We hear about minerals all the time. Lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, and rare earth elements appear in the news almost every week.



These minerals power phones, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dirty-power-the-hidden-climate-cost-of-electric-vehicles/">electric cars</a>, and military equipment. Countries want them, companies want them, and the competition for the minerals keeps growing.



While leaders plan and companies race, some scientists study a different part of the story. They ask questions about where these minerals come from and how they move underground.



Geologist Zachary Burton works on these questions. He studies natural processes instead of using drills or machines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-earth-elements-are-hard-to-find">Rare earth elements are hard to find</h2>



"Rare earth elements aren't technically rare - they are somewhat ubiquitous at very low concentrations - but highly concentrated, economically attractive deposits are indeed rare and hard to find," Burton explained.



In the Department of Earth Sciences at <a href="https://www.montana.edu/">Montana State University</a>, Burton has been studying these elements for almost 15 years.



The problem is simple. Scientists do not fully understand how these minerals move or gather in one place.



"That's in large part because we don't even know many fundamental scientific processes of why they concentrate in certain areas and how they're moving around," Burton said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-desert-deep-in-antarctica">A desert deep in Antarctica</h2>



Burton recently studied these minerals in a very cold place: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-is-experiencing-rapid-plant-growth-concerning-scientists/">Antarctica</a>'s McMurdo Dry Valleys. This part of Antarctica is dry, windy, and extremely cold. It has unusual landscapes that look similar to other planets.



Burton’s team investigated how rare earth minerals move in this polar desert. They focused on salt ponds in the area, including Don Juan Pond, VXE-6 Pond, and Brine Pond Number 1.



The team found something intriguing. In Don Juan Pond, mineral levels were low in the center - likely because chemicals had washed them away.



However, minerals had gathered underground in two specific spots: one about 10 to 12 centimeters deep (roughly 4 to 5 inches) west of Don Juan Pond, and another about 4 to 7 centimeters deep (around 1.5 to 2.75 inches) beneath VXE-6 Pond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-freezing-and-melting-moves-minerals">Freezing and melting moves minerals</h2>



The places with more minerals had another feature. The soil there contained clay-like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-meteorites-provide-a-window-into-the-early-solar-system/">materials</a>. These formed through chemical changes.



The reason for this process was clear. Water froze and melted many times. The ponds also changed in size. These actions moved the minerals.



Water carried the minerals. When the water froze, the minerals stayed behind in the soil. This cycle repeated many times. Over the years, minerals gathered just below the surface.



Burton explained that similar things can happen in other cold areas. He pointed to Greenland and Ukraine, two places that are often in the news for their mineral resources.



"Rare earths are an area that's been relatively neglected these past decades in terms of scientific research, but now - with these critical minerals constantly making headlines - there's a whole lot to be learned in terms of where deposits are," he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-antarctica-to-other-planets">From Antarctica to other planets</h2>



Burton’s research is not only about Earth. It also connects to space. The Dry Valleys in Antarctica are similar to places on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-plan-terraform-mars-nanoparticles-would-make-it-habitable-for-humans/">Mars</a>. That makes them a good place to study processes that might also happen on other planets. 



Space agencies, such as NASA, need to find resources beyond Earth. Burton’s work may help them plan future missions.



The study also included diagrams that showed how minerals move underground. Water flows below the surface, freezes, and leaves minerals behind. These findings may guide future work in space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-mineral-movement-in-hot-deserts">Rare mineral movement in hot deserts</h2>



Burton’s projects also focus on dry areas in the United States. He studies how minerals move in places like Nevada, Utah, and California’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/desert-lichen-may-offer-clues-to-life-beyond-earth/">Mojave Desert</a>. 



These regions are hot, dry, and full of desert basins. The goal is to understand how rare earth elements and lithium move and collect in such places.



Burton described the work as difficult but exciting. "It's a challenge and a scramble, but also very exciting, because there's a lot more for the world to learn in these areas."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-frontier-for-geology">A new frontier for geology</h2>



Montana State University is now focusing more on this type of research. Alison Harmon, vice president for research and economic development at the university, said these studies matter.



"This will be an area where MSU can make an important contribution to national security and economic development in Montana and beyond," said Harmon.



Burton’s research shows that minerals do not stay in one spot forever. Water, ice, and time keep moving them around. By studying how this happens, researchers can learn more about Earth’s resources and even about resources on other worlds.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165232X25001661?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cold Regions Science and Technology</a>.



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Water and ice may reveal where rare earth elements are hiding

We hear about minerals all the time. Lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, and rare earth elements appear in the news almost every week. These minerals power phones, electric cars, and military equipment. Countries want them, companies want them, and the competition for the minerals keeps growing. While leaders plan and companies race, some scientists study a different part of the story. They ask questions about where these minerals come from and how they move underground. Geologist Zachary Burton works on these questions. He studies natural processes instead of...

A new study has shed light on how the brain processes complex social situations, like recognizing a familiar face. 

The answer, according to regenerative neuroscientists from<a href="https://hms.harvard.edu/"> Harvard Medical School</a>, <a href="https://hsci.harvard.edu/">the Harvard Stem Cell Institute </a>and <a href="http://www.massgeneral.org/">Massachusetts General Hospital,</a> has to do with the hippocampus.

The Harvard study, published in the journal Nature Communications, delves into the little-known role that the hippocampus plays in social recognition and behavior.

The hippocampus is one the brain’s best sorting systems, primarily organizing long and short term memory and helping with spatial navigation. 

This is why it makes sense that the hippocampus aids in differentiating social memories and recognition. This only occurs, as the researchers found, when certain neurons were exposed to oxytocin.

Oxytocin is important in empathy, pleasure, and pair bonding, and when the hormone interacts with the dentate gyrus-CA3 (DG-CA3) circuit in the hippocampus, the oxytocin is a catalyst that switches the circuit's functional mode to social recognition.

“Our results indicate that oxytocin usurps this preexisting neural circuit within the hippocampus that normally regulates the differentiation of similar memories,” said Tara Raam, the study’s first author. “In the presence of oxytocin, the circuit assumes an additional role as a regulator of social cognition.”

The researchers focused on the dentate gyrus based on the idea that its neural scaffold plays a role in distinguishing similar memories to each other, like those that take place in the same areas. The neurons in the dentate gyrus are extremely receptive to oxytocin.

For the researchers, this indicated that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxytocin-improves-autistic-children/">oxytocin</a> was important to the hippocampus and had some role to play, they were just unsure as to what that role was.

The researchers conducted a series of experiments with mice for the study.

In one of the experiments, the neuroscientists used viruses to delete oxytocin receptors in the dentate gyrus circuit in the mice. After this, the mice could still tell different objects apart, such as a cup they were familiar with or a new bowl.

However, when interacting with other mice, the mice with the removed oxytocin sensitivity became “socially inept.” The mice could not differentiate between familiar faces and new strangers.

The results of the experiments show that the dentate gyrus is crucial to object recognition, but when oxytocin comes into play, it also helps with navigating social situations and behaviors. 

The work is important in understanding the complex systems within the brain and could help explain how disruptions in the hippocampus relate to neurodevelopmental and neurological conditions, for example, PTSD or autism-spectrum disorders. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

How the brain can recognize familiar faces

A new study has shed light on how the brain...

A new study from the <a href="https://ph.ucla.edu/">UCLA Fielding School of Public Health</a> reveals that around 15 million Americans will have mild cognitive impairment or full-blown <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/roundworms-protection-alzheimers/">Alzheimer’s</a> dementia by the year 2060. This is nearly triple the current number of just over 6 million people that suffer from these conditions.

The researchers analyzed information from the largest studies available on the progression of Alzheimer's disease. The team used this data in a computer model they developed which accounts for the aging U.S population, and projected the numbers of people in preclinical and clinical states of Alzheimer’s disease. 

The analysis showed that about 5.7 million Americans will have mild cognitive impairment and another 9.3 million will have dementia due to Alzheimer's by the year 2060. Of the group of Americans suffering from the onset of dementia caused by Alzheimer’s, 4 million will need intensive, round-the-clock care, according to the study.

Mild cognitive impairment is an intermediate level of dementia that is not yet considered to be fully developed. Study lead author Ron Brookmeyer estimates that about 2.4 million Americans are currently living with this stage of impairment due to Alzheimer's disease.

"Estimates by disease state and severity are important because the resources needed to care for patients vary so much over the course of the illness," said Brookmeyer.

Brookmeyer explained that the findings of this study expose an urgent need to develop therapies to slow the progression of the disease in people who have indications of cognitive decline that could lead to Alzheimer's dementia. 

"There are about 47 million people in the U.S. today who have some evidence of preclinical Alzheimer's, which means they have either a build-up of protein fragments called beta-amyloid or neurodegeneration of the brain but don't yet have symptoms," said Brookmeyer. "Many of them will not progress to Alzheimer's dementia in their lifetimes. We need to have improved methods to identify which persons will progress to clinical symptoms, and develop interventions for them that could slow the progression of the disease, if not stop it all together."

The study, which is the first of its kind to estimate the numbers of Americans living with mild cognitive impairment or preclinical Alzheimer’s disease, is published in the journal <a href="http://www.alzheimersanddementia.com/">Alzheimer's and Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association</a>. 

--

By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Twice as many Americans will have Alzheimer’s by 2060

A new study from the UCLA Fielding School of Public...

Most storms produce wind that can be dangerous and damaging, and when winds reach over 58 miles per hour, a storm becomes classified as severe. But there are some places where gusts of wind reach three or four times that of a severe thunderstorm. The following places have experienced some of the world’s most extreme weather and are among the windiest places on Earth.

&nbsp;

Commonwealth Bay, Antarctica
The Guinness Book of World Records and National Geographic Atlas have both listed this bay in Antarctica as the windiest place on the planet. Katabatic winds in Commonwealth Bay are recorded at over 150 mph on a regular basis, and the average annual wind speed is 50 mph.

&nbsp;

Wellington, New Zealand
The highest wind speed recorded in Wellington, New Zealand was 154 mph. The average wind speeds in “Windy Wellington” are 27 mph, and gale force wind speeds were recorded 233 days out of the city’s windiest year.

&nbsp;

Bridge Creek, Oklahoma
On May 3, 1999, a truck-mounted doppler radar unit measured a wind speed of over 300 mph in the Oklahoma City suburb of Bridge Creek during a devastating tornado, making it unofficially the world’s highest known wind speed. Some reports say the wind hit 302 mph, while others claim the wind reached 318 mph.


Mount Washington, New Hampshire

Mount Washington Observatory staff documented the fastest wind gust ever recorded on the face of the Earth at 231 mph on April 12, 1934. The wind velocity here averages 32 mph all year long. 

&nbsp;

Barrow Island, Australia
On April 10, 1996, an unmanned weather station on Barrier Island recorded the highest recorded surface wind speed in history of 253 mph. The incredible wind was created by Cyclone Olivia, beating the world record which was previously held by Mount Washington. 

&nbsp;

Mount Everest

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2015-quake-mount-everest-shorter/">Mount Everest</a> summit wind speeds reach hurricane force in the dead of winter, with the highest known speed hitting 175 mph in February 2004. Winds over 100 mph are not uncommon here, particularly between November and February.

&nbsp;

Cape Blanco, Oregon
Winds get very extreme during winter storms in Cape Blanco, reaching 70 to 100 miles per hour. Wind speeds over Cape Blanco have been recorded up to 127 mph.

Rio Gallegos, Argentina
Rio Gallegos is considered one of the world’s windiest places with wind speeds regularly exceeding 30 mph. Wind speeds over 60 mph are also not unusual.

Ab-Paran, Ghowr, Afghanistan
In 2008, a wind speed of 204 mph was detected at Ab-Paran, Ghowr in Afghanistan.

&nbsp;

Gruissan, France

The dominant wind in Gruissan is the Tramontane, which is a very strong wind from the Northwest. Gruissan has an average of 300 days a year with winds over 18 mph.

--

By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The 10 windiest places on Earth

Most storms produce wind that can be dangerous and damaging,...

Chemists at the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> have transformed beer into fuel by converting ethanol to butanol. The scientists report that the new fuel has the potential to replace gasoline as the most widely used fuel by 2022.

“Turning beer into petrol was a bit of fun, and something to do with the leftovers of the lab Christmas party, but it has a serious point,” said study lead author Professor Duncan Wass. “Beer is actually an excellent model for the mixture of chemicals we would need to use in a real industrial process, so it shows this technology is one step closer to reality.”

Ethanol is currently being used worldwide as a fuel alternative, and gasoline in the United States is already made up of about 10 percent ethanol. However, ethanol has a low energy density as a fuel and may be corrosive to vehicle engines. 

The scientists are basing their experiments on the fact that ethanol in the form of butanol is a much better option as a renewable fuel source. 

Professor Wass explained to <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/index.html">MailOnline</a>, “One of the great benefits of using butanol as a fuel is that it can be used with current petrol cars with no or very little modification. This is a drop-in replacement for current petrol.”

  “Ethanol would be converted to butanol in a large plant very much like the current petrochemical/refining industry, and then butanol would be put in the car by the consumer,” said Wass.

After several years of work, the team successfully developed a technology to convert the ethanol found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/probiotic-beer-helps-gut/">beer</a> to butanol using a catalyst. So far, the conversion process is only capable of producing a few hundred grams of butanol from beer, but Professor Wass says that this achievement “shows it has the potential to be scaled up to make butanol as a petrol replacement on an industrial scale.”

"We wouldn’t actually want to use beer on an industrial scale and compete with potential food crops,” explained Wass. "But there are ways to obtain ethanol for fuel from fermentation that produce something that chemically is very much like beer - so beer is an excellent readily available model to test our technology."

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://pubs.rsc.org/en/journals/journal/cy">Catalysis Science &amp; Technology</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Beer can be used to create an alternative to gasoline

Chemists at the University of Bristol have transformed beer into...

New research is contradicting the long-assumed belief that humans evolved in Africa and then spread out across Asia into Australia around 60,000 years ago. There is now evidence that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-water-management/">humans</a> left Africa many times prior to this, and interbred with many ancient humans in various locations across Eurasia.

Using advances in technology such as updated DNA analysis and fossil identification techniques, researchers from the <a href="https://www.shh.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History </a>and the <a href="http://manoa.hawaii.edu/">University of Hawaii at Manoa</a> are challenging the theory of a single human dispersal out of Africa. 

The analysis, which is based upon a review of new discoveries from Asia over the past ten years, shows that Homo Sapiens reached distant parts of the Asian continent, as well as Near Oceania, much earlier than previously thought. Evidence that ancestors of modern humans interbred with other ancient people already present in Asia, such as Neanderthals and Denisovans, makes the tracking of our evolutionary history quite complicated.

The new model reveals that multiple dispersals of modern humans came out of Africa, beginning as early as 120,000 years ago.

"The initial dispersals out of Africa prior to 60,000 years ago were likely by small groups of foragers, and at least some of these early dispersals left low-level genetic traces in modern human populations,” explained study co-author Michael Petraglia. “A later, major 'Out of Africa' event most likely occurred around 60,000 years ago or thereafter.”

Recent genetic research has demonstrated that modern humans interbred with Neanderthals, the Denisovans, and also with a currently unidentified population of pre-modern hominins. These groups overlapped with modern human ancestors in Asia, with many instances of interactions, suggesting that the spread of material culture is more complex than previously realized.

"Indeed, what we are seeing in the behavioral record is that the spread of so-called modern human behaviors did not occur in a simple time-transgressive process from west to east,” said study co-author Christopher Bae. “Rather, ecological variation needs to be considered in concert with behavioral variation between the different hominin populations present in Asia during the Late Pleistocene.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Bae et al. 2017. On the origin of modern humans: Asian perspectives. Science. Image by: Katerina Douka and Michelle O'Reilly

Human dispersal out of Africa occurred over a staggered period

New research is contradicting the long-assumed belief that humans evolved...

Whether or not you’re a night owl or an early-riser, all of our bodies have an internal biological or “circadian” clock that is synchronized with solar time and cycles daily. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-life-sunrise-sunset/">circadian clock</a> is synced with environmental light-dark cycles, helping orchestrate metabolic and behavioral patterns such as daily cycles of rest and activity. Now, new research suggests that the body's biological clock may have the potential to act as a tumor suppressor.

Diseases such as cancer can disrupt our biological clock, throwing sleep cycles and daily rhythms out of whack. Researchers from the <a href="https://www.charite.de/en/">Charité-Medical University</a> of Berlin, Germany hypothesized that the circadian clock may be able to act as a tumor suppressor, given the amount of molecular time-dependent processes that it regulates. These processes include metabolism, DNA repair, and the cell cycle. This is important because a significant number of cancers involve a dysfunctional or hyperactive cell cycle, enabling tumor cells to grow uncontrollably.

The researchers disrupted a protein called RAS – which is activated in roughly a quarter of human tumors – and proteins INK4A and ARF – which are cancer suppressors – and found that there was cross-talk between the circadian clock and the cell cycle. RAS is known to control the cell cycle as well as the circadian rhythms, and enacts this control through INK4A and ARG.

“Based on our results, it seems to us that the clock is likely to act as a tumor suppressor, and that it is of advantage for cancer cells to circumvent circadian control,” says Dr. Angela Relógio. “One cannot stop wondering whether disrupted circadian timing should be included as a next potential hallmark of cancer.”

These findings from Relógio (whose surname ironically means “clock” in Portuguese) and her colleagues have revealed the importance of internal time in cancer treatment. Further research may lead to us enhancing cancer treatment through implementation of an “internal time factor” that takes into account a patient’s sleep-wake cycle.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Could the body’s biological clock help fight off cancer?

Whether or not you’re a night owl or an early-riser,...

An unprecedented study has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-fall-love/">humans</a> have biological limitations, and that human-caused environmental changes may play a role in preventing these limits from being reached. The analysis suggests that humans have likely arrived at their maximum limits for height, physical performance, and lifespan. 

For the investigation, an interdisciplinary team of experts from across France have accounted for 120 years worth of data while considering the effects of both genetic and environmental circumstances. The findings of the study indicate that humans are now the tallest they can become, have the longest life expectancies, and the most physical abilities they will ever have.  

"These traits no longer increase, despite further continuous nutritional, medical, and scientific progress,” explained Professor Jean-François Toussaint from<a href="https://www.univ-paris5.fr/eng"> Paris Descartes University</a>. “This suggests that modern societies have allowed our species to reach its limits. We are the first generation to become aware of this.”

The researchers found that there will be notable a shift in the proportion of the global population who reach the previously recorded maximum limits. From here on out, less athletic records will be broken and people will meet - yet not exceed - today’s highest life expectancy.

When the researchers considered how both environmental and genetic limitations combined may affect the ability for us to reach our upper limits, human-caused environmental changes were identified as a key contributor.

"This will be one of the biggest challenges of this century as the added pressure from anthropogenic activities will be responsible for damaging effects on human health and the environment,” said Professor Toussaint. "The current declines in human capacities we can see today are a sign that environmental changes, including climate, are already contributing to the increasing constraints we now have to consider."

"Observing decreasing tendencies may provide an early signal that something has changed but not for the better,” he explained. “Human height has decreased in the last decade in some African countries; this suggests some societies are no longer able to provide sufficient nutrition for each of their children and maintain the health of their younger inhabitants.”

The researchers hope the findings of this study may have some positive consequences by encouraging policymakers to focus on strategies that could improve quality of life and maximize the number of people who reach their biological potential.

"Now that we know the limits of the human species, this can act as a clear goal for nations to ensure that human capacities reach their highest possible values for most of the population,” said Professor Toussaint. “With escalating environmental constraints, this may cost increasingly more energy and investment in order to balance the rising ecosystem pressures. However, if successful, we then should observe an incremental rise in mean values of height, lifespan and most human biomarkers." 

The research is published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2017.00812/full">Frontiers in Physiology</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Have humans peaked when it comes to life span?

An unprecedented study has found that humans have biological limitations,...

A new species of marsupial lion that has been extinct for 19 million years was recently discovered in a remote part of Queensland, Australia. 

The discovery was made by scientists from the <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/">University of New South Wales </a>who were excavating in the <a href="https://www.npsr.qld.gov.au/parks/boodjamulla-riversleigh/about.html">Riversleigh World Heritage Area</a>.

The researchers found fossilized remains including part of the animal's skull, teeth, and upper arm bone. After analyzing the fossil pieces, the researchers concluded that it was a newly discovered species that lived 18 to 26 million years ago during the Oligocene and Miocene epochs.

The new species was named Wakaleo schouteni and would have been comparable to a dog in size and have hunted in Australia’s ancient rainforests. 

The findings were featured in the Journal of Systematic Paleontology.

According to the <a href="http://whc.unesco.org/">UNESCO World Heritage Organization</a>, Riversleigh is one of the world's top ten richest fossils sites.

This discovery follows another new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marsupial-relative-powerful-bite/">marsupial lion</a> that was uncovered in the same site a year prior named Microleo attenboroughi. 

Wakaleo schouteni is now thought to be one of two marsupial lion species that lived during the late Oligocene epoch, the other species being Wakaleo pitikantensis, first discovered in South Australia in 1961.

The two species are extremely similar and are most likely the earliest members of their genus, according to the researchers. 

“The identification of these new species have brought to light a level of marsupial lion diversity that was quite unexpected and suggests even deeper origins for the family,” said Gillespie. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Illustration by Peter Schouten in the Journal of Systematic Palaeontology

Extinct species of marsupial lion found in Australia

A new species of marsupial lion that has been extinct...

A new study from the <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/">Carnegie Institution For Science</a> has found that climate models that project more severe warming are the most accurate according to observation of the current climate conditions. The research suggests that climate models used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change are underestimating future warming.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-ice-storms/">Climate</a> model simulations are used to forecast future warming for any given increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

"There are dozens of prominent global climate models and they all project different amounts of global warming for a given change in greenhouse gas concentrations, primarily because there is not a consensus on how to best model some key aspects of the climate system," explained study co-author Patrick Brown.

Climate models based on current emissions indicate that global temperatures will rise between 3.2 to 5.9 degrees Celsius over preindustrial levels by the end of the century.

The researchers set out to determine whether the upper or lower end of this temperature range is more likely to happen. The team started out their investigation based on the idea that climate models are the most useful when they precisely represent conditions of the recent past. 

The experts compared model simulations and observations of patterns of energy flow from Earth to space. The study revealed that the models that best represent recent  energy exchanges between the planet and its surroundings project warming that is greater than average. 

The findings of the study eliminated the lower end of the temperature range forecast by raw climate models. The results indicated that future average global warming will most likely be 0.5 degrees Celsius greater than what has been projected.

"Our results suggest that it doesn't make sense to dismiss the most-severe global warming projections based on the fact that climate models are imperfect in their simulation of the current climate," said Brown. "On the contrary, if anything, we are showing that model shortcomings can be used to dismiss the least-severe projections."

The uncertainty in predicting future warming is mostly due to discrepancies in the ways that models simulate changes in clouds. The cooling effect caused by clouds as they reflect the sun’s energy away from the planet is shown by some models to increase and by other models to decrease.

"The models that are best able to recreate current conditions are the ones that simulate a reduction in cloud cooling in the future and thus these are the models that predict the greatest future warming," said Brown.

"It makes sense that the models that do the best job at simulating today's observations might be the models with the most reliable predictions," added study co-author Ken Caldeira. "Our study indicates that if emissions follow a commonly used business-as-usual scenario, there is a 93 percent chance that global warming will exceed 4 degrees Celsius by the end of this century. Previous studies had put this likelihood at 62 percent."

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nature/">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The more severe climate models are likely the most accurate

A new study from the Carnegie Institution For Science has...

Have you ever tried to change course midstream and found yourself unable to? For instance, say you notice a traffic light change yellow and decide to accelerate through, but then you see a police car, but you still speed through anyway because you weren’t quick enough to stop.

There’s a reason we can’t just instantly switch actions or stop a movement that we’ve already started, and neuroscientists from<a href="https://www.jhu.edu/"> John Hopkins University</a> have uncovered why.

Their new study, which was published in the journal Neuron, shows the inner workings of the brain as it sends and receives signals. 

The researchers found that a lightning fast interaction between three different parts of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-processes-internal-experiences/">brain</a> is necessary to change or stop an action or behavior in process. 

Timing also played a major role in changing an action midstream, and the earlier you decide to change course, the better, according to the study.

“We have to process all of these pieces of information quickly,” said Susan Courtney, the senior author. “The question is: When we do succeed, how do we do that? What needs to happen in order for us to stop in time?”

It only takes a matter of milliseconds to go through with an action, and the research shows that if you can change your mind after 100 milliseconds or less, you can change or stop the plan.

The results could help with addiction treatments and understanding why people fall more as they get older.

For the study, the researchers had human and monkey subjects partake in an activity while their brains were monitored with MRI scanners. 

The activity involved shapes on a screen that were either blue, which meant stop or yellow which meant go. Another set of shapes used the same colors but they had the opposite meanings. The subjects followed the shapes and had to change directions or stop their already planned eye movements.

The MRI scans allowed the researchers to see how the brain processed information and quick changes while the subjects followed the shapes on the screen. 

Electrodes were implanted in the monkey subjects brain which gave the researchers a closer look at how different areas of the brain communicate with each other to stop. 

After monitoring the brain activity and analyzing the results, the researchers found that when the different parts of the prefrontal and pre-motor cortex didn’t communicate correctly or interact quickly enough, then the participants couldn’t change or stop a planned action or behavior.

Because cognitive functioning deteriorates  as we age, slower communication between these areas of the brain could explain why elderly people are prone to falling.

“We know people with damage to these parts of the brain have trouble changing plans or inhibiting actions,” Courtney said. “We know as we age, our brain slows down and it takes us longer to find words or to try to make these split-second plan changes. It could be part of the reason why old people fall.” 

The results could also better explain addiction behaviors and help people understand that the quicker you can “turn off” a thought about an addictive behavior like drinking, says Courtney, the more likely you will succeed in not following through on it. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Why we can’t always stop a course of action once we’ve started

Have you ever tried to change course midstream and found...

Cancer becomes an ever increasing risk as we age, and the association of old age with many cancer types has been well established. But scientists have also noticed that cancer incidence is increasing globally, and certain geographical populations seem to be at higher risk than others. Populations living in very low temperatures, such as Denmark and Norway, have some of the highest incidences of cancer in the world.

A recent paper published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mbe">Molecular Biology and Evolution</a> has proposed a new hypothesis for this phenomenon: there is an evolutionary relationship between adaptation at extreme environmental conditions and increased cancer risk. 

“The findings of this study provide evidence that genetic variants found to be beneficial in extreme environments, can also predispose for cancer,” says Kostantinos Voskarides of the <a href="https://www.ucy.ac.cy/medical/en/">University of Cyprus Medical School</a>.

In his research, Voskarides focused on the effect of low temperatures at either high altitudes or in Arctic/Scandinavian climates. He used the GLOBOCAN-2012 database – the most accurate and reliable datasource for worldwide cancer incidence – and analyzed genetic clues in 247 different cancer genome-wide association studies. Voskarides also looked through the available literature’s bibliographic cancer incidence and genetic data for human populations in extreme cold and at very high altitudes.

The results showed a clear pattern, with the highest incidence of certain cancers linked to populations living in the coldest environments. 

“These data show that these populations exhibit extremely high cancer incidence, especially for lung, breast and colorectal cancer,” explained Voskarides.

Genetic evidence also showed that genes that are under selection to populations in order to survive in extreme conditions are also predisposed for cancer. The highest cancer associations with genes under selection were found to be colorectal cancer for Native Americans and Siberian Eskimos, esophageal cancer and lung cancer for Siberain Eskimos, leukemia for Oromi (a high-altitude population in Ethiopia) and a number of cancers for high-altitude dwelling Andeans-Tibetans.

“Evidence was found that cancer rates have been increased in those populations through natural selection procedures,” says Voskarides. “This is the first study that provides evidence that high cancer risk may be a result of evolutionary adaptation in certain environmental conditions.”

The ultimate conclusion of this study was that populations that are isolated in extreme environments also face extreme <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cancer-cases-modifiable-risk-factors/">cancer</a> risk. Further research will help better understand the key adaptive forces that may be behind cancer epidemiology.

[caption id="attachment_967257" align="aligncenter" width="279"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/cold-temperatures.jpg"><img class="size-medium wp-image-967257" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/cold-temperatures-279x300.jpg" alt="" width="279" height="300" /></a> Image Credit: Konstantinos Voskarides, University of Cyprus Medical School[/caption]

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By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Extremely cold environments may increase risk of cancer

Cancer becomes an ever increasing risk as we age, and...

Researchers at the <a href="http://www.cdb.riken.jp/en/">RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology</a> (CDB) set out to determine how the brain distinguishes between breathing in air and sniffing. The team also set out to solve the mystery of how sniffing helps to identify odors. 

Each compound in a scent activates certain neurons in the nose, which meet in the olfactory bulb of the brain on structures called glomeruli. For example, the smell of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chocolate-red-wine-wrinkles/">chocolate</a> will activate "chocolate" glomeruli. 

Neurons in the nose also respond when air is inhaled, but the activation is not as specific. Therefore, sniffing activates both "chocolate" and "non-chocolate" glomeruli. 

But how can the brain tell whether signals received from the glomeruli contain air-flow information or odor information? The study revealed that the answer lies in the timing.

"Surprisingly, we found that temporal firing patterns of neurons can distinguish between airflow-driven mechanical signals and those generated by odors,” explained lead author Takeshi Imai. “Not only that, we discovered that the mechanosensation actually improves olfaction by acting as a pacemaker for temporal patterning."

The team created a system to artificially control rhythmic sniffing in mice. In the first phase of the experiment, they presented deodorized air to the mice and recorded activity from neurons in the glomeruli. 

This showed that a large number of glomeruli were activated by airflow, and that the activity spiked and fell  in cycles that matched the rate of the artificial sniffing. But, despite the fact that the rate was the same, the glomeruli were not in sync with each other. While one glomerulus could be the most active 200 milliseconds into a sniff, another could be be most active 230 milliseconds after the sniff. 

Next, the team examined how increasing airflow and odor stimulation affected the phase of activity in the glomeruli. They found that increasing the airflow speed increased the amount of glomeruli activity, but did not significantly change their timing. On the other hand, when the mice were exposed to odors, the timing of glomeruli activity shifted significantly within the sniff cycle. 

Additional testing revealed that the phases altered the same amount no matter what the concentration level of the odor. This discovery establishes that odor and airflow neural stimulation can be distinguished by looking at the phase of activity in the glomeruli.

"Phase-coding is not unique to the olfactory system,” said Imai. "Although it has also been found in the hippocampus in relation to memory formation, we still do not know much about it. Hopefully, our finding will facilitate a better understanding of how neurons communicate with each other and how meaning can be derived from their signals."

"Our next step is to understand how the precise temporal patterns are generated in the olfactory bulb, and why they are affected by odors but not mechanically originating signals."

The research is published in the journal <a href="http://www.cell.com/neuron/home">Neuron</a>.

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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How the brain tells the difference between breathing and sniffing

Researchers at the RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology (CDB) set...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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