<p>Think about sipping a sugar-free drink that still tastes sweet. Many of us have puzzled over this illusion. Now scientists at Karolinska Institutet in Sweden reveal how our brains transform smell into taste.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em>Nature Communications</em>, shows that the brain encodes certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-dna-may-explain-why-you-love-or-hate-certain-smells/">aromas</a> as if they were flavors themselves.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-flavor-and-smell-form">How flavor and smell form</h2>



<p>Flavor is more than taste. It comes from a combination of gustatory signals and retronasal odors, those aromas drifting from the mouth to the nose. </p>



<p>The insula, known as the taste cortex, was found to integrate these signals earlier than expected. This means the brain does not wait for higher regions to combine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-your-brain-decides-what-smells-good-or-bad/">taste</a> and smell but merges them immediately into one experience.</p>



<p>Study lead author Putu Agus Khorisantono is a researcher in the Department of Clinical Neuroscience at <a href="https://ki.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Karolinska Institutet</a>. </p>



<p>“We saw that the taste cortex reacts to taste-associated aromas as if they were real tastes,” explained Khorisantono. "The finding provides a possible explanation for why we sometimes experience taste from smell alone, for example in flavored waters." </p>



<p>"This underscores how strongly odors and tastes work together to make food pleasurable, potentially inducing craving and encouraging overeating of certain foods.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-brain-links-flavor-and-smell">How the brain links flavor and smell</h2>



<p>The researchers tested 25 adults. First, participants learned to identify sweet and savory flavors through combinations of taste and smell. </p>



<p>Later, inside a scanner, they received either tasteless odors or odorless tastes. Algorithms trained on brain responses to actual tastes were then tested on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radio-waves-can-boost-our-sense-of-smell-without-contact/">odors</a> alone. The surprising outcome was that odours mimicked the brain’s taste responses.</p>



<p>The study revealed that sweet or savory odors activated the same neural patterns as the corresponding tastes.</p>



<p>This overlap was strongest in the ventral anterior insula, a region connected to olfactory areas. Importantly, the researchers ruled out simple pleasure ratings as the cause. Instead, the brain genuinely encoded odors in a way that matched taste perception.</p>



<p>“This shows that the brain does not process taste and smell separately, but rather creates a joint representation of the flavor experience in the taste cortex,” said senior researcher Janina Seubert. </p>



<p>“This mechanism may be relevant for how our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-sense-of-smell-and-different-odors-can-influence-how-we-see-colors/">taste</a> preferences and eating habits are formed and influenced.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-flavor-and-smell-matter">Why flavor and smell matter</h2>



<p>The findings highlight the insula as a hub for flavor integration. They also reveal that taste representations can drift over time. Neural patterns of taste identity were less stable across days, echoing results seen in rodent studies. </p>



<p>This suggests that our flavor experiences are dynamic, adapting with exposure, context, and internal states such as hunger, mood, or attention. </p>



<p>A flavor that feels vivid and distinct one day may blur or even shift the next, depending on what the brain has recently learned or anticipated.</p>



<p>This fluid quality points to a system designed not for rigid coding but for flexibility, helping us adjust to changing diets, environments, and cultural influences on taste.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flavor-identity-and-reward-value">Flavor identity and reward value</h2>



<p>The study also observed cross-modal decoding in other regions, such as the orbitofrontal cortex, which is known to encode the value of food. </p>



<p>The researchers propose that the insula forms a shared flavor identity, while the orbitofrontal cortex evaluates its reward value. This dual process could explain why certain odors make foods irresistible and shape long-term eating habits.</p>



<p>The team now wants to test external smells, or orthonasal odors. These are the scents we encounter before eating, like walking past bread or pastries.</p>



<p>“We want to find out whether the activation pattern in the brain’s taste cortex changes from salty to sweet when we walk from the cheese aisle to the pastries in the supermarket,” said Khorisantono. “If so, this could have a significant impact on the foods we choose to consume.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-flavor-and-smell-affect-health">How flavor and smell affect health</h2>



<p>This research reframes flavor as a deeply integrated brain process. Smell and taste are not separate streams but overlapping codes that can trick the brain into tasting without tasting.</p>



<p>Beyond solving everyday mysteries like sweet-tasting flavored water, the work raises questions about cravings, overeating, and how our diets are shaped by environments filled with powerful aromas. </p>



<p>The research also suggests that everyday exposure to food-related smells in supermarkets, restaurants, offices, and even advertising spaces may influence us more than we realize.</p>



<p>These aromas may prime the brain to expect certain tastes, creating a loop where scent alone can nudge us toward food choices we might not otherwise make. </p>



<p>Over time, this subtle influence could shape eating habits, nutritional patterns, and even health outcomes, revealing how deeply our sensory world directs behavior long before conscious decisions take place.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-63803-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

How smell tricks the brain into tasting flavors

Think about sipping a sugar-free drink that still tastes sweet. Many of us have puzzled over this illusion. Now scientists at Karolinska Institutet in Sweden reveal how our brains transform smell into taste. The research, published in Nature Communications, shows that the brain encodes certain aromas as if they were flavors themselves. How flavor and smell form Flavor is more than taste. It comes from a combination of gustatory signals and retronasal odors, those aromas drifting from the mouth to the nose. The insula, known as the...

<p>Data from the European Space Agency’s Swarm mission has revealed a fascinating discovery. Researchers have found that faint magnetic signals created by ocean tides can help map magma distribution beneath the seabed.</p>



<p>These signals could also provide insights into long-term changes in global ocean temperatures and salinity.</p>



<p>Swarm’s ability to detect these subtle magnetic variations is a significant step forward in geophysical research. By studying these weak signals, scientists can better understand the complex interactions between Earth’s magnetic field, ocean currents, and even volcanic activity beneath the sea.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-swarm-s-unique-capabilities">Swarm’s unique capabilities</h2>



<p>Swarm is a constellation of three satellites that orbit the Earth between 462 km (287 miles) and 511 km (318 miles) above the surface. </p>



<p>Launched in 2013, these satellites were designed to study Earth’s geomagnetic field with unprecedented accuracy.</p>



<p>Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-has-a-dent-and-nasa-is-watching-closely/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic field</a> extends into space and acts as a protective shield against solar radiation. The primary source of this field is believed to be the movement of liquid iron in the outer core. </p>



<p>However, other factors contribute to the planet’s overall magnetism, including magnetized rocks in the crust.</p>



<p>While the oceans are not typically considered a source of magnetism, salty seawater is a moderate conductor of electricity. </p>



<p>As ocean tides move across Earth’s magnetic field, they generate weak electric currents, which, in turn, produce faint magnetic signals.</p>



<p>These signals are extremely weak compared to those generated by the planet’s core, but Swarm’s highly sensitive instruments can detect them from space.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-s-hidden-magnetic-signature">Ocean’s hidden magnetic signature</h2>



<p>Swarm’s advanced sensors, including state-of-the-art magnetometers, can distinguish the faint tidal magnetic signals from other, stronger sources. This ability allows researchers to study the entire water column of the ocean in ways never before possible.</p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
<p>“This study shows that Swarm can provide data on properties of the entire water column of our oceans,” noted Anja Strømme, ESA’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/FutureEO/Swarm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swarm Mission</a> Manager.</p>
</blockquote>



<p>This capability is a game-changer for oceanography and climate science. By analyzing these magnetic signatures, scientists can gain new insights into ocean dynamics, including variations in temperature and salinity over time. </p>



<p>These factors play a crucial role in understanding climate change and predicting future environmental shifts.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distribution-of-magma-beneath-the-ocean">Distribution of magma beneath the ocean</h2>



<p>Beyond its contributions to ocean science, Swarm is also helping researchers study the distribution of magma beneath the ocean floor. This information is essential for understanding volcanic activity, particularly in seismically active regions.</p>



<p>One of the most significant volcanic events in recent history, the 2022 Hunga-Tonga eruption, demonstrated the destructive power of underwater volcanoes. </p>



<p>Understanding how magma moves and accumulates beneath the seabed could improve early warning systems for such eruptions in the future.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-swarm-s-unexpected-longevity">Swarm’s unexpected longevity</h2>



<p>Swarm was originally designed as a four-year mission, yet it has been operational for over a decade. The extended mission duration has provided scientists with the opportunity to explore new research questions that were not initially considered.</p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
<p>“This is one of the benefits of flying missions for longer than originally planned. So, by flying as long as the scientific output is of excellent quality and resources allow, you can tackle scientific questions that weren’t originally envisaged,” said Anja Strømme.</p>
</blockquote>



<p>As the satellites gradually descend due to atmospheric drag, they are now positioned to capture even weaker magnetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/origin-of-the-suns-magnetic-field-discovered-after-400-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">signals</a> from the ocean that were previously beyond the reach of their instruments.</p>



<p>This unintended benefit has opened new avenues of research, allowing Swarm to contribute even more valuable data in its later years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-activity-and-faint-signals">Solar activity and faint signals</h2>



<p>One of the key factors that allowed Swarm to detect these weak oceanic magnetic signatures was the Sun’s period of low activity around 2017. </p>



<p>During this time, known as a solar minimum, there was less interference from space weather, allowing the satellites to collect cleaner data.</p>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
<p>“These are among the smallest signals detected by the Swarm mission so far,” explained study lead author Alexander Grayver from the <a href="https://portal.uni-koeln.de/es/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cologne</a>.</p>
</blockquote>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
<p>“The data are particularly good because they were gathered during a period of solar minimum, when there was less noise due to space weather.”</p>
</blockquote>



<p>The solar minimum is a phase in the Sun’s 11-year cycle when its surface activity is at its lowest. During this time, the Sun emits fewer charged particles and less electromagnetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetism-at-earths-core-simulations-offer-breakthrough-insights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radiation</a>. </p>



<p>This reduction in solar interference makes it easier for Swarm’s instruments to detect weak geomagnetic signals that would otherwise be obscured.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-studies-of-subtle-magnetic-signals">Future studies of subtle magnetic signals </h2>



<p>Scientists are hopeful that Swarm will continue to operate beyond 2030, despite its gradual descent. If the mission remains active during the next solar minimum, it will have another opportunity to detect these subtle magnetic signals with even greater clarity.</p>



<p>With each new discovery, Swarm reinforces the value of long-term space missions. What began as a project to study Earth’s magnetism has evolved into a powerful tool for understanding the planet’s oceans, climate, and even volcanic activity.</p>



<p>As Swarm continues its journey, its data will remain a critical resource for researchers seeking to unravel the hidden forces shaping our planet. </p>



<p>Whether through tracking ocean currents, mapping magma flows, or detecting the smallest fluctuations in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetic-north-pole-is-moving-faster-than-ever-as-it-races-toward-russia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s magnetic field</a>, Swarm is proving that even the faintest signals can reveal profound scientific insights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsta.2024.0078" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A</a></em>.</p>



<p>Image Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Satellites detect hidden magnetic signals in Earth's oceans

Data from the European Space Agency’s Swarm mission has revealed...

<p>Imagine a future where one of the biggest pollutants of our environment, the production of ammonia, is no longer a headache. Instead, the Earth itself could become a productive partner in generating this chemical. All it takes is the use of Earth's natural forces and heat.</p>



<p>In an unexpected twist of events, a scientific breakthrough at the globally renowned Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>), points in this very direction.</p>



<p>The ground-breaking study was motivated by a mysterious natural phenomenon observed in Mali, West Africa, in the 1980s.</p>



<p>Locals came across a well that was gushing with hydrogen gas, an oddity that scientists attributed to a water-rock chemical reaction beneath Earth's surface.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-green-shift-in-the-fertilizer-industry">Green shift in the fertilizer industry</h2>



<p>“It was an ‘aha’ moment,” shared senior author Iwnetim Abate of MIT. "We may be able to use Earth as a factory, harnessing its heat and pressure to produce valuable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decline-in-ozone-depleting-chemicals-is-an-encouraging-trend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemicals</a> like ammonia in a cleaner manner."</p>



<p>Ammonia's importance cannot be overstated. It is a key ingredient in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-emissions-from-fertilizers-could-be-cut-by-80-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilizers</a> and potentially a clean fuel source. However, its current production methods are far from energy-efficient or green. </p>



<p>Today's industrial ammonia production is a significant consumer of global energy and a major emitter of CO<sub>2</sub>. In fact, for every ton of ammonia produced, there's a release of around 2.4 tons of CO<sub>2</sub>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traditional-ammonia-production">Traditional ammonia production</h2>



<p>For over a century, the production of ammonia has been dominated by the Haber-Bosch process, an energy-intensive method that relies heavily on the use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-from-fossil-fuels-kills-5-million-people-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuels</a>.</p>



<p>This conventional approach operates at high temperatures and pressures, consumes vast amounts of natural gas and contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions.</p>



<p>Despite its efficiency in meeting global fertilizer demands, the process is far from sustainable. </p>



<p>As industries face mounting pressure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-changes-in-diet-can-greatly-reduce-your-carbon-footprint/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reduce their carbon footprints</a>, the search for greener alternatives has intensified. </p>



<p>Scientists and engineers are now exploring innovative methods that utilize Earth's natural processes to revolutionize ammonia production, offering a path toward cleaner, more efficient solutions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-the-solution-under-our-feet">Finding the solution under our feet</h2>



<p>With sustainability in their sights, the research team at MIT set out to test this idea of an "Earth factory." They constructed an environment that replicated the conditions beneath Earth's surface.</p>



<p>Iron-rich minerals were exposed to nitrogen-laced water, which ignited a chemical reaction that transformed the rock and gave rise to what they termed "geological ammonia."</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/ammonia-fertilizer_new-green-process_illustration_MIT_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/ammonia-fertilizer_new-green-process_illustration_MIT_1s.webp" alt="Researchers cooked up a new recipe—without any energy input or CO2 emission—for generating ammonia, a key chemical for the agriculture industry, by mixing nitrogen-laced water with iron-rich rocks. Credit: Yifan Gao and Iwnetim Abate" class="wp-image-1957605"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Researchers cooked up a new recipe - without any energy input or CO2 emission - for generating ammonia, a key chemical for the agriculture industry, by mixing nitrogen-laced water with iron-rich rocks. Credit: Yifan Gao and Iwnetim Abate</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>Remarkably, the process didn't require any additional energy input, and there were no CO<sub>2</sub> emissions. To top it all, the entire process even took place under ambient conditions!</p>



<p>To replicate real-world conditions, the team replaced synthetic mineral with olivine, a naturally iron-laden rock. They optimized the process further by introducing a copper catalyst and elevating the heat to 300°C.</p>



<p>In just 21 hours, they managed to produce about 1.8 kg of ammonia per ton of olivine, demonstrating the method's feasibility and sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-green-ammonia-production-matter">Why does green ammonia production matter?</h2>



<p>"These rocks are all over the world, so the method could be adapted very widely across the globe," enthused Abate.</p>



<p>However, he acknowledged that implementation would come with its own set of challenges, including drilling into iron-rich rocks deep within the Earth and dealing with the complexities of the rocks' interactions with gases and liquids.</p>



<p>On the economic front, geological ammonia production is encouraging. The cost is around $0.55 per kilogram, roughly equivalent to the price of conventional methods. </p>



<p>But the game-changer is the potential to address environmental crises like CO<sub>2</sub> production and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/staggering-amount-of-wastewater-impacts-coastal-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wastewater pollution</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-life-and-ammonia">Nature, life, and ammonia</h2>



<p>Yifan Gao of MIT, the first author of the study, postulated a win-win strategy. </p>



<p>"Nitrogen sources are considered as pollution in wastewater, and removing them costs money and energy," he explained.</p>



<p>The team suggested turning this problem on its head by using wastewater to produce ammonia. This perspective could potentially add an additional profit of $3.82 per kilogram of ammonia formed.</p>



<p>"Ammonia is pretty important for life. The only other natural way that ammonia is produced on Earth is when lightning strikes nitrogen gas," commented senior author Ju Li.</p>



<p>"That’s why the geological production of ammonia is quite interesting when you think about where life came from,” Li concluded.</p>



<p>This initiative by the scientists at MIT highlights the innovative solutions that can arise when we look towards nature for inspiration.</p>



<p>With every small step, we move closer to a future where sustainable chemical production is not just a dream but a reality.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2542435124005415" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Joule</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

New green tech produces ammonia fertilizer using Earth's natural forces

Imagine a future where one of the biggest pollutants of...

<p>The battle against brain aging has a surprising new player: the X chromosome we inherit from our mothers. Recent research reveals that this genetic hand-me-down could influence how quickly our brains age, particularly in women. </p>



<p>While we've long known that women have two X chromosomes compared to men's single X, it turns out that which parent those X chromosomes come from might matter more than we thought.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-x-chromosome-in-brain-function">X chromosome in brain function</h2>



<p>The X chromosome has long been linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-reveals-the-secret-to-keeping-your-brain-young/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>. Many intellectual disabilities stem from mutations in genes located on the X chromosome. </p>



<p>Women with Turner syndrome, a condition where only one X chromosome is present instead of two, often experience cognitive impairments. Scientists have suspected that the X chromosome plays a role in memory, learning, and susceptibility to neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s.</p>



<p>Dr. Samira Abdulai-Saiku, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCSF</a> and first author of the study, emphasized the significance of these findings.</p>



<p>“Given the fact that the X chromosome is enriched for brain-related genes, it became very important for us to know what roles it might be playing in brain aging,” she said.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-x-chromosome-matter">Why does X chromosome matter?</h2>



<p>In females, every cell requires only one active X chromosome. To maintain balance, the body randomly inactivates one X chromosome in each cell. </p>



<p>Some cells use the maternal X chromosome, while others rely on the paternal X chromosome. This mosaic pattern of gene expression creates a unique genetic environment in women.</p>



<p>However, the process of X inactivation is not always perfectly balanced. Some women, purely by chance, may have more cells that activate the maternal X chromosome than the paternal one. This variation, known as X chromosome skewing, has been largely overlooked in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-25-years-of-research-revealed-about-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain aging</a> research - until now.</p>



<p>“Skewing of the X chromosome is common among humans, and there are certainly women who are walking around with much higher or lower levels of maternal X chromosomes than others, just by chance,” said Dr. Dena Dubal, senior author of the study and professor of neurology at UCSF.</p>



<p>“There has been little research on the potential consequences of this.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maternal-x-chromosome-accelerates-brain-aging">Maternal X chromosome accelerates brain aging</h2>



<p>To understand the effects of X chromosome activation, the UCSF research team bred female mice in a way that ensured some had only an active maternal X chromosome, while others retained a mix of maternal and paternal X chromosomes. </p>



<p>The results revealed that female mice with only a maternal X chromosome suffered from worse memory and learning abilities as they aged.</p>



<p>Further investigation showed that the hippocampus - a brain region essential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-sleep-habits-may-age-the-brain-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory and learning</a> - aged more rapidly in mice with only an active maternal X chromosome.</p>



<p>The researchers observed significant differences in gene expression, with certain genes on the maternal X chromosome being completely silenced, while they remained active on the paternal X chromosome.</p>



<p>“What we showed is that these animals’ brains were really aging faster than the brains of their genetically identical sisters who had both mom’s and dad’s X chromosomes turned on,” Dubal explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reactivating-the-silenced-genes">Reactivating the silenced genes</h2>



<p>To further explore the effects of X chromosome expression, the researchers turned to CRISPR gene-editing technology. By reactivating the silenced genes on the maternal X chromosome in older female mice, they were able to improve cognitive function. </p>



<p>The mice that underwent this genetic intervention demonstrated enhanced learning and memory, suggesting that reversing gene silencing could be a potential strategy for slowing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hobbies-keep-the-brain-sharp-and-slow-cognitive-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain aging</a>.</p>



<p>Abdulai-Saiku highlighted the importance of this discovery. “Together, all these experiments suggested to us that the parental origin of an X chromosome can have a big impact on brain health,” she said.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-evolutionary-tradeoff">An evolutionary tradeoff?</h2>



<p>The study was not designed to determine why the maternal X chromosome accelerates brain aging compared to the paternal X chromosome. </p>



<p>However, Dubal proposed a possible evolutionary explanation. “It may be that this gene expression pattern is actually really beneficial to brain development, but then there is this tradeoff later in life,” she said.</p>



<p>This hypothesis raises important questions about the genetic mechanisms underlying aging and neurodegeneration. </p>



<p>If certain genes promote brain growth and function during youth but accelerate decline with age, understanding these tradeoffs could lead to interventions that extend cognitive health into old age.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dubal and her team plan to continue their investigation into the role of the X chromosome in brain aging. Their findings could help explain why some people are more prone to cognitive decline than others and may offer new strategies for preventing diseases like Alzheimer’s.</p>



<p>“The X chromosome you inherited from your mom is turning off genes, accelerating aging, and impairing cognition,” Dubal said. “Can we reverse this?”</p>



<p>The potential for reversing age-related cognitive decline by modifying gene expression is an exciting avenue for future research. If scientists can identify ways to balance X chromosome expression, it may open doors to new therapies for brain aging in both men and women.</p>



<p>This remarkable research not only deepens our understanding of the genetic factors influencing brain aging but also offers hope for innovative approaches to maintaining cognitive health across the lifespan.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08457-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Genes inherited from our mothers make our brains age faster

The battle against brain aging has a surprising new player:...

<p>On a crisp autumn night, far from city lights, you can witness one of the most awe-inspiring sights in the sky - the Andromeda Galaxy.</p>



<p>Just northeast of the Great Square of Pegasus, this celestial wonder appears as a faint, elongated smudge, easily visible to the naked eye. </p>



<p>Despite its dim glow, this galaxy is the largest and closest spiral galaxy to the Milky Way, spanning an astonishing 220,000 light-years across.</p>



<p>The light reaching your eyes tonight&nbsp;left Andromeda 2.5 million years ago. At that time, early human ancestors,&nbsp;<em>Homo habilis</em>, had just begun making stone tools on Earth.</p>



<p>That means when you look at Andromeda, you are gazing into the distant past - at a galaxy whose light began its journey long before modern humans even existed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-edwin-hubble-and-the-andromeda-galaxy">Edwin Hubble and the Andromeda Galaxy </h2>



<p>For centuries, astronomers debated the nature of Andromeda. Was it merely a nearby&nbsp;"spiral nebula," a swirling cloud of gas and dust within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-galaxy-shows-us-what-the-early-milky-way-looked-like/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>? Or was it something more? The answer arrived in the early&nbsp;20th century, thanks to the work of&nbsp;Edwin Hubble.</p>



<p>Using the&nbsp;Hooker Telescope&nbsp;at <a href="https://www.mtwilson.edu/100-telescope-observing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mount Wilson Observatory</a>, Hubble identified&nbsp;Cepheid variable stars&nbsp;in Andromeda - special stars whose brightness fluctuates predictably, allowing astronomers to calculate their distance.</p>



<p>Hubble’s calculations revealed something astonishing:&nbsp;Andromeda was far beyond the Milky Way, proving it was a separate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiral-galaxy-with-quasar-jet-surprises-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a> altogether. This revelation shattered the belief that the Milky Way encompassed the entire universe.</p>



<p>In the years that followed, our understanding of the cosmos expanded from a single galaxy to a vast universe teeming with billions of them.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hubble-space-telescope-and-andromeda">Hubble Space Telescope and Andromeda</h2>



<p>A century after Edwin Hubble’s remarkable discovery, the space telescope bearing his name set out to photograph Andromeda in&nbsp;unprecedented detail. </p>



<p>The&nbsp;Hubble Space Telescope (<a href="https://hubblesite.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HST</a>), one of the most powerful astronomical tools ever built, spent over&nbsp;a decade capturing a high-resolution photomosaic of the Andromeda Galaxy.</p>



<p>This monumental survey required&nbsp;over 600 individual exposures, resulting in a final image containing&nbsp;2.5 billion pixels. The mosaic spans the full width of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a>, covering an area&nbsp;six times larger than the full Moon&nbsp;in the night sky. </p>



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="FTThfGq0yb-4239179-12187" type="single"]</div>



<p>Because Hubble is designed for pinpoint accuracy rather than wide-field imaging, assembling a complete portrait of Andromeda was an immense challenge.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-millions-of-stars">Mapping millions of stars</h2>



<p>The first phase of this project, known as the Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury (PHAT), focused on Andromeda’s northern half. </p>



<p>Using Hubble’s Advanced Camera for Surveys and Wide Field Camera 3, astronomers captured Andromeda’s stars at ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared wavelengths.</p>



<p>A decade later, this work was expanded with the&nbsp;Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Southern Treasury (PHAST), a follow-up study led by&nbsp;Zhuo Chen&nbsp;at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>. </p>



<p>This program mapped an additional&nbsp;100 million stars&nbsp;in the&nbsp;southern half&nbsp;of Andromeda - an area particularly valuable for studying the galaxy’s&nbsp;merger history.</p>



<p>The combined PHAT and PHAST mosaics now encompass the entire disk of Andromeda, revealing stunning details of its structure and stellar population. </p>



<p>Hubble’s high-resolution imaging allows astronomers to study individual stars in Andromeda just as easily as those within our own Milky Way.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-andromeda-s-violent-history">Andromeda’s violent history</h2>



<p>While Andromeda and the Milky Way likely formed around the same time, their evolutionary paths have been strikingly different. </p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-thin-disk-is-billions-of-years-older-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> has experienced relatively stable growth, while Andromeda appears to have undergone a much more chaotic past, marked by violent interactions and mergers.</p>



<p>"Andromeda’s a train wreck," said&nbsp;Daniel Weisz&nbsp;of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>. "It looks like it has been through some kind of event that caused it to form a lot of stars and then just shut down."</p>



<p>A key clue to this turbulent history lies in the presence of&nbsp;coherent streams of stars - trails of ancient stellar material likely left behind by smaller galaxies that Andromeda absorbed over time.</p>



<p>One possible culprit is the compact satellite galaxy&nbsp;Messier 32, which astronomers suspect may be the stripped-down core of a once-larger spiral galaxy that was devoured by Andromeda in the distant past.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-the-andromeda-galaxy">What's next for the Andromeda galaxy</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Hubble_traces_hidden_history_of_the_Andromeda_Galaxy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The detailed stellar census provided by Hubble</a> helps astronomers reconstruct Andromeda’s merger history and predict its future evolution. </p>



<p>The findings suggest that Andromeda is gradually transitioning from a star-forming spiral to a more elliptical structure, where star formation is winding down.</p>



<p>"Andromeda looks like a transitional type of galaxy that’s between a star-forming spiral and a sort of elliptical galaxy dominated by aging red stars," said&nbsp;Weisz.</p>



<p>However, Andromeda’s journey is far from over. In about&nbsp;4.5 billion years, it will&nbsp;collide with the Milky Way, triggering an immense cosmic event that will reshape both galaxies into a single, massive elliptical galaxy. </p>



<p>This future merger - already set in motion by their mutual gravitational pull - will not be a destructive explosion but rather a slow gravitational dance that will mix and redistribute billions of stars over millions of years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-next-chapter-beyond-hubble">The next chapter: Beyond Hubble</h2>



<p>Although the Hubble Space Telescope has provided humanity with an unprecedented view of Andromeda, its work is only the beginning. </p>



<p>Future telescopes, such as&nbsp;NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a>&nbsp;and the upcoming&nbsp;Nancy Grace <a href="https://roman.gsfc.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roman Space Telescope</a>, will take this research even further.</p>



<p>James Webb’s&nbsp;infrared vision&nbsp;will allow astronomers to peer through Andromeda’s&nbsp;dusty regions, uncovering details about star formation, planetary systems, and the galaxy’s hidden structure. </p>



<p>Meanwhile, the Roman Space Telescope, often described as a&nbsp;"wide-angle version of Hubble," will capture panoramic views of Andromeda with&nbsp;100 times the field of view of Hubble. This will provide an even broader perspective of its vast stellar population.</p>



<p>The Andromeda Galaxy stands as one of the most important astronomical objects in human history. </p>



<p>From ancient civilizations who saw it as a mysterious celestial cloud to the Hubble Space Telescope’s&nbsp;2.5-billion-pixel portrait - Andromeda has continuously reshaped our understanding of the cosmos.</p>



<p>With each new observation, we learn more about our&nbsp;neighboring galaxy’s past, present, and future. </p>



<p>The study is published in <em><a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad7e2b" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>. </em></p>



<p>Video Credit: NASA, ESA, Greg Bacon (STScI)</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Hubble's new masterpiece took 10 years and captured 200 million stars in Andromeda

On a crisp autumn night, far from city lights, you...

<p>Fast radio bursts are sudden flashes of radio waves, often lasting mere milliseconds. The first appeared on astronomers' radar in 2007, and for the most part, still remain a complete mystery. </p>



<p>Scientists have since recorded thousands of them across the sky, each leaving behind questions about what kind of cosmic drama can generate such concentrated energy in so little time. </p>



<p>The bursts usually come from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-space-radio-signal-reaches-earth-after-8-billion-years-frb-20220610a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">far beyond our own galaxy</a>, making them challenging to trace back to a specific source.</p>



<p>Last summer, one set of repeated bursts caught special attention. Intense radio signals in the northern constellation Ursa Minor suggested something unusual. Initial data pointed to a source lying well outside our galactic neighborhood. </p>



<p>Researchers worked to narrow down its origin with a newly commissioned radio telescope that could combine signals from multiple arrays. </p>



<p>They hoped to piece together a more precise map of these flashes to get clues about how and where they formed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-frb-source">Unexpected FRB source</h2>



<p><a href="https://leungcalvin.github.io/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomer Calvin Leung</a>, a Miller Postdoctoral Fellowship recipient at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, helped develop the computer code that made it possible to pinpoint the fast radio bursts with high accuracy. </p>



<p>When he and his team plotted the signals, they found that the source sat in the distant outskirts of an ancient elliptical galaxy about 2 billion light years from Earth. </p>



<p>This galaxy is around 11.3 billion years old, leading experts to believe it should not contain the kind of young, magnetized neutron star that might create these flashes. </p>



<p>Leung posits, "now the question was: How are you going to explain the presence of a magnetar inside this old, dead galaxy?"</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aiming-telescopes-at-this-radio-burst">Aiming telescopes at this radio burst</h2>



<p>Once the spot was identified, colleagues turned optical telescopes to that region. What they saw <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-radio-bursts-traced-to-chaotic-magnetospheres-of-neutron-stars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">did not match expectations</a>.</p>



<p>Telescopes revealed a long-dead galaxy, lacking the active star factories known to give birth to the supermassive stars that collapse into magnetars. </p>



<p>A graduate researcher at <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> in Montreal, Canada, named Vishwangi Shah refined the calculations used to confirm the bursts’ location. </p>



<p>"This is not only the first FRB to be found outside a dead galaxy, but compared to all other FRBs, it’s also the farthest from the galaxy it’s associated with," Shah explained. </p>



<p>"The FRB’s location is surprising and raises questions about how such energetic events can occur in regions where no new stars are forming."</p>



<p>Shah’s paper on this unusual fast radio burst, designated FRB 20240209A, was published in the <em><a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad9ddc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrophysical Journal Letters</a></em> on Tuesday, Jan. 21.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pinpointing-fast-radio-burst-locations">Pinpointing fast radio burst locations</h2>



<p>Further progress in Leung's FRB mapping mission came from the Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment (<a href="https://chime-experiment.ca/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CHIME</a>), which has detected a large share of these bursts. </p>



<p>Its main array in British Columbia recently gained partner stations called outriggers, designed to sharpen its imaging abilities. </p>



<p>"When paired with the three outriggers, we should be able to accurately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farthest-known-fast-radio-burst-traced-to-rare-cluster-of-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pinpoint one FRB</a> a day to its galaxy, which is substantial. That's 20 times better than CHIME, with two outrigger arrays," Leung explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-both-optical-and-infrared-telescopes">Using both optical and infrared telescopes</h2>



<p>A new site at <a href="https://www.seti.org/hcro" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hat Creek Observatory</a> in Northern California is also online this week, raising hopes that astronomers can identify many more locations of similar bursts.</p>



<p>With these improvements, researchers can steer optical and infrared telescopes to the same spot in the sky. They can then figure out whether these bursts come from star clusters or distinct structures within a galaxy.</p>



<p>After Shah's paper on FRB 20240209A was submitted, observers at the <a href="https://greenbankobservatory.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Green Bank Observatory</a> in West Virginia, led by MIT’s Shion Andrew, used a second outrigger to verify the position of that newly discovered signal.</p>



<p><a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad9de2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A related study</a> by scientists at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> in Illinois, led by Einstein Postdoctoral Fellow <a href="https://www.tarraneheftekhari.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tarraneh Eftekhari</a>, was also published that day. </p>



<p>Eftekhari said, "It's clear that there's still a lot of exciting discovery space when it comes to FRBs and that their environments could hold the key to unlocking their secrets,"</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/fast-radio-burst_frb_dead-galaxy_credit-gemini-observatory_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/fast-radio-burst_frb_dead-galaxy_credit-gemini-observatory_1s.webp" alt="The location of the fast radio burst, indicated by the oval outlines, is on the outskirts of a massive elliptical galaxy, the yellow oval at right. Credit: Gemini Observatory" class="wp-image-1957540"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>The location of the fast radio burst, indicated by the oval outlines, is on the outskirts of a massive elliptical galaxy, the yellow oval at right. Credit: Gemini Observatory</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explaining-this-radio-burst">Explaining this radio burst</h2>



<p>The presence of such a powerful burst in the outskirts of a silent elliptical galaxy hints at a new chapter in FRB studies. </p>



<p>"This result challenges existing theories that tie FRB origins to phenomena in star-forming galaxies," Shah noted.</p>



<p>Because active star-forming regions are known breeding grounds for magnetars, this development opens the door to alternative ideas about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glitching-star-explains-cosmic-radio-bursts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how these bursts arise</a>. </p>



<p>"The source could be in a globular cluster, a dense region of old, dead stars outside the galaxy. If confirmed, it would make FRB 20240209A only the second FRB linked to a globular cluster," Shah concluded.</p>



<p>This galaxy stopped forming new stars long ago, yet the data point to a burst generated by something akin to a magnetar. If that scenario is correct, it might mean these exotic objects can emerge in places once deemed unlikely.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



<p>Researchers want to learn more about how an old galaxy could host events usually tied to younger environments. Leung sees huge promise in better pinpointing tools. </p>



<p>"CHIME and its outrigger telescopes will let us do astrometry at a level unmatched by the Hubble Space Telescope or the James Webb Space Telescope. It'll be up to them to drill down to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-alien-radio-signals-may-be-caused-by-starquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">find the source</a>. It's an amazing radio telescope," Leung enthusiastically concluded.</p>



<p>To sum it all up, what we learned is that astronomers still have a lot to learn about fast radio bursts. What causes them? Where do they come from? </p>



<p>As with most things in the universe, FRB answers are elusive, but that won't keep us from continuing to ask the questions and doing the the work that it takes to find the answers, because that's what science is all about.</p>



<p>The full study was published in <em><a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad9ddc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Deep space radio burst is detected from a 'dead galaxy,' baffling scientists

Fast radio bursts are sudden flashes of radio waves, often...

<p>Less than six months after beginning its science operations, the Webb Telescope (JWST) unveiled numerous red objects in the sky that puzzled scientists. These objects, initially dubbed "little red dots" (LRDs), appeared small but were abundant across the cosmos.</p>



<p>However, their exact nature, the reasons for their striking color, and their significance in understanding the early universe have left astronomers intrigued.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-little-red-dots-and-black-holes">Little red dots and black holes</h2>



<p>In a recent study, experts have compiled one of the largest samples of LRDs to date. Nearly all of these objects existed during the first 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang.</p>



<p>The findings are intriguing: a large fraction of these dots appear to harbor growing supermassive black holes.</p>



<p>"We’re confounded by this new population of objects that Webb has found. We don’t see analogs of them at lower redshifts, which is why we haven’t seen them prior to Webb," said Dale Kocevski, lead author of the study and an astronomer at <a href="https://www.colby.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colby College</a> in Waterville, Maine. </p>



<p>"There’s a substantial amount of work being done to try to determine the nature of these little red dots and whether their light is dominated by accreting black holes."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-the-little-red-dots">Discovery of the little red dots</h2>



<p>The team of astronomers sifted through Webb’s data, compiled from multiple surveys, to analyze these peculiar objects. </p>



<p>The Cosmic Evolution Early Release Science (<a href="https://ceers.github.io" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CEERS</a>) survey, along with other major surveys like the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (<a href="https://jades-survey.github.io" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JADES</a>) and Next Generation Deep Extragalactic Exploratory Public (NGDEEP), provided a wealth of information. </p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/little-red-dots_webb-telescope_discovery_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/little-red-dots_webb-telescope_discovery_NASA_1s.webp" alt="From their sample, they found that these mysterious red objects that appear small on the sky emerge in large numbers around 600 million years after the big bang and undergo a rapid decline in quantity around 1.5 billion years after the big bang. Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, Dale Kocevski (Colby College)" class="wp-image-1956670"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>From their sample, they found that these mysterious red objects that appear small on the sky emerge in large numbers around 600 million years after the big bang and undergo a rapid decline in quantity around 1.5 billion years after the big bang. Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, Dale Kocevski (Colby College)</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>Their work revealed that LRDs first emerged in large numbers around 600 million years after the Big Bang. Then, they underwent a rapid decline around 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang.</p>



<p>The images, such as the six Webb images in the CEERS survey, show these mysterious dots surrounded by fuzzy red halos, each containing a yellow-white core. The survey data provides a deeper understanding of the LRDs' distribution and their link to cosmic history.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-black-hole-growth">Early black hole growth</h2>



<p>A significant discovery was the presence of rapidly orbiting gas, moving at speeds of up to 2 million miles per hour (1,000 km/s), around about 70% of the LRDs in the sample. </p>



<p>This is a sign of an accretion disk around a supermassive black hole. These findings suggest that many of the LRDs are in fact active galactic nuclei (AGN), where black holes are actively accreting matter.</p>



<p>“The most exciting thing for me is the redshift distributions. These really red, high-redshift sources basically stop existing at a certain point after the big bang,” explained Steven Finkelstein, a co-author of the study from the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a>. </p>



<p>“If they are growing black holes, and we think at least 70 percent of them are, this hints at an era of obscured black hole growth in the early universe.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-universe-isn-t-broken-just-evolving">The universe isn't broken, just evolving</h2>



<p>When the little red dots were first discovered, some suggested that cosmology might be "broken" due to the unexpected size and rapid growth of these objects. </p>



<p>If the light from these dots came entirely from stars, it would imply that some galaxies had formed too quickly for existing models to explain. The team’s research, however, counters this.</p>



<p>The study supports the idea that much of the light from these objects comes from accreting black holes rather than stars. With fewer stars involved, the galaxies are likely smaller and more consistent with current cosmological theories.</p>



<p>"This is how you solve the universe-breaking problem," said study co-author Anthony Taylor from the University of Texas at Austin.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-questions-arise">New questions arise</h2>



<p>Despite these breakthroughs, the nature of LRDs still raises many questions. One of the most pressing is why LRDs do not appear at lower redshifts. One possible explanation could be the process of inside-out growth. </p>



<p>As star formation spreads outward from the center of a galaxy, the gas feeding the accreting black hole may diminish, leading to less obscuration of the black hole. This process could cause the black hole to become bluer and lose its "red dot" status.</p>



<p>Another mystery is that LRDs do not emit much X-ray light, unlike most black holes at lower redshifts. This has led scientists to speculate that LRDs might be heavily obscured black holes, with X-ray photons trapped in dense gas regions.</p>



<p>“There’s always two or more potential ways to explain the confounding properties of little red dots. It’s a continuous exchange between models and observations, finding a balance between what aligns well between the two and what conflicts,” explained Kocevski.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pushing-the-boundaries-of-space-science">Pushing the boundaries of space science</h2>



<p>The team’s work has sparked a wave of new questions and possibilities, and further investigations are underway. Deep spectroscopic observations and mid-infrared property analysis of these objects will provide more clarity in the coming years.</p>



<p>These findings were presented at the 245th meeting of the American Astronomical Society and have been submitted for publication.</p>



<p>The James Webb Space Telescope continues to push the boundaries of space science, unveiling the mysteries of the universe. With its exceptional capabilities, Webb is helping to answer fundamental questions about the origins of the universe, the formation of galaxies, and the nature of black holes.</p>



<p>As the puzzle pieces slowly fall into place, the universe keeps revealing its secrets - one "little red dot" at a time.</p>



<p>The study is published in <em><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2404.03576" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Webb finds strange objects called "little red dots" in the early universe that no one can explain

Less than six months after beginning its science operations, the...

<p>Preterm birth remains a significant concern for expectant parents because it means that babies are born immature - before completing 37 weeks of gestation.</p>



<p>While human pregnancy typically lasts around 40 weeks, any parent can confirm that this figure is vague at best. </p>



<p>The timeline of birth is highly unpredictable. Babies arrive anytime between 38 and 42 weeks, with 10% of all births occurring preterm. Premature birth puts the newborns at risk of various complications.</p>



<p>A team of researchers at <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC San Francisco</a> has stumbled upon a significant finding: a molecular timekeeper in mice that possibly regulates the time of birth.</p>



<p>Intriguingly, this clock starts ticking right at the onset of pregnancy and operates within the uterus. </p>



<p>This discovery could hold immense potential for human pregnancies as it paves the way for diagnostic tests to pinpoint women who are at higher risk of preterm labor and who would benefit from interventions to prolong <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pregnancy-may-speed-up-aging-in-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pregnancy</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preterm-birth-a-global-issue">Preterm birth: A global issue</h2>



<p>Preterm birth is a prevalent issue worldwide, yet its underlying mechanism has puzzled experts for years.</p>



<p>“We hope our work can start to shed light on the underlying mechanism,” noted Dr. Adrian Erlebacher, a professor of laboratory medicine at UCSF who led the research.</p>



<p>“The new findings raise the possibility that preterm birth is triggered by things that happen much earlier in pregnancy than we expected.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dna-packaging-influences-pregnancy">How DNA packaging influences pregnancy</h2>



<p>Pregnancy triggers significant biological transformations in the female body, which result in the fluctuation of hundreds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/selfish-dna-transposons-control-early-human-development-not-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> within the uterus.</p>



<p>The researchers were particularly interested in studying KDM6B, a protein that assumes a regulatory role over gene activity and possibly over the genes responsible for the shift to labor.</p>



<p>This protein orchestrates gene expression by removing methyl chemical groups from histones - structures that organize and package <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-damage-can-persist-for-years-increasing-cancer-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> within cells.</p>



<p>Upon interaction with KDM6B, DNA becomes more receptive to other factors, thus accelerating the action of nearby genes.</p>



<p>Through their work, the team observed that blocking KDM6B resulted in prolonged mice pregnancies and delayed birth timings.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quiet-role-of-fibroblasts">The quiet role of fibroblasts</h2>



<p>While the initial suspicion was that KDM6B activates genes in the uterus's epithelial cells late in pregnancy, detailed analyses revealed otherwise. </p>



<p>It was found that the protein’s effects on pregnancy length were instead linked to fibroblasts, the structural cells not typically considered in labor regulation. </p>



<p>Surprisingly, the regulation of these cells by KDM6B took place during the early days of pregnancy.</p>



<p>“This wasn’t something we anticipated, and it completely reshaped our understanding of the cell types and processes driving labor onset,” said Tara McIntyre, UCSF graduate student and lead author of the study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-countdown-to-labor-molecular-timer-in-action">Countdown to labor: Molecular timer in action</h2>



<p>In-depth experiments showed that, soon after <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/calcium-zinc-are-keys-to-healthier-pregnancy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conception</a>, methyl groups increase around certain genes in the uterine fibroblasts, which keeps these genes inactive and enables the uterus to support pregnancy.</p>



<p>As pregnancy progresses, the methylation levels on these histones gradually decrease, eventually activating the nearby genes related to events like labor. This progressive reduction functions as a timer.</p>



<p>“When histone methylation erodes enough, nearby genes flip on," explained Erlebacher.</p>



<p>When the team blocked KDM6B, histones near a selection of genes accumulated excess methylation early in pregnancy. </p>



<p>This lead to delayed labor as the genes associated with birth were not activated in time despite methylation erosion.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-preterm-birth-a-connection-unearthed">Decoding preterm birth: A connection unearthed</h2>



<p>Although the researchers did not directly analyze preterm births, the newly discovered molecular timer could potentially determine the length of pregnancy in humans.</p>



<p>“The big question from here is whether these same processes are relevant in humans,” said Erlebacher. “If they are, then can we use them to predict or control pregnancy length?”</p>



<p>If these molecular signals are disrupted in humans, they could be linked to preterm <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-increased-premature-birth-risk-by-60/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birth risk</a>. </p>



<p>For instance, women commencing pregnancy with lower than usual levels of histone methylation could prematurely activate labor-related genes due to the swift erosion of methylation.</p>



<p>Erlebacher noted that previous studies on preterm birth have primarily focused on the period immediately before labor. However, these new findings suggest an emphasis on the early stages of pregnancy, opening up new avenues of research.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/abstract/S0092-8674(24)01432-6?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0092867424014326%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Cell</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Molecular timer may hold the key to preventing preterm birth

Preterm birth remains a significant concern for expectant parents because...

<p>West Greenland is renowned for its blue lakes that supply drinking water and help sequester atmospheric carbon.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, following two months of record heat and heavy rainfall in fall 2022, researchers discovered that an estimated 7,500 of these lakes turned brown, began emitting carbon, and suffered a decline in water quality.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This dramatic change, reported in a study published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2413855122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em></a> (PNAS), underscores how extreme climate events can push <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-lakes-produce-less-methane-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic lakes</a> past critical tipping points.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprecedented-changes-in-a-short-time">Unprecedented changes in a short time</h2>



<p>Led by Fulbright Distinguished Arctic Scholar Jasmine Saros of the <a href="https://climatechange.umaine.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maine Climate Change Institute</a>, an international team investigated the rapid transformation of these lakes. </p>



<p>By July 2023, less than a year after the extreme fall weather, the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the lakes had undergone widespread alterations - changes that would normally unfold over centuries.</p>



<p>“The magnitude of this and the rate of change were unprecedented,” said Saros, who also serves as a professor of paleolimnology and lake ecology at UMaine.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-climate-extremes-affected-greenland-lakes">How climate extremes affected Greenland lakes</h2>



<p>Greenland typically sees snowfall in the fall, but record temperatures turned precipitation into rain. This shift, combined with the heat, caused <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-is-no-longer-permanent-arctic-communities-in-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">permafrost</a> - frozen soil rich in organic carbon and minerals - to thaw. </p>



<p>As rainwater washed through the thawing ground, it carried an abundance of carbon, iron, magnesium, and other elements into the lakes, turning their waters brown.</p>



<p>The influx of dissolved organic carbon and nutrients fueled bacterial growth, affecting the lakes’ taste, odor, and color. Increased metals in the water raised health concerns as well.</p>



<p>“The increased dissolved organic material can interact with drinking water treatment processes to produce chlorination byproducts called trihalomethanes, which may be carcinogenic,” Saros explained.</p>



<p>Such changes not only impact water quality but also have broader implications for local communities relying on these lakes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupted-ecosystems-and-the-carbon-cycle">Disrupted ecosystems and the carbon cycle</h2>



<p>As the lakes turned brown, water transparency declined, reducing light penetration and altering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-at-risk-global-warming-threatens-the-oceans-lifeline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plankton</a> dynamics. Reduced light hindered phytoplankton that normally absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, while organisms that break down organic matter increased. </p>



<p>This shift transformed the lakes from carbon sinks into significant sources of carbon dioxide, with emissions rising by 350%.</p>



<p>“Because the lakes turned so brown, it reduced the light coming into the system, which tends to favor organisms that use organic carbon pathways instead of photosynthesis,” Saros said.</p>



<p>This change in plankton behavior and carbon cycling has major ramifications for the Arctic carbon budget and local biodiversity.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-atmospheric-rivers">The role of atmospheric rivers</h2>



<p>The researchers pinpointed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atmospheric-rivers-will-become-more-intense-as-temperatures-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric rivers</a> - long, narrow streams of water vapor - as the likely cause of the extreme weather. These phenomena brought record-breaking heat and rainfall to the region. </p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA) predicts that atmospheric rivers will become much more frequent in Greenland and other parts of the world by the end of the century, potentially leading to more events like those of fall 2022.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-will-the-lakes-of-greenland-recover">Will the lakes of Greenland recover?</h2>



<p>The abrupt transformation raises pressing questions about recovery: Will the lakes return to their former blue state, or will changes persist?&nbsp;</p>



<p>“It was such an overwhelming climate force that drove all the lakes to respond in the same way. When it comes to recovery, will it be the same across lakes or different?” Saros pondered.</p>



<p>Ongoing monitoring and additional research are crucial. The team’s work relied on long-term observations, including annual water sampling and year-round remote sensors, which allowed them to capture the rapid changes caused by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-in-2024-what-have-we-learned/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme climate event</a>.</p>



<p>“Our study demonstrates the power of long-term observation. I’ve been working in this area since 2013, and have worked on many projects here. But in the background, my colleagues and I have been trying to maintain a consistent data set of observations,” Saros said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“That’s how we were able to capture and quantify the effects of this extreme climate event.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-greenland-lakes">Future research on Greenland lakes</h2>



<p>The study was made possible through extensive collaboration among researchers from UMaine, NOAA, and various international institutions, as well as contributions from numerous PhD students.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This collective effort has provided valuable insights into how extreme weather events can drastically alter lake ecosystems and carbon dynamics.</p>



<p>As atmospheric rivers become more frequent, understanding their impact on Arctic lakes like those in West Greenland is essential.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Further research into how these lakes recover and how similar events affect other regions will help scientists develop strategies to mitigate and adapt to the impacts of climate change.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Thousands of lakes in Greenland have crossed a tipping point from which they can't recover

West Greenland is renowned for its blue lakes that supply...

<p>For over a decade, complexity scientist Peter Turchin and his collaborators have worked to compile an unparalleled database of human history - the Seshat Global History Databank. Recently, Turchin and computer scientist Maria del Rio-Chanona turned their attention to artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots, questioning whether these advanced models could aid historians and archaeologists in interpreting the past. </p>



<p>The study, which is the first of its kind, evaluates the historical knowledge of leading <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-ai-models-pose-an-existential-threat-to-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI models</a> such as ChatGPT-4, Llama, and Gemini.</p>



<p>The results, presented at the <a href="https://neurips.cc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NeurIPS conference</a>, reveal both potential and significant limitations in AI’s ability to grasp historical knowledge, especially at the nuanced, expert level.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-historical-competence-in-ai">Limited historical competence in AI</h2>



<p>“Large language models (LLMs), such as ChatGPT, have been enormously successful in some fields - for example, they have largely succeeded by replacing paralegals," said Turchin, who leads the <a href="https://csh.ac.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Complexity Science Hub</a>’s (CSH) research group on social complexity and collapse.</p>



<p>"But when it comes to making judgments about the characteristics of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-levels-linked-to-the-rise-and-fall-of-early-human-societies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">past societies</a>, especially those located outside North America and Western Europe, their ability to do so is much more limited.” </p>



<p>The study’s findings highlight that AI’s capabilities are domain-specific. While LLMs excel in some applications, they struggle with expert-level historical analysis. GPT-4 Turbo, the best-performing model, achieved a balanced accuracy of just 46% on a four-choice question test. </p>



<p>This result, though an improvement over random guessing (25%), underscores the substantial gaps in AI’s understanding of global history.</p>



<p>“I thought the AI chatbots would do a lot better,” said del Rio-Chanona, corresponding author of the study and assistant professor at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London.</a> “History is often viewed as facts, but sometimes interpretation is necessary to make sense of it.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-does-ai-understand-expert-level-history">Does AI understand expert-level history?</h2>



<p>The study leveraged the <a href="https://seshat-db.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Seshat Global History Databank</a>, a comprehensive resource documenting historical data from 600 societies worldwide, encompassing over 36,000 data points and 2,700 scholarly references. Using Seshat as a benchmark, researchers tested LLMs on questions requiring graduate or expert-level knowledge.</p>



<p>“We wanted to set a benchmark for assessing the ability of these LLMs to handle expert-level history knowledge,” explained first author Jakob Hauser, a resident scientist at CSH.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“A key component of our benchmark is that we not only test whether these LLMs can identify correct facts, but also explicitly ask whether a fact can be proven or inferred from indirect evidence.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regional-and-temporal-disparities">Regional and temporal disparities</h2>



<p>The study revealed that AI performance varied significantly across time periods and geographic regions. LLMs demonstrated greater accuracy when addressing questions about ancient history, particularly between 8,000 BCE and 3,000 BCE, but struggled with more recent events, especially from 1,500 CE to the present.</p>



<p>Geographically, OpenAI models like GPT-4 performed better for regions such as Latin America and the Caribbean, while Llama models excelled in Northern America. However, both systems underperformed in Sub-Saharan Africa, with Llama also showing weaker results for Oceania.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These disparities highlight potential biases in training data, which may prioritize certain historical narratives while neglecting others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-depth-in-ai-models">Lack of depth in AI models</h2>



<p>LLMs performed best on questions related to legal systems and social complexity, but they struggled significantly with topics such as discrimination and social mobility.</p>



<p>“The main takeaway from this study is that LLMs, while impressive, still lack the depth of understanding required for advanced history,” said del Rio-Chanona. “They're great for basic facts, but when it comes to more nuanced, PhD-level historical inquiry, they're not yet up to the task.”</p>



<p>Among the tested models, GPT-4 Turbo ranked highest with 46% accuracy, while Llama-3.1-8B scored the lowest at 33.6%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-dataset-and-reducing-bias">Expanding the dataset and reducing bias</h2>



<p>The researchers aim to address the shortcomings revealed in this study by expanding the dataset and refining the benchmark. Hauser emphasized plans to incorporate more data from underrepresented regions, especially in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-green-spaces-are-urgently-needed-across-the-global-south/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global South</a>, and to include more complex historical questions.</p>



<p>“We also look forward to testing more recent LLM models, such as o3, to see if they can bridge the gaps identified in this study,” Hauser said.</p>



<p>The team believes the findings are valuable not only for AI developers but also for historians and archaeologists.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For academics, understanding AI’s limitations can guide its use in research, while for developers, the study highlights areas for improvement, such as addressing regional biases and enhancing models’ capacity for handling nuanced historical evidence.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-ai-s-understanding-of-history">Improving AI’s understanding of history</h2>



<p>The study highlights both the potential and the current limitations of AI in historical research. While LLMs have proven valuable for generating basic historical facts, they fall short when tasked with interpreting complex and nuanced historical contexts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For researchers and developers alike, these findings offer a roadmap for improving AI’s understanding of global history, paving the way for tools that better support scholarly inquiry into the past.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

AI struggles to understand human history and fails miserably when tested

For over a decade, complexity scientist Peter Turchin and his...

<p>Astronomers have uncovered a remarkable&nbsp;wind phenomenon&nbsp;on WASP-127b, a&nbsp;gas giant planet&nbsp;that is more than&nbsp;500 light-years&nbsp;from Earth.</p>



<p>Using the European Southern Observatory’s Very Large Telescope (ESO’s VLT) in Chile, scientists have detected&nbsp;supersonic jetstream winds&nbsp;hurtling around the planet’s equator at astonishing speeds of&nbsp;33,000 km/h (20,500 mph). </p>



<p>This discovery marks the fastest jetstream ever measured on any known planet and sheds new light on the complex and extreme weather patterns of exoplanets beyond our Solar System.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giant-puffy-planet-with-extreme-weather">Giant "puffy" planet with extreme weather</h2>



<p>WASP-127b has fascinated scientists since its discovery in 2016. The planet is slightly larger than Jupiter but has a much lower mass, making it a "puffy" <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/potential-signs-of-life-found-on-nearby-exoplanet-wasp-107b/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gas giant</a>. Its low density suggests that its atmosphere is vastly extended, allowing astronomers to study its composition and climate with relative ease.</p>



<p>Unlike Earth, where storms and winds are driven by temperature differences and planetary rotation, the weather on WASP-127b is governed by far more extreme forces. </p>



<p>The planet is expected to be&nbsp;tidally locked&nbsp;to its host star, meaning one side permanently faces the star while the other remains in perpetual darkness. </p>



<p>This setup leads to dramatic atmospheric conditions, including&nbsp;intense winds that redistribute heat around the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/morning-evening-atmosphere-detected-exoplanet-wasp-39b-for-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a>. However, the sheer velocity of these winds came as a complete surprise to researchers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fastest-winds-on-a-distant-planet">Fastest winds on a distant planet</h2>



<p>“Part of the atmosphere of this planet is moving towards us at a high velocity while another part is moving away from us at the same speed. This signal shows us that there is a very fast, supersonic, jet wind around the planet’s equator,” noted Lisa Nortmann, a scientist at the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Göttingen</a> in Germany and lead author of the study.</p>



<p>The winds reach a staggering speed of&nbsp;9 kilometers per second, which is nearly&nbsp;six times faster than the expected rotation speed of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-weather-exoplanet-wasp-121-b-has-a-dynamic-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a>. </p>



<p>In comparison, the fastest wind speed recorded in the Solar System was observed on Neptune, where atmospheric winds reach "only"&nbsp;1,800 km/h (1,118 mph).</p>



<p>WASP-127b’s winds far surpass this, moving at speeds so extreme that they rival the velocity of some of the fastest meteoroids in our Solar System.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-an-alien-atmosphere">Mapping an alien atmosphere</h2>



<p>To measure these winds, the research team used the&nbsp;CRIRES+ instrument&nbsp;on ESO’s VLT. This advanced tool allows scientists to analyze the atmosphere of distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-glory-lights-effect-seen-exoplanet-wasp-76b-baffling-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planets</a> by studying how starlight filters through the gases surrounding them. </p>



<p>By measuring the specific wavelengths of light absorbed and emitted by molecules in the planet’s upper atmosphere, the team was able to identify&nbsp;water vapor and carbon monoxide molecules&nbsp;in WASP-127b’s air.</p>



<p>But it was the motion of these molecules that provided the most shocking revelation. When the researchers analyzed their speed, they noticed something unexpected - a&nbsp;double peak in the data, showing that one side of the planet’s atmosphere was moving toward Earth while the other was moving away.</p>



<p>This indicated that high-speed jet-stream winds were racing&nbsp;around the equator, rather than simply moving from the day side to the night side as previously expected.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-weather-system">Complex weather system</h2>



<p>Beyond detecting the equatorial jetstream, the research team also found intriguing variations in the planet’s temperature. The poles appear&nbsp;cooler than the rest of the planet, suggesting that heat distribution is not uniform. </p>



<p>There is also a noticeable temperature difference between the planet’s&nbsp;morning and evening sides, which hints at&nbsp;complex atmospheric dynamics similar to those found on Earth and other planets in our Solar System.</p>



<p>“This shows that the planet has complex weather patterns just like Earth and other planets of our own system,” noted Fei Yan, a professor at the <a href="https://en.ustc.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Science and Technology of China</a> and co-author of the study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advancing-the-exoplanet-weather-research">Advancing the exoplanet weather research </h2>



<p>Until recently, studying the atmospheres of exoplanets was an&nbsp;impossible challenge. For years, astronomers could only determine a planet’s&nbsp;mass and radius, which gave them little information about its climate or atmospheric composition.</p>



<p>However, thanks to powerful ground-based telescopes like&nbsp;ESO’s <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/vlt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VLT</a>, researchers can now&nbsp;map weather systems&nbsp;on distant planets and study their&nbsp;wind patterns, temperature gradients, and even cloud formations.</p>



<p>“Understanding the dynamics of these exoplanets helps us explore mechanisms such as heat redistribution and chemical processes, improving our understanding of planet formation and potentially shedding light on the origins of our own Solar System,” noted David Cont, a co-author of the paper from the <a href="https://www.lmu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich</a>.</p>



<p>Surprisingly, this level of precision is only possible with ground-based telescopes. Current&nbsp;space telescopes, including the James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://webbtelescope.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>), do not yet have the required&nbsp;velocity precision&nbsp;to detect wind speeds like those observed on WASP-127b. </p>



<p>This means that facilities on Earth remain essential for&nbsp;pushing the boundaries of exoplanet research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wind-patterns-on-planets">Wind patterns on planets </h2>



<p>With the discovery of supersonic winds on WASP-127b, astronomers are now looking forward to even&nbsp;more detailed investigations&nbsp;into the atmospheres of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interior-core-cotton-candy-exoplanet-wasp-107-b-revealed-webb-telescope/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distant worlds</a>. The upcoming&nbsp;ESO Extremely Large Telescope (<a href="https://elt.eso.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ELT</a>), currently under construction in Chile, will play a crucial role in these studies. </p>



<p>Equipped with the&nbsp;ANDES instrument, the ELT will allow scientists to&nbsp;detect even finer details&nbsp;in the wind patterns of exoplanets and&nbsp;expand this research to smaller, rocky planets.</p>



<p>“This means that we can likely resolve even finer details of the wind patterns and expand this research to smaller, rocky planets,” Nortmann concluded.</p>



<p>The discovery of&nbsp;supersonic jetstream winds on WASP-127b&nbsp;is a milestone in exoplanetary science. As telescopes become more advanced, scientists may soon be able to&nbsp;track storm systems, measure rainfall, and even identify weather cycles on distant worlds. </p>



<p>Each new finding brings us one step closer to&nbsp;understanding the diverse and dynamic nature of planets beyond our own Solar System.</p>



<p>The study was published in <em><a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2025/01/aa50438-24/aa50438-24.html">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a></em>.</p>



<p>Image Credit: ESO/L. Calçada</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Supersonic winds on a nearby exoplanet break all speed records

Astronomers have uncovered a remarkable&nbsp;wind phenomenon&nbsp;on WASP-127b, a&nbsp;gas giant planet&nbsp;that...

<p>Cells in the human body have distinct roles - some remain stationary, while others move to perform critical functions. Migratory cells rely delicate, finger-like protrusions called filopodia that extend from the cell membrane and allow the cell to sense and navigate its environment.</p>



<p>In healthy cells, filopodia play a vital role in processes like the immune response, where they help immune cells reach infection sites swiftly.</p>



<p>However, filopodia also contribute to disease, particularly in cancer. Metastatic cancer cells exploit these structures to invade new tissues, facilitating the spread of cancer throughout the body.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cracking-the-filopodia-code">Cracking the filopodia code</h2>



<p>A long-standing question in cell biology has been how filopodia’s protein bundles form and function. For over forty years, researchers have sought to understand the structural mechanics behind these cellular extensions. </p>



<p>Now, scientists at <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rockefeller University</a>’s Laboratory of Structural Biophysics and Mechanobiology have made a recent discovery that may help solve a major piece of this puzzle.</p>



<p>The study, published in&nbsp;<em>Nature Structural &amp; Molecular Biology</em>, sheds light on how the protein scaffolding in filopodia is assembled at the atomic level. These findings could play a crucial role in refining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-activated-molecules-kill-cancer-cells-with-precision/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer treatments</a> that are designed to halt metastasis.</p>



<p>"Understanding the structure of filopodia and the changes they undergo may help to refine these therapies or inspire new ones,"&nbsp;said Rui Gong, the study's first author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-filopodia-in-cancer">Complexity of filopodia in cancer</h2>



<p>Filopodia rely on hexagonal bundles of actin filaments, strengthened and reinforced by a crucial protein called fascin. </p>



<p>Actin, a fundamental component of the cytoskeleton, is responsible for maintaining a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ketogenic-diet-may-help-the-body-kill-cancer-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cell</a>’s shape and enabling movement. However, actin alone is weak and ineffective. A single actin filament cannot support a structure or drive movement.</p>



<p>"It’s like a floppy noodle,"&nbsp;explained Gregory M. Alushin, head of the Rockefeller Lab.&nbsp;"It’s not very strong, and it can’t do anything. Actin filaments have to be gathered into higher-order assemblies such as bundles to carry out any useful job."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascin-key-to-filopodia-s-strength">Fascin: Key to filopodia’s strength</h2>



<p>Fascin plays a critical role in stabilizing these actin bundles, bridging the filaments together and forming the strong yet flexible structures required for filopodia to function. </p>



<p>These bundles must strike a delicate balance: they need enough strength to protrude from the cell membrane, yet they must also remain flexible enough to move and respond to environmental stimuli.</p>



<p>"They hit a sweet spot between strength and flexibility,"&nbsp;explained Alushin.</p>



<p>Despite the known importance of fascin, the precise mechanics of how it assembles actin bundles into filopodia have remained elusive for decades. The challenge has been in visualizing this process at a molecular level.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-in-understanding-fascin">Challenge in understanding fascin</h2>



<p>For years, scientists struggled to understand how fascin assembles filopodia’s hexagonal bundles. Early experiments in the 1970s attempted to model this process using wooden dowels to represent actin filaments, and small wooden pieces as fascin-like bridges.</p>



<p>However, researchers found it impossible to create stable bundles without distorting the fascin structures.</p>



<p>In recent years, advances in imaging technologies such as cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and tomography provided the first glimpses of filopodia’s internal architecture. </p>



<p>However, these images were blurry and lacked sufficient resolution to reveal the intricate details of how fascin interacts with actin filaments.</p>



<p>Now, the Rockefeller team has made a significant breakthrough. Using an advanced computational image analysis technique, the researchers achieved the first&nbsp;clear, atomic-level images&nbsp;of fascin proteins bridging actin filaments. </p>



<p>This represents a major leap forward in understanding how the scaffolding of filopodia is constructed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-filopodia-assembly-and-cancer-cells">Filopodia assembly and cancer cells</h2>



<p>By refining their computational image analysis method, first developed in 2022, the researchers were able to remove noise from their images and reveal an unprecedented level of structural detail.</p>



<p>"We saw real bundles composed of thousands of fascin molecules and hundreds of actin filaments, and we were able to map their spatial positioning,"&nbsp;Gong explained.&nbsp;"We saw how the structure of fascin gives rise to its function as an actin bundler and figured out the detailed chemistry of its actin binding sites."</p>



<p>One of the most surprising findings was the discovery of fascin’s&nbsp;high degree of flexibility and adaptability. Unlike other proteins that follow rigid assembly patterns, fascin is remarkably improvisational. </p>



<p>Instead of adhering to a single binding strategy, it can adjust its position and shape depending on the arrangement of the actin filaments.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-versatility-of-fascin-molecules">Fascinating versatility of fascin molecules</h2>



<p>Fascin appears to have evolved this versatility as a way to accommodate actin filaments, which are naturally&nbsp;twisted and uneven. Since actin filaments are not ideal building materials for creating firm, uniform structures, fascin overcomes this challenge by acting as a molecular hinge.</p>



<p>"A fascin protein can accommodate all kinds of imperfections. It acts like a molecular hinge that can hold a number of intermediary positions between open and closed. It can also rotate its position for a better fit,"&nbsp;said Alushin.</p>



<p>Despite being a relatively small and simple protein, fascin exhibits highly complex physical behaviors. Its ability to shift and adapt its binding positions allows it to form the strong yet flexible hexagonal bundles necessary for filopodia to function.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-filopodia-fascin-and-metastatic-cancer">Filopodia, fascin, and metastatic cancer</h2>



<p>Fascin plays a crucial role in cancer’s ability to spread in the body. In migratory cells, an&nbsp;overabundance of fascin leads to an uncontrolled filopodia-building process, which accelerates metastasis.</p>



<p>In stationary cells, such as epithelial cells, excessive fascin expression can give them an abnormal ability to move - causing them to&nbsp;break away from their normal environment and invade other tissues.</p>



<p>"When this over-expression happens in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-coffee-reduces-the-risk-of-certain-cancers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> that should be locked into place, such as epithelial cells, they can build filopodia, which they’re not supposed to have,"&nbsp;Alushin explained.&nbsp;"Then they can crawl away from their neighbors and in the process abandon their regular cellular functions."</p>



<p>Because of its role in cancer progression, fascin has become a key target for cancer therapies. Several fascin inhibitors are currently in clinical trials, with the aim to prevent cancer cells from forming filopodia and migrating.</p>



<p>The Rockefeller team’s findings could improve the design of these inhibitors. Previously, researchers believed that these drugs worked by&nbsp;blocking fascin’s actin binding sites. </p>



<p>However, the new study suggests a different mechanism: these inhibitors prevent fascin from undergoing the&nbsp;shape changes required to fit into its binding location.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-cancer-therapies">Future cancer therapies</h2>



<p>This new understanding of fascin’s structural behavior may lead to more effective cancer treatments. By preventing fascin from adapting and forming stable filopodia bundles, scientists may be able to&nbsp;halt metastatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/molecular-fingerprints-could-be-key-to-early-cancer-detection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer cells</a> in their tracks.</p>



<p>"We’ve been able to detail essential design principles for the bundles, which could be really helpful information for finding new ways to interfere with their construction," noted Alushin.</p>



<p>Beyond cancer, this research opens the door for further exploration of other cellular processes that rely on actin bundling. </p>



<p>The ability to&nbsp;visualize complex protein networks at an atomic level&nbsp;represents a major technological leap, providing new tools for scientists studying cell movement, immune responses, and even neurological functions.</p>



<p>With this newfound clarity, researchers can now&nbsp;develop more precise strategies&nbsp;for targeting fascin and preventing the metastasis of cancer cells.</p>



<p>By continuing to investigate the forces that drive cellular movement, scientists may unlock new ways to stop cancer from spreading, which would bring hope for more effective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-the-next-frontier-in-cancer-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">treatments</a> in the future.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41594-024-01477-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Structural &amp; Molecular Biology</a>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Breakthrough discovery about cell migration may finally help us defeat cancer

Cells in the human body have distinct roles - some...

<p>Truffles have long captivated the senses, with their tantalizing aroma and elusive nature keeping the culinary world on its toes. To the gastronome, they are an exotic culinary delight; to the mycologist, they present an intriguing species subject of study.</p>



<p>Now, this enigmatic world has become even more fascinating with the discovery of two new truffle species, which add another layer of intrigue to the legacy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-found-by-truffle-dogs">Species found by truffle dogs</h2>



<p>The discovery was led by two enthusiastic truffle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trained-dogs-can-sniff-out-invasive-pests-in-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>, Luca and Monza.</p>



<p>The find? A hitherto unknown pair of truffles, christened as <em>Tuber canirevelatum</em> and <em>Tuber cumberlandense.</em></p>



<p>The former, aptly named the "dog-found" truffle, pays homage to the canine detectives and their tireless work. The latter derives its name from the Cumberland Plateau, where it was found.</p>



<p>Guiding the canine sleuths were citizen scientists Lois Martin and Margaret Townsend. After the initial discovery, and eager to unveil the mystery of their find, they reached out to the experts.</p>



<p>Michigan State University (<a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MSU</a>) and the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a> became the primary research hubs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-truffle-mystery">Unraveling the truffle mystery</h2>



<p>At MSU, the Department of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences took the baton from the truffle dogs. </p>



<p>The team, led by associate professor Gregory Bonito and undergraduate student Alassane Sow, used DNA analyses to identify the specimens and position them on the tree of life.</p>



<p>”Receiving these samples was very exciting, especially because they looked very similar to the well-known edible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-truffle-industry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European truffles</a> <em>Tuber macrosporum</em> and <em>Tuber aestivum</em>,” said Sow.</p>



<p>“We hope that by describing both of these species there will be increased interest in cultivating North American truffles. Our analyses show that each has aromatic compounds found in some of the most valuable truffle species.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-truffles-a-culinary-goldmine">Truffles: A culinary goldmine</h2>



<p>The world of fine dining celebrates truffles for their rarity and enticing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-environment-impacts-the-aroma-of-beer-and-hops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aroma</a>. And the discovery of these new species may have just expanded the potential for gastronomic innovation. </p>



<p>These species could hold tremendous economic potential due to their aromatic compounds.</p>



<p>Now, imagine a plate of gourmet truffle-infused pasta, accompanied by a glass of whiskey - a fine blend of the robust, earthy flavours of truffles and oaky whiskey. </p>



<p>That's just what Maker’s Mark, a distiller from Kentucky, hopes to provide. </p>



<p>They are exploring the cultivation of the native <em>T. cumberlandense</em>, and aim to introduce a uniquely infused whiskey to the market soon.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aromatic-appeal-of-truffle-species">Aromatic appeal of truffle species</h2>



<p>The culinary appeal of truffles mainly lies in the unique aroma they produce. Each species emits a distinct fragrance, which contributes to its culinary potential and, therefore, its value.</p>



<p>MSU’s professor Randy Beaudry from the Department of Horticulture worked with Bonito and Sow to identify these aroma-producing compounds. </p>



<p>Using gas chromatography, they discovered that <em>T. canirevelatum</em> was rich in compounds that give it a savory garlic aroma.</p>



<p>On the other hand, <em>T. cumberlandense</em> contained compounds found in the revered Périgord black truffle and the Piedmont white truffle.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-truffle-dogs">Significance of the "truffle dogs"</h2>



<p>This significant discovery highlights the importance of trained truffle dogs in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crops-of-the-future-potatoes-that-thrive-in-heatwaves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tuber</a> research and farming. </p>



<p>"We suspect many native tuber species remain to be discovered and described. This task will be enhanced through the continued collaboration between mycologists (scientists who study fungi), the public and trained truffle dogs,” concluded Bonito.</p>



<p>As the quest for novel species continues, it is clear that the world of truffles holds more delectable secrets yet to be unearthed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-truffle-cultivation-and-species-conservation">Truffle cultivation and species conservation</h2>



<p>As truffle discoveries continue to emerge, the focus is shifting toward sustainable cultivation and conservation efforts. </p>



<p>Truffles, often associated with European fine dining, have long been harvested from wild forests, making them susceptible to environmental changes and overharvesting. </p>



<p>The discovery of native species like <em>Tuber cumberlandense</em> opens up new possibilities for domestic cultivation, thus reducing reliance on imported varieties and supporting local economies.</p>



<p>These newfound species also offer exciting opportunities for cultivation under controlled conditions, potentially ensuring their long-term availability and contributing to ecosystem health.</p>



<p>This includes studying optimal soil compositions, climate conditions, and symbiotic relationships with host trees. </p>



<p>Cultivating these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-all-fungi-matter-not-just-mushrooms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a> not only presents an economic opportunity but also has ecological benefits, as they contribute to soil health and biodiversity.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-truffle-discovery">Sustainable truffle discovery</h2>



<p>Furthermore, the role of citizen scientists and trained truffle dogs continues to be vital in locating and documenting species in diverse environments. </p>



<p>As research efforts expand, collaborations between mycologists, farmers, and culinary experts could pave the way for a sustainable truffle industry where these culinary treasures are both abundant and are grown in an environmentally responsible manner.</p>



<p>The discovery of the new species is detailed in the journal <em><a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00275514.2024.2407755#:~:text=Tuber%20canaliculatum%20is%20sometimes%20wild,Berch%202020%3B%20Fortier%20et%20al.&amp;text=2022).,-Members%20of%20the">Mycologia</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Two new truffle species discovered with the help of special 'truffle dogs'

Truffles have long captivated the senses, with their tantalizing aroma...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic pollution.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-threat-in-urban-air"><strong>Invisible threat in urban air</strong></h2>



<p>City dwellers face an unseen danger with every breath. New findings from Emory University researchers suggest that fine particulate matter from <a href="http://earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicle emissions may significantly elevate the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease</a>. The study examined brain tissue samples from 224 individuals who had confirmed diagnoses and volunteered their brains for scientific research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disturbing-connections-emerge"><strong>Disturbing connections emerge</strong></h2>



<p>Scientists analyzed neuritic plaques — protein clusters that characterize Alzheimer's — while mapping each participant's exposure to PM2.5 particles based on residential location and surrounding traffic density. The correlation proved more alarming than anticipated. Individuals experiencing higher pollution exposure showed nearly double the likelihood of elevated plaque accumulation in brain tissue.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-matters"><strong>Timing matters</strong></h2>



<p>The research team discovered that pollution exposure during the final year before death demonstrated the strongest association with brain changes. This timeline suggests relatively rapid impacts from environmental toxins on neural health. The connection remained robust even after accounting for various demographic and health factors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-vulnerability-patterns"><strong>Genetic vulnerability patterns</strong></h2>



<p>Perhaps most concerning, people lacking the APOE gene—which naturally predisposes individuals to Alzheimer's — exhibited more than twice the susceptibility to pollution-related brain damage. Study author Dr. Anke Huels noted this indicates environmental elements like air contamination could trigger the disease in cases where hereditary factors don't explain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-implications"><strong>Public health implications</strong></h2>



<p>These findings, published in <em><a href="https://www.neurology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a></em>, underscore the critical importance of air quality regulations in urban planning. The research suggests that implementing stricter emission controls and promoting alternative transportation could serve as powerful tools in Alzheimer's prevention.</p>



<p>As cities worldwide grapple with growing traffic congestion and aging populations, this study highlights an urgent need for comprehensive approaches to environmental health that protect both our lungs and our minds.</p>



<p>—–</p>



<p>Like what you saw and read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>—–</p>



<p>Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.</p>



<p>—–</p>

Traffic fumes may trigger Alzheimer's

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



<p>—–</p>



<p>Like what you saw and read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>—–</p>



<p>Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.</p>



<p>—–</p>

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-earth-became-a-frozen-wasteland">When Earth became a frozen wasteland</h2>



<p>Imagine Earth as a giant snowball, frozen solid from the North Pole to the equator. This wasn't the plot of a science fiction movie – it was our planet's reality 700 million years ago during an extreme ice age that has puzzled scientists for decades.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery">The discovery</h2>



<p>Australian researchers from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> have finally cracked one of geology's greatest mysteries: what caused the Sturtian glaciation and why it persisted for an unprecedented 57 million years. This period occurred long before dinosaurs roamed the Earth, when no complex plants or multicellular animals existed.</p>



<p>Dr. Adriana Dutkiewicz, the study's lead author, describes a world completely unlike today's climate. "Imagine the Earth almost completely frozen over," she explained. "The planet was blanketed in ice from poles to equator, and temperatures plunged."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-combination-of-climate-factors">The combination of climate factors</h2>



<p>The research team discovered that this massive freeze resulted from a "double whammy" of geological events. First, plate tectonic activity reduced volcanic carbon dioxide emissions to historically low levels. Volcanic activity typically releases CO2 into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that keeps Earth warm.</p>



<p>Simultaneously, weathering of volcanic rocks in what is now Canada actively absorbed atmospheric CO2, further reducing greenhouse gas concentrations. When atmospheric carbon dioxide levels dropped below 200 parts per million – less than half of today's levels – glaciation engulfed the entire planet.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-climate-implications">Modern climate implications</h2>



<p>Published in the journal <em><a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a></em>, this research provides crucial insights into Earth's climate system. While geological climate changes occur over millions of years, the study emphasizes that human-induced climate change is happening at a pace ten times faster than previously observed natural changes, highlighting the urgent need to understand our planet's delicate climate balance.</p>



<p>—–</p>



<p>Like what you saw and read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>—–</p>



<p>Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.</p>



<p>—–</p>

What caused the planet's longest ice age

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY 57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



<p>—–</p>



<p>Like what you saw and read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>—–</p>



<p>Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.</p>



<p>—–</p>

Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



<p id="block-9bd989d6-2fd3-4580-957f-6cacce134f08">-----</p>



<p id="block-eff5dea3-a9bb-40b5-a923-e5a9978bc0e2">Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p id="block-43e218f4-0391-477c-8396-eb777c8c80a3">Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p id="block-1f9a227a-ec37-4140-81b8-ffa4a7cc6689">-----</p>



<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.</p>



<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"]</div>



<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

News coming your way