and algae fuel our planet's oxygen supply, even in the deep ocean, providing the essential gas for life on Earth.&nbsp;However, an international team of scientists has made a startling discovery, finding "dark oxygen" in the deep ocean that challenges this long-held premise.



Their critical finding proves that the Earth's oxygen could also be generated by metallic minerals on the deep-ocean floor, some 13,000 feet below the surface, where no sunlight penetrates.&nbsp;



This revelation opens up exciting new possibilities. We can now better understand the origins of oxygen on our planet. It also sheds light on its distribution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-with-photosynthesis-the-norm">Oxygen with photosynthesis -- the norm</h2>



Have you ever wondered why we call plants the "lungs" of the Earth? It's simple: they breathe out what we breathe in. This happens through a fantastic process called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-finally-decoded-the-process-of-photosynthesis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>.



Imagine a world without trees, plants, or algae. It's not just a barren, lifeless landscape. It’s a world without oxygen. 



Thanks to photosynthesis, plants, algae, and some bacteria are like busy little factories, turning sunlight into the very air we breathe. They're the unsung heroes of life on Earth.



Here's an interesting twist. The waste product of our respiration, carbon dioxide, is like gold for plants. They transform it back into oxygen and nutrients in what's known as the Calvin cycle.



The oxygen we enjoy today didn't always exist. Thanks to a unique group of photosynthesizing bacteria, our planet's atmosphere underwent a dramatic makeover 2.4 billion years ago, known as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Oxygenation Event</a>. This poured oxygen into our atmosphere, paving the path for more complex forms of life to evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-without-photosynthesis-not-normal">Oxygen withOUT photosynthesis -- not normal</h2>



Discovering that oxygen is produced at the bottom of the deepest parts of Earth's ocean, without sunlight or photosynthesis, is stunning as it singles out an unlikely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxygen-may-have-come-from-ancient-rocks-of-early-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">source of oxygen</a> -- the seafloor, an area completely devoid of light. 



Previously, it was unthinkable that oxygen-breathing (aerobic) marine life could exist in such darkness. Yet, this discovery is astonishing. It could reshape our understanding of aerobic life's origin on Earth.



Researcher Andrew Sweetman, who spearheads the Seafloor Ecology and Biogeochemistry research team at the Scottish Association for Marine Science (<a href="https://www.sams.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SAMS</a>), was instrumental in this discovery.&nbsp;



"For aerobic life to begin on the planet, there had to be oxygen, and our understanding has been that&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s oxygen</a>&nbsp;supply began with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthetic</a> organisms," Sweetman explains.



"But we now know that there is oxygen produced in the deep sea, where there is no light. I think we, therefore, need to revisit questions like: Where could aerobic life have begun?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polymetallic-nodules-in-ocean">Polymetallic nodules in ocean</h2>



Polymetallic nodules - natural mineral accumulations on the ocean floor, possessing a mix of various minerals, are central to this discovery.&nbsp;



These nodules, varying in size, contain critical metals like cobalt, nickel, copper, lithium, and manganese -- elements used in batteries.



“The polymetallic nodules that produce this oxygen contain metals such as cobalt, nickel, copper, lithium, and manganese -- which are all critical elements used in batteries," asserts Franz Geiger, professor of Chemistry at the <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> and lead experimenter in the electrochemistry tests. 



"Several large-scale mining companies now aim to extract these precious elements from the seafloor at depths of 10,000 to 20,000 feet below the surface. We need to rethink how to mine these materials, so that we do not deplete the oxygen source for deep-sea life.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unearthing-oxygen-in-deep-ocean">Unearthing oxygen in deep ocean</h2>



Sweetman recounts the tale of his initial incredulity upon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/summer-storms-stir-oxygen-into-the-deep-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">detecting oxygen</a> during his seabed sampling in the Pacific Ocean's Clarion-Clipperton Zone.&nbsp;



He initially suspected faulty equipment, given that conventional wisdom dictates oxygen consumption rather than production in deep-sea environments.



“When we first got this data, we thought the sensors were faulty because every study ever done in the deep sea has only seen oxygen being consumed rather than produced,” Sweetman said. 



“We would come home and recalibrate the sensors, but, over the course of 10 years, these strange oxygen readings kept showing up."



The scientists decided to take a back-up method that worked differently to the optode sensors they were originally using. When both methods came back with the same result, they realized they were onto something big.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geobatteries-from-deep-ocean-oxygen">Geobatteries from deep ocean oxygen</h2>



To better comprehend the oxygen production, the researchers explored a hypothesis that relates to the concept of Geobatteries.&nbsp;



Through a chemical process known as seawater electrolysis, they wondered if the deep-ocean’s polymetallic nodules generated enough electricity to produce oxygen.&nbsp;



The results were conclusive. “It appears that we discovered a natural ‘geobattery.’ These geobatteries are the basis for a possible explanation of the ocean’s dark oxygen production,” stated Geiger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-ocean-oxygen-and-mining-implications">Deep ocean oxygen and mining implications</h2>



This revelation could have significant implications for the mining industry.&nbsp;



The researchers emphasize the importance of considering the potential impact on the ocean's dark oxygen production before planning&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-mining-has-deadly-consequences-for-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea mining</a>&nbsp;activities.&nbsp;



“In 2016 and 2017, marine biologists visited sites that were mined in the 1980s and found not even bacteria had recovered in mined areas. In unmined regions, however, marine life flourished. Why such ‘dead zones’ persist for decades is still unknown," Geiger concludes.



"However, this puts a major asterisk onto strategies for sea-floor mining as ocean-floor faunal diversity in nodule-rich areas is higher than in the most diverse tropical rainforests."



In summary, discovering dark oxygen production in the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-can-deep-ocean-microbes-survive-without-sunlight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-ocean</a>&nbsp;sets a new direction for our understanding of Earth's oxygen supply. The implications of this discovery, for both science and industry, are profound.



The full study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01480-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Discovery: "Dark oxygen" is produced on the ocean floor without sunlight

Traditionally, we have always believed that&nbsp;photosynthesis&nbsp;by plants and algae fuel...

The story of global reforestation is far from a simple one; it's a complex interplay of local economies, international industries, environmental stewardship, and the incessant forward march of climate change. 



Imagine the forests as our planet’s lungs - inhaling carbon dioxide and exhaling oxygen.



But it seems the balance has been off for a while, and our planet is gasping for air. Today, however, a study from <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a> breathes new life into this narrative.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-reforestation">Power of reforestation</h2>



At the forefront of this research is Jeff Vincent, a professor of forest economics and management at Duke University’s <a href="https://nicholas.duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nicholas School of the Environment</a>. 



Alongside lead author Jonah Busch, a Climate Economics Fellow at Conservation International, Vincent and his team have advanced a fresh perspective on the cost and impact of reforestation. 



Their study reveals fascinating facts about the power of a combined approach to reforestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reforestation-sites">Reforestation sites</h2>



Simply put, reforestation involves growing back trees on lands where human activity has decimated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-forests-which-tree-species-can-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">original forests</a>.



Presently, most reforestation programs across low- and middle-income countries focus solely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-planting-campaigns-fall-short-of-successful-reforestation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree planting</a>. 



However, this study uncovers that nearly half of all suitable reforestation sites would be more effective in carbon sequestration if forests were allowed to regrow naturally. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-all-about-the-wood">Is it all about the wood?</h2>



"Wood markets are one key to large-scale reforestation," Vincent states. 



In fact, the study shows that in more than half the areas studied, timber plantations sequester carbon at a lower cost than naturally regenerated forests. 



Could the key to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/success-story-reforestation-has-helped-keep-the-eastern-us-relatively-cool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reversing deforestation</a> lie in our local wood markets?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mix-is-the-trick">Mix is the trick</h2>



According to Vincent, a combination of planted and naturally regenerated forests often offers the best solution for balancing society’s demands on forests. 



Yet, Jonah Busch notes that this more biodiversity-rich method of reforestation is enormously underutilized.



To illustrate this, the researchers propose another method to sequester more carbon: replanting some forest regions while allowing nature to do her thing in others. 



As it turns out, it's not an 'either-or' situation – a mixed approach offers the most effective strategy to combat climate change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-paying-for-the-planet-s-lungs">Paying for the planet's lungs</h2>



Companies and organizations seeking to offset their greenhouse gas emissions can help incentivize reforestation through carbon payments. 



"Carbon payments can provide a sufficient reforestation incentive on their own in some locations," Vincent explains.



He also adds that the net cost of carbon sequestration could be reduced in other places by income from sustainable wood harvests.



In essence, the total cost of capturing and storing carbon dioxide, minus any benefits gained from the process, can be significantly lowered through projects that generate income from timber sales or wood products.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implementation-of-reforestation">Implementation of reforestation </h2>



Implementing the findings from Duke University’s study requires a coordinated effort among governments, NGOs, and local communities. 



Policy frameworks must be developed to support mixed approaches to reforestation, providing guidelines for sustainable forestry and natural regeneration methods. 



Furthermore, educational campaigns can raise awareness about the importance of biodiversity and the necessity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-too-many-trees-could-spoil-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maintaining ecological balance</a>. 



Engaging local communities in the reforestation process ensures that initiatives are culturally sensitive and economically viable, ultimately leading to more successful outcomes in restoring our planet’s green spaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-affecting-reforestation-costs">Factors affecting reforestation costs</h2>



Whether natural growth or planting trees is more cost-effective in a certain location depends on several factors. 



These include forest growth rates, proximity to natural seed sources for regeneration and wood-processing mills for plantations, the value of land in its current use, and the costs of each method.



In their study, the team modeled these factors for the two reforestation methods and produced a world map showing the most cost-effective reforestation method by location.



"We hope our map will help governments, companies, and other organizations use their forest restoration budgets more efficiently," Vincent concludes.



And so do we. After all, it's not just about the trees. It's about the air we breathe, the climate we wish to preserve, and the planet we hope to pass onto our children.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-024-02068-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Planting trees is important, but reforestation can help, too

The story of global reforestation is far from a simple...

The marvel of symbiosis highlights the intricate interplay between different organisms, each playing a crucial part in their mutual survival and progress.



This biological phenomenon demonstrates how life forms, despite their differences, can forge beneficial relationships that enhance their existence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-bacteria-symbiosis-in-action">Plant-bacteria symbiosis in action</h2>



A particular and striking example of such interdependence is found in the relationship between leguminous plants and soil bacteria, also known as Rhizobia. This fascinating partnership allows <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-legumes-and-their-symbiotic-bacteria-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">legumes</a> to thrive in low-nitrogen environments, a feat that is challenging for many plants.



Rhizobia have a unique ability to convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form the plants can utilize - ammonium. This nitrogen fixation process is vital for the legumes' growth and development, enabling them to flourish even in nutrient-poor soils.



But where do these beneficial bacteria reside? Quite intriguingly, they find a home within specialized structures called root nodules that form on the roots of leguminous plants.



These nodules provide a protective environment where the Rhizobia can live and function, facilitating a continuous exchange of nutrients that supports the health and productivity of both partners in this remarkable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-symbiotic-relationships-evolve-between-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symbiotic relationship</a>.



This mutualistic interaction not only underscores the complexity and elegance of natural processes but also has significant implications for sustainable agriculture and ecosystem management.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-plant-bacteria-interaction">Unraveling plant-bacteria interaction</h2>



The interaction, however, is far from simplistic. An uncontrolled formation of numerous root nodules can significantly hinder root function, impeding the plant's ability to absorb water and nutrients effectively.



A precise regulation over both the distribution and the amount of root nodules is required for the plants to survive. The intricate mechanisms underpinning this regulation remained largely undiscovered.



However, recent studies on Lotus japonicus, a model legume plant, have begun to unveil these complexities.



The studies have shed light on the sophisticated biological controls that manage nodule formation, ensuring that the symbiotic relationship between legumes and Rhizobia is both efficient and beneficial.



This groundbreaking research is a collaborative effort conducted by the National Institute for Basic Biology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Hokkaido University, Kwansei Gakuin University, RIKEN, and Aichi University of Education.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dancing-with-the-rhythm">Dancing with the rhythm</h2>



The interaction between legume <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/symbiotic-relationship-plant-roots-underground-mycorrhizal-fungi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">roots</a> and Rhizobia is dictated by a rhythmic gene expression occurring every six hours. This rhythmic pattern influences the root regions susceptible to Rhizobial infection and the distribution of nodules.



"When Rhizobia infect legume roots, root epidermal cells form infection threads, membranous tube-like structures guiding the bacteria to the inner root tissue where they can fix <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-produce-their-own-nitrogen-fertilizer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen</a>," explained study co-author Dr. Takashi Soyano.



"We noticed that these oscillation regions coincide with areas where infection threads are densely formed, leading us to think that this rhythmic gene expression might be related to the determination of nodule formation sites."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cytokinin-the-symbiotic-maestro">Cytokinin: The symbiotic maestro</h2>



Moreover, another key discovery centered on the crucial role of the plant hormone cytokinin in this intricate process. This hormone is pivotal for maintaining the rhythmic gene expression that governs the interaction between legume roots and Rhizobia.



The research team observed distinct oscillatory patterns of genes involved in cytokinin biosynthesis, metabolism, and signaling following rhizobial inoculation. 



The findings suggest that cytokinin is not only essential for initiating nodule formation but also for regulating the periodic responses that ensure an optimal balance of root nodules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-symbiosis-and-evolution">Linking symbiosis and evolution</h2>



Root nodule symbiosis is not an isolated phenomenon. It occurs in the monophyletic nitrogen-fixing clade, inclusive of four orders - Fabales, Rosales, Cucurbitales, and Fagales - indicating a shared evolutionary acquisition to interact with nitrogen-fixing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/symbiotic-bacteria-provide-nutrients-to-seagrasses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>.



The legume family in the order Fabales, where most species engage in root nodule symbiosis, uniquely incorporated the cytokinin pathway as an important regulatory module for the symbiosis.



"The discovery of periodic cytokinin responses was unexpected, raising several questions, including the molecular mechanisms that establish this periodicity and how these periodic responses shape the infection regions," said Dr. Soyano.



Addressing these questions can further our understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of root nodule symbiosis and propel research on the spatial control of organ development through periodic responses mediated by plant hormones.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk5589" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Plants keep up a precise rhythm to partner with bacteria

The marvel of symbiosis highlights the intricate interplay between different...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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