Most of us have heard a parent or grandparent say, “Time goes by faster every year,” while shaking their head at how quickly July 4 seems to roll around. 



When you’re twelve, however, the brain has a different perception of time - the wait for summer vacation feels endless, and a single school day can feel as slow as a traffic jam in August heat.



That gap between the child’s long afternoon and the adult’s lightning-fast month isn’t just storytelling, it’s how our brain's perception of time changes, altering the way it measures all of the moments that make up our lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-vs-fresh-experiences">First vs. fresh experiences</h2>



Children cram their days with firsts: a first dive into the pool, a first try at long division, a first sleepover away from home.



These fresh experiences swarm the brain with new images to file away, stretching the subjective length of a single afternoon.



Adults, by contrast, tend to replay <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-impacts-our-daily-routines-and-transportation/">familiar routines</a>. With fewer novel snapshots to store, the days collapse into something closer to a highlight reel than a feature film.



According to psychologist Marc Wittmann at the Institute for Frontier Areas of Psychology and Mental Health <a href="https://igpp.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(IGPP</a>), the feeling that time accelerates is tightly linked to how much new material our brains record each day.



He points out that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-clutter-speeds-up-aging-in-the-brain/">memory</a> and time perception sit on the same neural bench; when one slows, the other shrinks. "Newness" holds the key to this phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-brain-and-time-perception">Human brain and time perception</h2>



Whenever a brain encounters something it has never processed before, a quick surge of attention flags the event as worth keeping. The more flags raised, the thicker the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-use-storage-trick-to-keep-your-memories-in-sequential-order/">memory log</a> becomes, and the longer that span later feels.



Kids, still green to nearly everything, throw flags left and right. A lunchroom joke, a new word in science class, or a game of tag - each registers as its own small chapter.



Adults often glide through copy-and-paste days that differ only by the date on the calendar. With fewer chapters recorded, the book of any given week reads as a short story.



Research using immersive virtual reality in 2024 showed that older volunteers underestimated simple time intervals by roughly 15 percent, highlighting how novelty <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S096800042300302X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharpens the inner clock</a>.



Routine doesn’t just compress the past; it also drains the present.



Studies tracking holiday seasons in several countries found that people who stuck to predictable daily rhythms felt that Christmas or Ramadan arrived sooner every year, while those who sprinkled in new activities reported a slower march toward the festivities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-processing-speed-linked-with-time">Brain processing speed linked with time</h2>



Every sensation has to travel from eye or ear to cortex. In youngsters, those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/speech-pattern-wfd-that-is-a-clear-indication-a-person-is-in-cognitive-decline/">neural highways</a> are short and well-paved. As bodies grow, the routes lengthen, and the conduction speed though still quick can’t match its earlier zip.



Add natural age-related slowing of signal processing and the brain starts sampling the world less often each second.



Fewer samples mean fewer “ticks” on the subjective stopwatch, so a morning meeting seems to vanish faster for a forty-year-old than for a fourth grader.



This sampling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-link-pupil-dilation-to-brains-working-memory-levels/">shows up in the eyes</a>. Our eyes jerk from point to point in rapid saccades, pausing in brief fixations while the brain grabs a visual frame.



Young, rested eyes squeeze in more fixations per minute. Older or fatigued eyes lag, offering the brain fewer still frames to stitch together. With a thinner film strip, the projection of the day speeds along.



Scientists studying eye movements liken perception to a flipbook. Each fixation is a page; flip them fast enough and you see smooth action.



When fixations slow, the flipbook loses pages. Motion still appears, but the storyline gets choppy, and, in recall, it shortens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-and-alertness">Sleep and alertness</h2>



A single night of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-can-boost-memory-in-a-surprising-way/">good sleep</a> can pull the brake on runaway days. When neurons are well-rested, they fire faster, notice more, and form clearer memories.



Athletes know the flip side: stepping onto the field after too little shut-eye makes the whole match blur. The plays happen, but the mind records only a highlight or two before the final whistle.



Students grinding through an all-nighter meet the same fate - an exam that seems to finish moments after it starts.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-best-treatment-for-excessive-daytime-sleepiness/">Chronic fatigue</a> magnifies the effect. Continually short-changing rest lowers baseline alertness, trimming snapshots day after day.



Over months, life can feel like it’s slipping through the cracks, not because the clock sped up but because the recorder slowed down.



<a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/dopamine-the-pathway-to-pleasure" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dopamine</a>, a neurotransmitter tied to motivation and time estimation, also dips with sleep debt, further warping the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1364166/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense of duration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-media-and-lost-time-perception">Social media and lost time perception</h2>



Endless feeds promise variety, yet most algorithms serve look-alike posts. Swipe through video after video of the same dance trend, and the brain barely registers a change.



Hours evaporate while the memory log remains nearly blank. Compound that with the blue-light-induced bedtime delay, and you have a double punch: fewer snapshots captured and fewer hours slept.



Cutting back on passive scrolling or swapping it for an activity with genuine novelty - trying a new recipe, learning a chord on guitar - feeds the brain more distinct moments. Those moments stretch subjective time, turning a blur of an evening into something that feels full.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-with-age-comes-responsibility">With age comes responsibility</h2>



Beyond slower processing, adults juggle long lists of responsibilities. Focus narrows to tasks at hand - emails, errands, budgets - scanning less of the environment for new input. Novelty drops, and subjective days shorten.



<a href="https://www.tiaa.org/public/institute/publication/2023/young-adults-their-attitudes-and-outlook-toward-retirement-and-the-future" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A 2023 survey</a> comparing young adults with retirees found that the older group reported the year as “rushing by” nearly twice as often, linking the feeling to the predictability of daily routines rather than to health issues.



Even so, not every senior feels the rush. Researchers tracking so-called “<a href="https://www.nm.org/healthbeat/healthy-tips/4-habits-super-agers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">super-agers</a>” note that those who keep learning new skills and staying socially engaged maintain sharper senses of time, along with stronger memory performance. Variety keeps the brain’s camera clicking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-use-your-brain-to-slow-time-perception">Use your brain to slow time perception</h2>



Here's the good news - the tools to lengthen your days fit into ordinary life. Go to bed on a schedule that honors the seven-to-nine-hour rule.



Plan at least one activity each week that forces you out of autopilot: a different jogging route, a museum you’ve never visited, a new language app.



While doing it, pay close attention to sights, sounds, and textures. Engagement packs extra snapshots into the mental album.



Stay curious daily. Swap a lunchtime scroll for a short walk and notice five things you’ve never clocked before - a mural, a bird call, the scent of a bakery vent.



Those micro-discoveries add pages to the flipbook, expanding the subjective afternoon. Over time, the habit can "thicken" the memory book that tells the story of a year, making December feel like it belongs twelve full months away, right where the calendar says it should be.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-review/article/why-the-days-seem-shorter-as-we-get-older/2CB8EC9B0B30537230C7442B826E42F1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Review</a>.



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Scientists explain why time seems to move faster and 'fly by' as we age

Most of us have heard a parent or grandparent say, “Time goes by faster every year,” while shaking their head at how quickly July 4 seems to roll around. When you’re twelve, however, the brain has a different perception of time - the wait for summer vacation feels endless, and a single school day can feel as slow as a traffic jam in August heat. That gap between the child’s long afternoon and the adult’s lightning-fast month isn’t just storytelling, it’s how our brain's perception of time...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.bnl.gov/">U.S. Department of Energy's Brookhaven National Laboratory</a> may have just discovered an efficient method of converting carbon dioxide (CO2) into a usable energy. The experts have identified a new electrocatalyst that converts <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/co2-emissions-cars-uk/">CO2</a> to carbon monoxide (CO), which is a highly energetic molecule.

“There are many ways to use CO,” said co-author Eli Stavitski. “You can react it with water to produce energy-rich hydrogen gas, or with hydrogen to produce useful chemicals, such as hydrocarbons or alcohols. If there were a sustainable, cost-efficient route to transform CO2 to CO, it would benefit society greatly.”

Using single atoms of nickel as a catalyst, the researchers achieved what scientists have been trying to accomplish for years. Previous efforts were unsuccessful because a competing reaction called the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) was dominant over the CO2 conversion reaction.

“Nickel metal, in bulk, has rarely been selected as a promising candidate for converting CO2 to CO,” said co-author Haotian Wang. “One reason is that it performs HER very well, and brings down the CO2 reduction selectivity dramatically. Another reason is because its surface can be easily poisoned by CO molecules if any are produced."

But now, the experts have found that single atoms of nickel produce a different result.

“Single atoms prefer to produce CO, rather than performing the competing HER, because the surface of a bulk metal is very different from individual atoms,” said Stavitski.

Co-author Klaus Attenkofer added, “The surface of a metal has one energy potential--it is uniform. Whereas on a single atom, every place on the surface has a different kind of energy.”

The CO2 conversion reaction was also facilitated by the interaction of the nickel atoms with a surrounding sheet of graphene. By anchoring the atoms to graphene, the scientists managed to adjust them and inhibit HER.

Results of the investigation revealed that single atoms of nickel catalyzed the CO2 conversion reaction with a 97 percent success rate. According to the study authors, the reliability of nickel atoms as a catalyst in this conversion process is a major step toward recycling CO2 for usable energy.

“To apply this technology to real applications in the future, we are currently aimed at producing this single atom catalyst in a cheap and large-scale way, while improving its performance and maintaining its efficiency,” said Wang.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://pubs.rsc.org/en/journals/journal/ee">Energy &amp; Environmental Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

One step closer to recycling carbon dioxide into usable energy

Researchers at the U.S. Department of Energy's Brookhaven National Laboratory...

Researchers at the <a href="http://www.manchester.ac.uk/">The University of Manchester</a> are working to create electronic swarms of bees and jumping spider robots. The experts believe that micro robots could blaze a trail into the next generation of technology.

Dr. Mostafa Nabawy is the Microsystems Research Theme Leader at the University's School of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Civil Engineering.

“For our robotic spiders research we are looking at a specific species of jumping spider called Phidippus regius,” said Dr. Nabawy. “We have trained it to jump different distances and heights, recording the spider's every movement in extreme detail through high resolution cameras which can be slowed down.”

“We are now using this biomechanical data to model robots that can perform with the same abilities. With this extensive dataset we have already started developing prototype robots that can mimic these biomechanical movements and jump several centimetres.”

The robots were modeled after spiders because of their incredible ability to jump up to six times the length of their bodies from a standing position. Robots with this ability could be used for a variety of different purposes in complex engineering and manufacturing processes.

Dr. Nabawy said that another goal of the study is to replace declining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prepare-bees-pollinator-garden/">bee populations</a> with robotic bees that could pollinate crops and flowers.

“The ultimate aim is to create a robot bee that can fly independently and we're quite a long way into that project,” he explained. “But there are also many different opportunities for brilliant science and engineering outcomes along the way so it is a very exciting process.”

“We're aiming to create the world's first robot bee that can fly unaided and unaccompanied. These technologies can also be used for many different applications, including improving the current aerodynamic performances of aircraft.”

The research was presented by Dr. Nabawy at Manchester's Industry 4.0 Summit.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Engineers developing spider robots and electronic swarms of bees

Researchers at the The University of Manchester are working to...

A recent study has found that the brain still functions for some time even after a person’s heart stops, and if circulation is restored quickly enough, it’s possible to revive them. 

The research was conducted by a team of neurologists from the <a href="https://www.charite.de/en/">Charité–Universitätsmedizin</a> in Berlin and the<a href="https://med.uc.edu/"> University of Cincinnati College of Medicine</a>. 

Published in the journal Annals of Neurology, the study discusses an event called “spreading depolarization” and the critical timeline that a person has until the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-learns-repeat-actions/">brain</a> completely shuts down and death is irreversible. 

For the study, the researchers attached electrodes to nine patients, both in Berlin and Ohio, who were dying from a fatal brain injury and who had requested not to be resuscitated. 

The electrodes allowed the researchers to examine brain activity leading up to and after someone’s death. 

In eight of the patients, the researchers observed an increase in electrical activity in the brain. This wave of spreading depolarization started two to five minutes after blood flow radically slowed down and stopped. 

The electrical activity was a response to the brain losing oxygen and energy, and the neurons function on reserves in the brain for a brief time until the brain eventually permanently shut down. 

The results show that that brain is still “conscious” even after the heart stops, and that there may be a small window of time after circulation is cut off from the brain that a person can still be revived. 

“After circulatory arrest, spreading depolarization marks the loss of stored electrochemical energy in brain cells and the onset of toxic processes that eventually lead to death,” said Jens Dreier told the <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-5444223/What-happens-brain-minutes-die.html">Daily Mail</a>. “'Importantly, it is reversible – up to a point – when the circulation is restored.” 

Although the researchers are not sure how long a person has until the brain shuts down completely, the results could impact future research examining the traditional markers of death and how to handle patients before declaring a time of death.  

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The brain remains conscious for some time after the heart stops

A recent study has found that the brain still functions...

“It’s no secret that we derive pleasure from doing things we enjoy, such as playing our favorite video game,” says Rui Costa, the associate director and CEO of <a href="https://zuckermaninstitute.columbia.edu/">Columbia University’s Zuckerman Institute</a> and senior author of a paper published today in <a href="http://science.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>. His research reveals how brain activity is shaped and refined as mice learn to repeat behaviors that result in a feeling of pleasure. 

But how does this relate to playing video games? 

“When you move the game controller in exactly the right way to earn that high score, your brain remembers how it executed that action – which neurons get switched on, and in what pattern – so your brain can recreate that same move the next time you play,” says Costa, who is also a professor of neuroscience and neurology at Columbia University Irving Medical Center. “After repeated attempts, your brain gets better at recreating that pattern of neural activity, and you get better at the game.”

When we do something we enjoy, our neurons are triggered to release dopamine, resulting in a feel-good sensation and creating a desire to repeat that action again and again. The researchers wanted to determine if the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greener-neighborhood-brain-development/">brain</a> could be trained to learn the right pattern of neural activity involved in experiencing something enjoyable, and then repeat that pattern to trigger a dopamine release at will.

Using mice as test subjects, the researchers developed a computer program that connected the neural activity in the brains of mice to musical notes. When one group of neurons switched on, a corresponding musical note played. Varying patterns of neural activity resulted in different combinations of notes. When neural activity patterns triggered the right arrangement of musical notes – determined by the computer program – the scientists manually released dopamine into the animals’ brains.

Through this process, the mice learned which musical arrangement would result in a dopamine release. Their brains then began to rewire themselves to play that song more often, thus triggering dopamine release more often as well. This means that through hearing these musical notes, the mice learned to repeat the pattern of corresponding brain activity that they had previously evoked dopamine release and pleasure.

“In some ways, these results are entirely expected,” says Costa. “It makes sense that the brain would mimic the feeling of reward it gets from an enjoyable experience by producing the corresponding pattern of neural activity. But it had never been tested.”

This study may be able to help us learn more about disorders such as addiction and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). “If the brain’s neural-activity patterns are in overdrive, as is often the case for people with addiction or OCD, could we create a computer program that can help to retrain their brains and downshift this activity?” Costa wonders. “This is something we’re actively exploring.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The brain learns to repeat actions that bring pleasure

“It’s no secret that we derive pleasure from doing things...

Researchers in Austria have found evidence that there could be life inside of the solar system beyond our planet. They are reporting that a species of methane-producing microbes found on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-remaining-untouched-forests/">Earth</a> may also be thriving on a moon that orbits Saturn.

Enceladus is an ice-covered moon that contains many of the components necessary for life, making it a popular target for research. The moon has a warm ocean just beneath its surface, as well as mysterious cracks at it southernmost point that release compounds including methane, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide.

Microorganisms on Earth use these compounds for growth, and the researchers believe that it is possible that there are microbes living in the underground ocean of Enceladus. 

The team theorizes that microbes called methanogenic archaea could be using carbon dioxide and hydrogen for development, and then expelling the methane that surrounds Enceladus.

For their investigation, the scientists grew three methanogenic archaea in the lab. Two of the microorganisms were from regions near Iceland and Japan that were isolated from Earth’s hydrothermal vent systems, while the third was a control species.

The experts exposed the microbes to harsh conditions that represented those found on Enceladus. The study revealed that one type of methanogenic archaea could survive even in the presence of extremely harsh chemicals like formaldehyde.

The researchers also found that a process called low-temperature serpentinisation, which is believed to occur at the core of Enceladus, could generate enough hydrogen to promote microbial life.

Dr. Simon Rittmann is a senior scientist in the Department of Ecogenomics and Systems Biology at the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/">University of Vienna</a> and the study's lead author.

“If you know where these microbes survive on Earth, the results are not that surprising,” Dr. Rittmann told <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/index.html">MailOnline</a>. “These organisms have a very special and ancient physiology - they are one of the first evolutionary developments on this planet. Our results suggest that these organisms or similar could exist on Enceladus.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natastron/">Nature Astronomy</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Earth may not be the only planet with life in our solar system

Researchers in Austria have found evidence that there could be...

One of the inevitable consequences of aging is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-slow-memory-loss/">memory loss</a> and inability to think as quickly and clearly. For some people, this problem occurs faster and more drastically than others. Now, scientists believe they have a new way to determine who is more likely to develop thinking and memory problems as they age.

A recent study in the journal <a href="http://www.neurology.org/">Neurology</a> has found that people whose eyes show signs of small changes in blood vessels at age 60 may be more likely to develop thinking and memory problems by the time they are 80 than people with healthy eyes.

The researchers had 12,317 participants take memory tests and assess their thinking skills at the beginning of the study. They then did follow-up tests six years later and a third time 20 years later. Using a special retinal camera, they also took photos of the back of the participants’ eyes about three years after the study began. At this point in time, the participants were an average age of 60.  Of the participants studied, 11,692 had no signs of retinopathy – damage to the blood vessels in the retina – while 365 people had mild retinopathy and 256 people had moderate to severe damage. 

“Problems with the small blood vessels in the brain are likely as important a factor in cognitive decline as problems with larger arteries, but we don’t have the ability to take pictures of these small vessels with brain imaging,” says Jennifer A. Deal, of <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> and one of the study’s authors. 
“Because the blood vessels in the eye and the brain are so similar anatomically, we hypothesized that looking at the blood vessels in the eye would help us understand what was happening in the brain.”

The results showed that people who had moderate to severe retinopathy were more likely to have larger declines in their scores on the memory and thinking tests over time than those who had healthy eyes. “If our study results can be confirmed, differences in retinal integrity could provide reasonable estimates of how much small blood vessel damage in the brain is contributing to cognitive decline,” says Deal. Further study could increase our understanding of the factors behind cognitive decline, and possibly help us combat the condition in the future.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Future memory loss can be detected in our eyes today

One of the inevitable consequences of aging is memory loss...

Reunion Island in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/tropical-cyclones-indian-ocean/">Indian Ocean</a> formed from a volcanic hotspot that erupted and covered most of what is now India with basalt lava. 

The island is of particular interest to geologists because the rocky formation came from an ancient pocket of magma deep within the Earth’s mantle. 

Heat from the planet’s early years caused extreme melting which then separated the Earth into two layers, the core and the mantle. Later, the mantle would rise and sink and create the crust in the process. 

This continual process of melting, sinking, and rising along with the motion of the mantle mixed the different elements and materials together until everything is blended together deep within the Earth. 

However, older stubborn pockets remain, and from these researchers can garner a better timeline for some of the volcanic formations on Earth. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/">Carnegie Institution for Science</a> conducted a study using isotopic data to reveal the evolutionary timeline of the Reunion Islands. 

Isotopes go through a process of radioactive decay that transforms into new elements and researchers can date this decay to find out the age of the element in question. 

The Carnegie researchers used this process to date mantle pockets within the earth to find the age of the magma plumes that created the Reunion Island. 

The research team focused on samarium-146, which decays and forms neodymium-142. Samarium-146 was present when the Earth first formed, which means that examining neodymium-142 can provide information about the Earth’s geological history. 

The results, published in the journal Nature, show that even through billions of years of mixing within the mantle, the origin of the Reunion Island was a well preserved old pocket of dating back to the very beginnings of the Earth’s history. 

The findings could have on future studies delving into the Earth's evolutionary history. 

“The mantle differentiation event preserved in these hotspot plumes can both teach us about early Earth geochemical processes and explain the mysterious seismic signatures created by these dense deep-mantle zones,” said Bradley Peters, the study's lead author. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Courtesy of Bradley Peters

The formation of Earth still impacts modern volcanic activity

Reunion Island in the Indian Ocean formed from a volcanic...

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moon-formed-earth-collided/">moon</a> formed from a disk-shaped clump of debris in the aftermath of a planet-sized collision with a very early Earth… at least that’s the commonly held theory. 

But now, a new study conducted by <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard</a> researchers proposes a completely new scenario for how the moon first formed.

Simon Lock, a Harvard graduate student, developed a new theory that resolves many issues and mysteries that the previous theory could not answer, such as why the moon and Earth had such similar makeup if they were formed from two relatively different planetary bodies. 

“The commonly accepted theory as to how the Moon was formed is that a Mars sized body collided with the proto-Earth and spun material into orbit,” Lock said. “That mass settled into a disk and later accreted to form the moon. The body that was left after the impact was the Earth. This has been the canonical model for about 20 years.”

The problem, Lock says is that the “canonical model” or the previously accepted theory isn’t a practical scenario because the necessary elements needed to form the moon are extremely specific, and the moon could only have formed under a particular set of circumstances. 

“Getting enough mass into orbit in the canonical scenario is actually very difficult, and there's a very narrow range of collisions that might be able to do it,” he said. “There's only a couple of degree window of impact angles and a very narrow range of sizes...and even then some impacts still don't work.”

Lock’s theory could change the way we think about both the Earth and Moon, as the study found that it was much more likely that the moon and Earth formed from a cloud of vaporized rock known as a synestia.

"It's huge," Lock said of the donut-shaped synestia. "It can be ten times the size of the Earth, and because there's so much energy in the collision, maybe 10 percent of the rock of Earth is vaporized, and the rest is liquid...so the way you form the Moon out of a synestia is very different."

The researchers created a model that showed how the liquid rock left over in the synestia condensed together and started to decrease in size. 

“Over time, the whole structure shrinks, and the Moon emerges from the vapor,” said Lock. “Eventually, the whole synestia condenses and what's left is a ball of spinning liquid rock that eventually forms the Earth as we know it today.”

Lock and his colleagues will continue to fine-tune their model in order to fully test this new theory. Although Lock’s model answers many mysteries, the researchers note that further work is needed. 

The new study was published in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Researchers propose a new theory on the formation of the moon

The moon formed from a disk-shaped clump of debris in...

In an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, corn has become a primary source in the creation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biofuel-compete-oil/">biofuels</a> to power cars and airplanes.

But the environmental impact and water supply needed to grow corn make it better suited to be used as a food than a biofuel resource.

But now, researchers from <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a> have found that switchgrass may be an attractive new option for the creation of biofuel.

The study, led by John Field and published in the journal Nature Energy, showed that the carbon footprint of growing switchgrass was a fraction of the size of traditional fossil fuel sources. 

Field and his colleagues specialize in working with non-edible plants to create cellulosic biofuels. Switchgrass and other plants could serve as an excellent alternative to high impact crops like corn. 

“They don't require a lot of fertilizer or irrigation,” Field said. “Farmers don't have to plow up the field every year to plant new crops, and they're good for a decade or longer.”

For the study, the researchers analyzed an area in Kansas because the state has a cellulosic biofuel production plant. 

To examine the environmental impact and carbon footprint of switchgrass, the researchers used DayCent, a modeling system developed by Colorado State University in the 1990s. DayCent models plant growth and its response to weather and climate as well as its carbon cycle. 

Using DayCent, the research team was able to test whether switchgrass, grown for biofuel purposes, would be an effective alternative to traditional fossil fuels and have a reduced carbon footprint. 

The resulting carbon footprint of switchgrass was -11 to 10 grams of carbon dioxide per megajoule. Megajoules are commonly used to measure carbon emissions. 

To put that number in perspective, the carbon footprint of gasoline is 94 grams per megajoule. 

In addition to providing a smaller environmental impact, the researchers also found that switchgrass was effective for carbon storage. 

“What we saw with switchgrass is that you're actually storing carbon in the soil,” said John Field, the first author of the study. “You're building up organic matter and sequestering carbon.”

The results are promising, and the researchers are excited about the implications their work could have on future biofuel research. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Switchgrass may be better than corn as a biofuel source

In an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, corn has...

Researchers are reporting that there is a chemical in our bodies, which becomes increasingly present in our urine as we age, that could be easily used to measure how much our bodies have aged biologically - not just chronologically. Access to this information could help predict an individual's risk of developing age-related diseases, and could even predict a person's risk of death.

During the process of normal aging, our cells accumulate damage over time. The rate of this cellular damage varies among individuals and is often influenced by genetics. The new research indicates that cellular deterioration can provide accurate information about our biological age.

According to the free radical theory of aging, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-oxygen-levels-declining/">oxygen</a> is the primary mechanism that underlies biological aging.

“Oxygen by-products produced during normal metabolism can cause oxidative damage to biomolecules in cells, such as DNA and RNA,” said study co-author Jian-Ping Cai. “As we age, we suffer increasing oxidative damage, and so the levels of oxidative markers increase in our body.”

One such marker, named 8-oxo-Gsn for short,results from the oxidation of a critical molecule in our cells called RNA. In previous studies of animals, researchers found that 8-oxo-Gsn levels increase in urine with age.

For the current study, the team set out to determine if the same is true for humans.

The experts measured 8-oxo-Gsn in urine from 1,228 Chinese residents aged 2-90 years old. They analyzed the samples using a rapid analysis technique called ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography.

“We found an age-dependent increase in urinary 8-oxo-Gsn in participants 21 years old and older,” said Cai. “Therefore, urinary 8-oxo-Gsn is promising as a new marker of aging.”

Levels of 8-oxo-Gsn were essentially the same among men and women, except in post-menopausal women who showed higher levels

This is likely due to lowered levels of estrogen, a hormone which is known to have antioxidant effects.

The method of analysis used in this study could also be utilized in future large-scale aging studies, considering the rapid analysis technique can process urine samples from as many as 10 participants in one hour.

“Urinary 8-oxo-Gsn may reflect the real condition of our bodies better than our chronological age, and may help us to predict the risk of age-related diseases,” said Cai.

The study is published in the journal in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/aging-neuroscience">Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Urine test can measure how much your body has aged

Researchers are reporting that there is a chemical in our...

For the first time ever, researchers have witnessed life rebounding in the world's driest desert. If this desert soil provides a habitat suitable enough for organisms to survive in, the scientists believe there is a great potential for life on Mars.

An international team led by <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> planetary scientist Dirk Schulze-Makuch investigated the driest region of the Atacama Desert in South America, where it does not rain for decades at a time.

The hyper-arid environment of the Atacama Desert is the most similar place on Earth to the surface of Mars. Scientists have long speculated whether microbes found in the Atacama soil reside here permanently or if they are simply blown in by the weather.

When the team arrived at the desert in 2015, it actually rained. After this rare event, the researchers detected an explosion of biological activity in the desert soil.

The scientists analyzed soil samples and found several native species of microbial life. When the researchers returned over a year later, they discovered that these specialized bacteria have adapted to survive by going dormant for decades without water and then reactivating when it finally rains.


“In the past, researchers have found dying organisms near the surface and remnants of DNA but this is really the first time that anyone has been able to identify a persistent form of life living in the soil of the Atacama Desert,” said Schulze-Makuch. 

“We believe these microbial communities can lay dormant for hundreds or even thousands of years in conditions very similar to what you would find on a planet like Mars and then come back to life when it rains.”

Schulze-Makuch will return the Atacama Desert to investigate how the native microbial inhabitants have evolved. The team also hopes to look for life in the Don Juan Pond, a shallow in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-monster-discovered-antarctica/">Antarctica</a> that is so salty that it rarely ever freezes.

“There are only a few places left on Earth to go looking for new lifeforms that survive in the kind of environments you would find on Mars,” said Schulze-Makuch. “Our goal is to understand how they are able to do it so we will know what to look for on the Martian surface.”

The study is published in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Dirk Schulze-Makuch

Life in Earth’s driest desert could mean life exists on Mars

For the first time ever, researchers have witnessed life rebounding...

Experts at the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York</a> have stumbled upon a new potential method of biofuel production while analyzing the digestive system of a primitive insect. The firebrat, which has been on Earth for hundreds of millions of years, has the ability to rapidly break cellulose down into glucose.

The experts believe that this unique ability could be a model for creating earth-friendly industrial practices, such as the production of sustainable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biofuel-compete-oil/">low carbon fuels</a>.

Firebrats were previously shown to thrive on crystalline cellulose, which is a natural fiber that is found abundantly in cardboard, paper, and straw.

“Firebrats belong to one of the most primitive groups of insects; they appeared on land during the Devonian Period, some 420 million years ago,” explained study co-author Simon McQueen Mason. 

“Cellulose forms the fibers that give the cell walls of plants their strength and has a high degree of structural order, making it solid and tough.”


Prior to this study, it was unknown how firebrats could digest cellulose so effectively. The team's analysis of their digestive system revealed something unexpected.

“Inside their gut the firebrats had a group of uncharacterized proteins that make up 20% of their carbohydrate digestive enzymes,” explained co-author Dr. Federico Sabbadin.

“On further inspection, these proteins proved to be a new class of enzyme, called lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs), which attack crystalline polysaccharides. Our study revealed that these enzymes are used by firebrats to greatly increase the rate of cellulose digestion.”

LPMOs were thought to occur exclusively in fungi, bacteria, and viruses. The findings suggest that these enzymes could be adopted in industrial processes to break down cellulose into fermentable sugars for biofuel production.

“These digestive LPMOs appear to have evolved from enzymes that digest a substance called chitin, which protects the respiratory system of insects,” said Professor Mason.

“We found that these ancestral genes are essential for metamorphosis and that interfering with their function is lethal to insects. This could have important implications for the development of new methods to control disease-carrying mosquitoes and agricultural pests such as locusts.”

The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: The University of York

Ancient insects provide hints on how to produce biofuel

Experts at the University of York have stumbled upon a...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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