If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot.



In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. 



But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things get messy. Female choices become unpredictable. This isn’t just a frog issue - it ties into a broader idea that scientists call “choice overload.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-face-chaos-in-the-chorus">Frogs face chaos in the chorus</h2>



In nature, frogs gather in large, noisy groups called choruses. Picture a shallow pond in spring, with dozens of males calling out at the same time. It’s the frog equivalent of a dating scene in a packed nightclub.



The researchers found that the crowded conditions of these choruses might be too overwhelming for females to reliably pick the best mate. It’s not that they stop caring - it’s that they can’t tell who’s who.



Professor Jessie Tanner of the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee, Knoxville</a>, led a team studying how choice overload affects evolution.



“Because female mate choice can drive evolution, our results suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> might happen more slowly than we thought before,” she said. 



“Some males that are fairly unattractive could still mate, especially if they take advantage of crowded spaces where females might be less able to discriminate between attractive and unattractive males.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-choices-are-too-hard">What happens when choices are too hard?</h2>



The idea of choice overload is pretty common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">human behavior</a>. You walk into a store to buy toothpaste and face 50 brands. You either freeze, grab something random, or walk away. Same goes for dating apps with endless swiping.



“We wanted to understand how having to make mating decisions in crowded environments, where choice overload could be a problem, might drive the evolution of calls,” Tanner explained. 



“Since males that are chosen by females pass on their genes to the next generation, this mate choice can cause the population to change over time.”



When animals, like people, face too many options, their decision-making can break down. That opens up a chance for less attractive mates to get picked - not because they became more appealing, but because the chooser got overwhelmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choice-overload-in-other-animals">Choice overload in other animals</h2>



This isn’t just about frogs. Scientists are now looking at how this effect shows up in other animals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">Bumblebees</a>, for instance, are on the list. So are wood roaches.



“Our lab is working to understand how choice overload and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-have-lungs-that-cancel-out-background-noise/">noise</a> may each contribute to the difficulty female treefrogs face in making mating decisions,” Tanner said. 



“We are also working to understand whether this choice overload is something that occurs generally in many different kinds of animals or is more specific to individual species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simultaneous-cricket-songs">Simultaneous cricket songs </h2>



Tanner, who has a background in both psychology and biology, first got into animal behavior while studying mate choice as an undergrad. She later became interested in sound - especially how it plays into animal communication.



That led to earlier work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-male-crickets-go-silent-how-females-adapt-and-respond/">crickets</a>. Like treefrogs, male crickets use sound to attract mates. A study on cricket mating showed that noisy environments might either block females from hearing calls or make them too confused to pick. It was hard to tell which was causing the problem.



“During that study, it became clear that our work was consistent with both the possibility that many simultaneous cricket songs created noise that made it hard for females to hear, and the possibility that the females were experiencing choice overload,” Tanner said. “Our current work looks to disentangle those ideas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-average-becomes-good-enough">When average becomes good enough</h2>



The research adds a new layer to how scientists think about evolution. Normally, stronger signals - like a faster frog call - are expected to win out and spread through the population over time. 



But if crowded conditions keep females from consistently picking the top performers, evolution slows down. Mediocre traits stick around longer.



That changes the math for survival. In nature, being the best isn’t always enough - and sometimes, being just okay is good enough, especially if the crowd’s loud and the choices are many.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Frogs settle for average mates when dating gets too noisy

If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot. In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things...

On December 4th, every year, we gather to talk about endangered species on World Wildlife Conservation Day.



Do you know which species is the most invasive on Earth? Monkeys? Catfish? Locusts? Surprisingly, it's us, humans.



Yes, our selfishness is pushing the most magnificent creatures of nature towards extinction and causing severe damage to the wildlife ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-wildlife-conservation-day">World Wildlife Conservation Day</h2>



Let's take a moment to understand the origins of World Wildlife Conservation Day.



It's an occasion for awareness, reflection and action, primarily focused on the issues that are threatening our planet's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-animal-day-2024-building-a-legacy-of-compassion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife biodiversity balance</a>. 



It serves as a call to protect wildlife species from human greed for illegal animal parts and products sold on the black market.



The interference of humans with the world's natural ecosystem dates back centuries. 



We cleared land for farming, chopped down forests for shipbuilding, hunted, and trapped animals for money. This exploitation eventually led to a drastic decline in wildlife populations across the globe.



In 2012, Hillary Clinton, then the U.S. Secretary of State, ignited the spark for World Wildlife Conservation Day. She raised awareness among conservationists and wildlife enthusiasts and proposed a strategic plan from the White House to tackle the global issue of wildlife trafficking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-illicit-trade-of-animals">Illicit trade of animals</h2>



Despite many conservation efforts and some positive successes, illegal trade of endangered animals is still growing. 



Black markets are expanding, and many species remain targets for hunters and poachers, putting them at serious risk of extinction.



The consequences of this illegal activity are not just harmful to wildlife. Millions of people who live near or within forests also suffer from these activities. 



Many of these communities rely on the forest for their livelihoods, including food, clean water, and other resources. 



When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> and their habitats are destroyed, these people face severe economic and environmental challenges.



It is crucial for us all to work together to protect wildlife. By doing so, we not only save endangered species but also help maintain healthy ecosystems that benefit both animals and humans. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-wildlife-conservation-day-timeline">World Wildlife Conservation Day timeline</h2>



Looking into historical events often provides us a clearer picture of the current scenario. 



In the 1600s, European explorers began hunting wildlife for European markets. The 1910s saw hunters and conservationists forming organizations to support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-tracking-is-crucial-for-preserving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> restoration and enforce hunting laws.



In 1969, President Richard Nixon established protection for threatened and endangered species through the Endangered Species Conservation Act.



And as discussed, in 2012, Hilary Clinton called for conservationists to raise awareness on the first World Wildlife Conservation Day held on December 4th.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-awareness-on-endangered-species">Awareness on endangered species</h2>



How do we classify a species as being endangered? If a species' population declines by 50%-70%, or if it is limited to less than 250 mature individuals, it is classified as endangered.



Is it possible for extinct species to return to life? Though it's rare, certain natural phenomena and successful experiments have managed to bring back some extinct species. 



The latest species to go extinct include the northern white rhinoceros and Spix’s macaw.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgency-of-wildlife-conservation">Urgency of wildlife conservation</h2>



The International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) maintains a Red List, which tracks species at risk of extinction.



Currently, a staggering 41,415 species are on this list, with 16,306 classified as critically endangered. This means that they face an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.



Among these, Javan Rhinos are one of the most critically endangered species, with only 67 individuals left in existence. 



According to the World Wildlife Fund (<a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WWF</a>), some well-known animals have reached alarmingly low population levels, including the Tapanuli orangutan, the giant panda, the Amur leopard, and the mountain gorilla.



Over the past 500 years, human activities such as habitat destruction, overhunting, and pollution have caused the extinction of 869 species, highlighting the urgent need for conservation efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-playing-our-part-in-wildlife-conservation">Playing our part in wildlife conservation </h2>



Today is the perfect day to do your part to support wildlife conservation. Here’s how you can help:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spread-awareness">Spread awareness</h3>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Talk about endangered species with friends, family, and on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-media-is-helping-save-wild-animals-like-caracals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social media</a>.</li>



<li>Share information about the importance of wildlife and how people can help.</li>



<li>Use platforms like Instagram, Facebook, and Twitter to reach more people.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stand-against-illegal-activities">Stand against illegal activities</h3>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Report any illegal activities involving wildlife that you hear about.</li>



<li>Support laws that fight against poaching and illegal wildlife trade.</li>



<li>Sign petitions to pressure governments into taking stronger action against wildlife crimes.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-donate-to-wildlife-organizations">Donate to wildlife organizations</h3>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Donate to trusted wildlife organizations like the World Wildlife Fund (<a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WWF</a>), which work to save endangered animals.</li>



<li>Even small donations help buy supplies and support the work of people on the ground.</li>



<li>Your contributions help train and equip teams who work to protect animals in danger.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volunteer-your-time">Volunteer your time</h3>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Volunteer at local wildlife centers or nature reserves if possible.</li>



<li>Help clean up parks, beaches, or forests to make them safe for wildlife.</li>



<li>Assist wildlife rehabilitation groups that work with injured animals.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-support-sustainable-products">Support sustainable products</h3>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Avoid buying products made from endangered animals, such as ivory or fur.</li>



<li>Choose products that are eco-friendly and sustainably made to reduce harm to wildlife habitats.</li>



<li>Support companies that do not exploit wildlife and that give back to conservation projects.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adopt-responsible-habits-for-wildlife-conservation">Adopt responsible habits for wildlife conservation</h3>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Recycle, reduce plastic use, and cut down on waste that could harm animals.</li>



<li>Use less water to conserve the environment, which in turn supports wildlife.</li>



<li>Reduce your carbon footprint by biking, walking, or taking public transport.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-make-your-garden-wildlife-friendly">Make your garden wildlife-friendly</h3>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Plant native flowers to attract bees, butterflies, and other helpful species.</li>



<li>Provide bird feeders or bird baths to support local bird populations.</li>



<li>Avoid using harmful pesticides, as they can poison wildlife.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-join-or-start-a-wildlife-group">Join or start a wildlife group</h3>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Connect with others who are passionate about conservation.</li>



<li>Create a local group to discuss ways to protect animals in your area.</li>



<li>Participate in or organize events like tree-planting days or wildlife talks.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-educate-yourself">Educate yourself</h3>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Learn about endangered species and share what you know with others.</li>



<li>Read books, watch documentaries, and stay informed about the challenges facing wildlife.</li>



<li>The more you know, the more you can help educate and inspire others.</li>
</ul>



Every single effort counts, whether big or small. So, spread awareness, speak up, volunteer, or donate. These actions help protect our planet’s most vulnerable animals. By working together, we can ensure a future where all wildlife can thrive. 



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World Wildlife Conservation Day 2024: Saving species from extinction

On December 4th, every year, we gather to talk about...

The shape of a bird’s wings offers insights into its lifestyle and abilities. Interestingly, bird wings also tell fascinating stories about nature and islands.



For instance, the albatross has wide, sail-like wings built for soaring over oceans, while the antpitta’s short, stubby wings reflect its preference for brief flights near the ground. However, can the shape of bird wings reveal deeper insights about biodiversity and nature’s organization?



Recent research from Washington University (WashU) in St. Louis suggests it can. The study highlights how bird wing shape - a proxy for long-distance flying ability - influences biodiversity patterns on islands across the globe.



"Our results reveal how a key dispersal trait - bird wing shape - can shape fundamental diversity patterns and island biogeography across scales," said Justin Baldwin, first author of the study. Baldwin recently completed his PhD in ecology and evolutionary biology at <a href="https://washu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WashU</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-wings-and-island-biodiversity">Bird wings and island biodiversity</h2>



Until now, studies on island biodiversity focused mainly on geographic factors, such as an island’s size and its isolation. 



These factors significantly affect the number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/island-bird-communities-are-changing-in-unexpected-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species found on an island</a>. Larger islands typically host more species due to lower extinction rates, while isolated islands have fewer species because reaching them is challenging.



"To date, most studies have focused on how geographic factors such as area and isolation influence island species-area relationships," Baldwin said. "Our results highlight the importance of trait differences among species, specifically traits related to dispersal ability."



The remarkable theory of island biogeography, introduced by Robert H. MacArthur and Edward O. Wilson 50 years ago, described these patterns. They observed that isolation limits species diversity on islands, while larger areas support more species. 



However, the theory assumes all species have similar abilities to disperse and colonize new habitats - an assumption modern ecologists have questioned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-bird-wing-shape">Measuring bird wing shape</h2>



Baldwin and his co-advisor, Jonathan Myers, explored the potential influence of bird wing shape on island biodiversity. 



The researchers utilized a dataset of hand-wing index values, which measure how pointed a bird’s wings are. 



Birds with high values, such as swifts and swallows, are excellent fliers capable of covering long distances. In contrast, birds like chickens and wrens with low values are more limited in their flight range.



For their analysis, the experts synthesized data for 6,706 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-birds-diving-petrels-return-home-island-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird species</a> across 3,894 islands. They then calculated species-area relationships for all 11 recognized biogeographical realms and for 248 unique combinations of bird families in specific regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-and-biodiversity-patterns-on-islands">Birds and biodiversity patterns on islands</h2>



The findings revealed that wing shape significantly influences biodiversity patterns.



"In parts of the world where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-traits-make-birds-more-susceptible-to-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> tend to have low dispersal abilities, the species-area relationships were steep," Baldwin explained. 



This means that larger islands in these areas host a sharp increase in species numbers. In regions where birds possess higher dispersal abilities, species-area relationships were flatter, indicating a smaller gain in species numbers with increasing island size.



Additionally, the study identified a phenomenon called diversity saturation. On islands with many bird species equipped for long-distance flights, biodiversity seemed to reach a plateau. 



These patterns demonstrate how dispersal traits like wing shape interact with geographic factors to influence biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-bird-conservation">Implications for bird conservation</h2>



Understanding how traits like wing shape affect biodiversity has practical applications. Islands often harbor unique species found nowhere else, making them critical for conservation efforts.



"The theory of island biogeography and species-area relationships have important applications for biodiversity conservation, especially on islands, which often harbor large numbers of endemic species found only within a single island or group of islands," Myers said.



The study’s findings can inform <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-100-bird-species-have-been-lost-for-over-a-decade/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation strategies</a> to address challenges such as habitat loss, deforestation, and sea-level rise. By understanding how dispersal traits shape species distribution, conservationists can better predict and mitigate biodiversity loss on islands.



"The ecological and evolutionary processes that determine the steepness of the species-area relationship can be used to predict how and why habitat loss…causes extinctions and biodiversity loss on islands," Myers added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



Bird wing shape, a simple yet powerful trait, offers valuable insights into island biodiversity patterns. 



This study underscores the importance of considering species-specific traits alongside geographic factors to understand and protect nature. 



As researchers continue to explore these relationships, their findings will help guide efforts to preserve the rich and diverse life on our planet’s islands.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.70020" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology Letters</a>.



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Bird wings have a surprising effect on island biodiversity

The shape of a bird’s wings offers insights into its...

A new study reveals the remarkable evolutionary history of anglerfish, deep-sea creatures whose unusual adaptations have long fascinated both scientists and the public. 



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-024-02586-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>, the research reveals how these mysterious animals defied expectations by diversifying in the harsh, resource-poor environment of the bathypelagic zone - the open ocean depths ranging from 3,300 to 13,000 feet below the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-the-seafloor-to-open-waters">From the seafloor to open waters</h2>



The study, led by biologists including Kory Evans of <a href="https://www.rice.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rice University</a> and his former undergraduate student Rose Faucher, investigated the evolutionary progression of anglerfish (Lophiiformes) as they moved from seafloor habitats to the deep sea's open waters.&nbsp;



By employing advanced genetic analysis and 3D imaging of museum specimens, the researchers reconstructed the anglerfish's evolutionary tree and identified the morphological innovations that enabled them to thrive in one of Earth's most challenging environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-adaptations-of-deep-sea-anglerfish">Unique adaptations of deep-sea anglerfish</h2>



While anglerfish are famous for their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bioluminescence-emerged-in-animals-540-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioluminescent</a> lures that dangle from their heads to attract prey in the deep sea's eternal darkness, their evolutionary tale encompasses much more than this notable feature.&nbsp;



The study revealed that deep-sea pelagic anglerfish (ceratioids) descended from benthic, or seafloor-dwelling, ancestors.&nbsp;



These ancestors inhabited the continental slope before venturing into the bathypelagic zone's open waters - a shift that paved the way for rapid evolutionary changes.&nbsp;



The ceratioids developed characteristics such as larger jaws, smaller eyes, and laterally compressed bodies - adaptations suited to an environment with scarce food and no sunlight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-diversity-of-anglerfish">Surprising diversity of anglerfish </h2>



Despite these directional trends, ceratioids exhibited remarkable variability in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-anemones-can-regrow-their-entire-body-in-its-original-shape/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">body shapes</a>, ranging from the typical globose anglerfish to elongated forms like the “wolftrap” phenotype, which features a jaw structure resembling a trap.&nbsp;



This was the most unexpected finding of the study, as the bathypelagic zone did not limit evolution as previously thought, despite its apparent lack of ecological diversity.&nbsp;



Instead, anglerfish achieved high levels of phenotypic disparity, surpassing their benthic relatives in both shallow and deep waters.&nbsp;



This suggests that, rather than being constrained by the deep sea's environmental challenges, ceratioids explored new evolutionary avenues, diversifying their body forms and hunting strategies.



“With their unique traits like bioluminescent lures and large oral gapes, deep-sea anglerfish may be one of the few documented examples of adaptive radiation in the resource-limited bathypelagic zone,” said Evans, a co-corresponding author on the paper and assistant professor of biosciences.&nbsp;



“These traits likely gave anglerfish an edge in exploiting scarce resources and navigating the extreme conditions of their environment, although we don’t have strong evidence directly linking this diversity to this kind of resource specialization.”



Evans pointed out that the research allows for the possibility that nonadaptive processes, such as relaxed selection or random mutations, might have also contributed to the observed variability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anglerfish-evolutionary-trends">Anglerfish evolutionary trends</h2>



The researchers also compared anglerfish groups across different habitats and uncovered more surprising results. 



Coastal species like frogfish, which live in diverse and productive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-may-not-adapt-quickly-enough-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral reef</a> environments, displayed much lower rates of evolutionary change than their deep-sea counterparts.



“The idea that a resource-poor, homogenous environment - like being surrounded on all sides by nothing but water - would produce diverse body and skull plans is really counterintuitive in this field,” said Faucher, who was co-first author of the paper along with Elizabeth Christina Miller, a postdoctoral fellow at the <a href="https://uci.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Irvine</a>.&nbsp;



“When fish have different features to interact with, like corals and plants in shallow water or sand and rocks on the seafloor, that’s when we would expect fish to have a lot of variation in shape. Instead, we’re seeing it in these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-legacy-decades-old-ddt-found-in-deep-sea-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea fish</a> who have nothing but water to interact with.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methodology-and-breakthrough-findings">Methodology and breakthrough findings</h2>



To carry out this study, the researchers utilized a combination of advanced methods. They constructed a phylogeny of anglerfish using data from 1,092 genetic loci across 132 species.



This represented about 38% of described species and was supplemented by fossil calibrations and genomic data to estimate divergence times and ancestral habitats. 



Morphological data were gathered from museum specimens, including linear body measurements and 3D skull shape analyses via micro-CT scans.&nbsp;



To assess evolutionary trends, they applied phylogenetic comparative methods to evaluate phenotypic and lineage diversification, while disparity analyses measured the extent of morphological variation across anglerfish groups and habitats.&nbsp;



They then used Bayesian models to reconstruct ancestral habitats, revealing that ceratioids originated from benthic ancestors before moving to the pelagic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-twilight-zone-stabilizes-the-marine-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zone</a>.&nbsp;



Finally, principal component analyses visualized how anglerfish occupied different regions of phenotypic space, shedding light on evolutionary trends in body, skull, and jaw shapes.



“Anglerfish are a perfect example of how life can innovate under extreme constraints,” said Evans. “This work not only enhances our understanding of deep-sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ocean-day-a-unified-approach-to-protect-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> but also illustrates the resilience and creativity of evolution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-life-in-extreme-environments">Understanding life in extreme environments</h2>



The significance of this study extends beyond the evolutionary history of anglerfish. It offers valuable insights into how life adapts to extreme environments. 



The deep sea is one of Earth's least understood ecosystems, yet it plays a crucial role in global biodiversity and the planet's carbon cycle. 



Understanding how organisms like anglerfish succeed in such conditions helps scientists predict how life might respond to environmental changes, including those caused by climate change. 



Moreover, the study addresses broader questions in macroevolution: how new species arise, adapt, and diversify. 



By demonstrating that even resource-poor environments can foster significant evolutionary radiation, the research challenges conventional wisdom and opens new pathways for studying evolution in extreme habitats.



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Deep-sea anglerfish defy evolutionary expectations

A new study reveals the remarkable evolutionary history of anglerfish,...

We've always considered ourselves unique, haven't we? But peel back the layers, and you'll find that humans, like all species, are bound by the threads of evolution. 



One such thread is the instinct to come together when faced with external threats. The "common enemy effect" is&nbsp;a phenomenon in which we bond with others over a shared opponent or issue.



Humans do it, chimpanzees do it, and now we've learned that even our peaceful relatives, bonobos, exhibit this behavior in their own subtle way.&nbsp;At some point in their evolution, bonobos chose to make social bonding a priority.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-outgroup-threats-and-ingroup-cohesion">Outgroup threats and ingroup cohesion </h2>



The discovery suggests that the link between outgroup threats and ingroup cohesion may have evolved several million years ago, before our evolutionary paths diverged.



The study was conducted by an international team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto University</a>. 



They surmised that outgroup threats and ingroup cohesion may be an adaptation for group-based competition, a notion that has floated around since Darwin's days.



But they had a burning question - what about species that aren't known for their fierce inter-group rivalries? What about bonobos?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-basics">Bonobo basics</h2>



Bonobos are some of our closest primate relatives, sharing about 98.7% of their DNA with us humans. 



These smart apes are known for their peaceful and cooperative social structures, which really sets them apart from their more <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/chimpanzees-vs-bonobos-whats-the-difference/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aggressive chimpanzee cousins</a>.



They live in matriarchal societies where females take the lead, and they often use sexual behaviors to sort out conflicts and build social bonds. 



With their slender bodies, dark faces, and pink lips, bonobos are pretty easy to tell apart from chimpanzees, and their expressive, human-like eyes show a lot of emotion and understanding.



Bonobos thrive by foraging for fruits, leaves, and small animals. They're naturally arboreal, spending plenty of time in the trees, but they’re also pretty skilled on the ground. 



Lastly, they communicate using a mix of vocalizations, gestures, and facial expressions, showcasing their complex and sophisticated social intelligence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-evolution-of-bonobo-benevolence">Studying evolution of bonobo benevolence</h2>



Picture this -- eight groups of bonobos spread across five sites in four countries, all part of an experiment designed to echo previous studies conducted with chimpanzees. 



The process was simple -- expose the bonobos to vocalizations from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peaceful-bonobos-are-actually-more-aggressive-than-chimps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">other groups</a> and observe their reactions.



James Brooks, the study's lead author, was as curious as any of us. 



"We had no idea how this would turn out. If the bond between group cohesion and outgroup competition wasn't adaptive due to the lack of lethal competition between groups, there would be no point," Brooks shared. 



"But, if the effect had evolved before the human-chimpanzee-bonobo split, we might find some vestiges in modern bonobos."



The findings were startling yet insightful. The bonobos were clearly alert to the calls from outside groups, but their affiliation with their own group showed only a minor increase compared to chimpanzees.



Bonobos were seen sitting upright more and resting less, hinting at a slight increase in social grooming, a crucial behavior for reinforcing social bonds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-dynamics-in-bonobos-evolution">Social dynamics in bonobos evolution</h2>



The reactions of the bonobos during the study spark a fascinating discourse on social dynamics within their groups. 



Unlike chimpanzees, who often exhibit heightened aggression in response to outgroup threats, bonobos are recognized for their relatively peaceful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-cooperation-challenges-beliefs-about-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interactions</a>. 



This raises an intriguing question: how do these contrasting responses inform our understanding of social behavior in primates?



The study suggests that while awareness of external vocalizations exists, the bonobos maintain a subtle approach to group cohesion, prioritizing social bonding over defensive aggression. 



This behavior may reflect an evolutionary strategy that emphasizes alliance-building in the face of potential threats, thereby fostering collaboration within rather than competition between groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



The insights gained from this research extend well beyond the realm of academia; they carry significant implications for conservation efforts and our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-theory-enemy-of-my-enemy-is-my-friend-proven-by-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding of human behaviour</a>.



Recognizing that evolutionary traits from our primate relatives can inform why and how we interact socially underscores the importance of preserving species like the bonobo. 



Their unique perspective on social interaction offers a valuable lens through which we can examine human responses to conflict and cooperation today. 



As we navigate global challenges that require cross-cultural collaboration, appreciating the nuances of social behavior across species can illuminate pathways to strengthen our own communal ties and foster understanding in an increasingly interconnected world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-evolution-and-group-conflict">Bonobos evolution and group conflict</h2>



The authors suggest that our shared ancestor, who roamed the earth 5–6 million years ago, might have experienced some group-based conflict. 



But as the intensity decreased in the bonobos' evolutionary journey, so too did the strength of the effect.



"Although our research unearths deep roots of group conflict among our species, the real takeaway is that it can be overcome. And not just in isolated incidents, but on a species level," said Brooks.



Contrast this with other ape species -- <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-gorilla-day-supporting-the-guardians-of-the-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gorillas</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-orangutan-day-2024-protecting-the-people-of-the-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orangutans</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-chimpanzee-day-celebrating-our-closest-cousins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-groups-of-skywalker-gibbons-found-through-their-love-songs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gibbons</a>, and humans -- all of whom have been observed killing each other.



Bonobos seem to have found a way to break this vicious pattern. It's not just because they don't commit lethal aggression today, but more importantly, they somehow stopped doing it millions of years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



"Humans are capable of both: we can commit horrific acts to those we see as outside our group, but we're also capable of collaborating and working together across borders," said study senior author Shinya Yamamoto.



"Bonobos teach us that the ways our ancestors treated other groups does not seal our fate. Our own species has elements of both chimpanzee and bonobo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-interested-in-the-emotions-of-strangers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">group relations</a>, so it is crucial that we understand how both can, and have, evolved."



So next time you find yourself in a heated debate, think about our peaceful cousins, the bonobos. After all, they've proven that it's possible to adapt, evolve, and most importantly, choose peace over conflict.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0307975" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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Bonobos are the only primates, including humans, that don't kill others in their species

We've always considered ourselves unique, haven't we? But peel back...

Many,Living,Earthworms,For,Fishing,In,The,Soil,,Background

There's an invasion happening right under our feet, and most of us have no idea. Across North America, at least 70 imported, alien earthworm species are quietly altering our ecosystems, posing a largely overlooked threat.



That's where Elizabeth Hadly steps in. She's the Paul S. and Billie Achilles Professor at the <a href="https://humsci.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford School of Humanities and Sciences</a> and the senior author of a recent study on this very issue.



“Earthworms tell the story of the Anthropocene, the age we live in,” says Hadly. “It is a story of global homogenization of biodiversity by humans, which often leads to the decline of unique local species and the disruption of native ecosystem processes.”



They built the largest-ever database of these alien earthworms and warn that we need to better understand and manage these invaders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earthworms-friends-or-foes">Earthworms -- Friends or foes?</h2>



Earthworms are nature’s ultimate recyclers, quietly working their magic beneath our feet. 



These wriggly creatures belong to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-worms-can-distinguish-sunlight-from-moonlight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">annelid family</a> and thrive in soil worldwide, except in places that are too cold or dry for their taste.



They come in a variety of sizes, ranging from tiny half-inch worms to some whoppers over 10 feet long (looking at you, giant Gippsland earthworm of Australia).



Most earthworms prefer moist, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-soil-esoil-boosts-crop-production-by-50-in-just-15-days/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrient-rich soil</a>, where they spend their days munching on organic matter like dead leaves, decomposing plants, and other goodies.



Since the late 1800s, people have brought earthworms to North America from places like Asia, Europe, South America, and Africa.



Sometimes, these introductions have boosted the agricultural economy. Other times, they've done more harm than good.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-earthworms-do-their-jobs">How earthworms do their jobs</h2>



What’s cool about earthworms is their ability to transform dirt into fertile soil. 



As they eat, they break down organic material and poop it out as castings, which are packed with nutrients that plants absolutely love.



They also create tiny tunnels as they burrow, which helps water and air flow through the soil -- essential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-makes-flowers-more-attractive-to-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthy plant roots</a>. 



These little guys are underground architects and farmers, keeping ecosystems balanced without breaking a sweat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alien-earthworm-invasion-consequences">Alien earthworm invasion consequences</h2>



These imported earthworms often consume aboveground leaf litter more aggressively than native species. 



This change in the soil's surface can negatively impact native plants, amphibians, and insects. 



In the northern broadleaf forests of the U.S. and Canada, alien earthworms stress trees like sugar maples by altering the soil's microhabitat. 



This shift can set off a chain reaction, making it easier for invasive plants to spread.



Ironically, for a creature we associate with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-amazonians-modified-the-soil-to-create-fertile-dark-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">improving soil</a>, some alien earthworms can actually degrade it. They may alter soil properties like nutrients, pH, and texture, leading to poorer quality crops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earthworm-biology">Earthworm biology</h2>



Earthworms are also biologically fascinating. They breathe through their skin, so staying moist is a must for them. 



They don’t have eyes, but they’re sensitive to light and vibrations, which helps them avoid predators.



Speaking of predators, they’re a favorite snack for birds, frogs, and even some mammals. And get this -- earthworms are hermaphrodites, meaning each worm has both male and female reproductive organs.



When they mate, they exchange sperm, and each worm can produce cocoons filled with eggs. It’s a pretty efficient way to keep the worm world thriving!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-alien-earthworms-are-winning">Why alien earthworms are winning</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Invasive species</a> of all kinds are a problem, but alien earthworms especially troublesome because they have some tricks up their sleeves. 



Unlike most native species, many female alien earthworms can reproduce without needing a male. 



On top of that, climate change is opening up new territories for them. As permafrost melts in northern areas void of native earthworms, these invaders find new places to thrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eye-opening-numbers">Eye-opening numbers</h2>



The research team built a database of native and alien earthworms using thousands of records from 1891 to 2021. They found alien earthworms in 97% of the soils they studied across North America. 



These invaders represent 23% of the continent’s 308 earthworm species and account for 12 of the 13 most widespread species. 



To put that in perspective, in the U.S., only 8% of fish species, 6% of mammals, and 2% of insects and arachnids <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-species-use-wildfires-and-drought-as-an-opening-to-move-in/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">are alien</a>.



In Canada, the situation is even more striking. The proportion of alien earthworms is three times greater than that of native ones. 



Across most of the lower 48 U.S. states and Mexico, there's about one alien earthworm for every two native species.



“These ratios are likely to increase because human activities facilitate the development of alien species that threaten native earthworm species, a phenomenon still largely overlooked,” says study lead author Jérôme Mathieu, an associate professor of ecology at the Sorbonne.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-these-alien-earthworms-matter">Why do these alien earthworms matter?</h2>



To sum it all up, not all alien earthworms are troublemakers. But their widespread presence and unknown impacts on various ecosystems make them worth paying attention to. 



The researchers suggest several solutions, like encouraging the use of native worms for composting and fishing bait, and early detection through regular monitoring and citizen science initiatives.



By shedding light on these little-known dynamics, the study highlights the vital roles earthworms play in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killing-animals-ecosystem-non-native-culling-harmful-strategy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shaping ecosystems</a> and how they function in landscapes dominated by humans.



“This is most likely the tip of the iceberg,” says co-author <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/lab/John-Warren-Reynolds-Lab" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">John Warren Reynolds</a> of the Oligochaetology Laboratory and the New Brunswick Museum in Canada. 



“Many other soil organisms may have been introduced, but we know very little about their impacts.”



Next time you're out in your garden or taking a walk in the woods, remember that there's a whole world beneath your feet that's more complicated than it seems. 



Those wriggly worms might not just be helping your plants grow -- they could be part of a bigger story of ecological change that we're only beginning to understand.



----



The study was conducted by researchers from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>, <a href="https://www.sorbonne-universite.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sorbonne University</a>, and other institutions. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-023-02310-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Alien earthworms are invading and harming ecosystems across North America

There's an invasion happening right under our feet, and most...

Sustainability in cattle farming has taken a promising step forward. Researchers discovered that feeding a seaweed supplement to grazing beef cattle can reduce methane emissions by nearly 40%.



This study demonstrates that environmental benefits can align with cattle health and productivity.



Professor Ermias Kebreab, a researcher at the University of California (UC), Davis, led the team behind this study. Earlier findings showed that seaweed could cut methane emissions by 82% in feedlot cattle and over 50% in dairy cows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-cattle-grazing">Understanding cattle grazing</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-animals-have-an-unexpected-role-in-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cattle grazing</a> is an important part of farming around the world. It makes use of land that can’t be used for crops, turning grass into food and other useful products. 



Grazing also helps keep grasslands healthy, supports wildlife, and reduces the risk of wildfires.



 The management of grazing cattle varies significantly based on geography, climate, and available resources.



In arid regions, rotational grazing helps preserve soil quality and ensures pasture regeneration. In wetter areas, continuous grazing may be possible due to faster grass regrowth. Proper grazing techniques also minimize soil compaction and erosion, contributing to long-term land health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-circular-farming-practices">Circular farming practices </h2>



Additionally, grazing systems often integrate with other agricultural practices. For instance, cattle can graze on crop residues post-harvest, reducing waste and enriching the soil with organic matter. 



This integration supports circular farming approaches, which enhance sustainability and resource efficiency.



Despite its benefits, cattle grazing must be carefully managed to avoid overgrazing, which can deplete vegetation, increase soil erosion, and reduce water retention capacity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-emissions-in-cattle">Methane emissions in cattle</h2>



Livestock contribute 14.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Methane, primarily <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-reductions-in-methane-emissions-are-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">released by cattle through burping</a>, constitutes the largest share. 



Grazing cattle, that consume more fiber from grass, produce more methane compared to feedlot cattle or dairy cows. The United States alone is supports 9 million dairy cows and over 64 million beef cattle, making the mitigation of methane production crucial.



"Beef cattle spend only about three months in feedlots and most of their lives grazing on pasture," explained Professor Kebreab.



"We need to make this seaweed additive or any feed additive more accessible to grazing cattle to ensure sustainable farming while meeting global meat demand."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-reducing-methane-emissions">Challenges in reducing methane emissions</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-a-pill-stop-cows-from-burping-methane/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lowering methane emissions</a> in grazing cattle presents unique difficulties. Unlike feedlot or dairy cows, grazing cattle roam far from ranches for extended periods, which makes daily supplementation complicated. 



However, ranchers often provide dietary supplements during winter or when grass availability declines. This study aimed to overcome these logistical barriers.



The researchers conducted a 10-week experiment on a Montana ranch, dividing 24 beef steers into two groups.



One group received the seaweed supplement in pellet form, while the other did not. Despite voluntary intake, emissions dropped by nearly 40% in the supplemented group.



Professor Kebreab noted that most previous research took place in controlled settings. Fewer than half of these methods are effective for grazing cattle. This study represents a significant step in addressing the challenges unique to pasture-based systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-seaweed-reduces-methane-in-cattle">How seaweed reduces methane in cattle</h2>



Seaweed supplements reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-have-emerged-as-major-source-of-methane-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane emissions</a> by interfering with the gut microbes responsible for producing methane. The researchers suggest delivery mechanisms like lick blocks to make supplementation more practical for ranchers.



"This method paves the way to make a seaweed supplement easily available to grazing animals," said Professor Kebreab. 



Lick blocks could simplify the process, ensuring consistent access for cattle even in remote grazing areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-and-social-benefits">Environmental and social benefits</h2>



Pastoral farming sustains millions of people globally, often in regions most vulnerable to climate change. 



This study on reducing methane emissions in beef cattle offers a scalable solution to improve environmental sustainability while supporting livelihoods. By reducing emissions, cattle grazing could contribute positively to global efforts against climate change.



Professor Alison Van Eenennaam from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a> highlighted related efforts in the same&nbsp;PNAS&nbsp;issue. Her article emphasizes improving livestock efficiency in low- and middle-income countries through better genetics, feeding, and health practices. 



"This approach is key to meeting global meat demand while limiting greenhouse gas emissions," said Professor Eenennaam.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seaweed-supplements-and-methane-mitigation">Seaweed supplements and methane mitigation</h2>



The research marks a significant advancement in sustainable cattle farming. It bridges the gap between practical challenges and environmental goals, ensuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-will-boost-methane-emissions-in-the-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane</a> mitigation without compromising cattle health or productivity.



Supported by Matador Ranch in Dillon, Montana, this work sets the stage for broader implementation of seaweed supplements worldwide.



Postdoctoral researchers Paulo de Méo Filho and John-Fredy Ramirez-Agudelo also contributed to the study. The findings highlight the importance of innovative, science-based approaches to combat climate change while supporting global food security.



Future research may refine supplementation methods further, making them accessible to a wider range of farming systems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410863121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (PNAS).



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Seaweed supplements reduce methane in grazing cattle

Sustainability in cattle farming has taken a promising step forward....

Can you imagine surviving the chilly winter months without food or water? Sounds impossible to us, but for the thirteen-lined ground squirrel, a small creature of the North American plains, this is pretty much normal.



They manage to weather the cold seamlessly, without a drop of water or a morsel of food during their lengthy hibernation period.



This intriguing phenomenon has become the focus of a new investigation by a group of molecular and physiology specialists.



At the <a href="https://medicine.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University School of Medicine</a>, a dedicated group of scientists has been studying the peculiar bio-mechanics of these squirrels.



Their remarkable findings have recently been published, shedding light on the arcane winter survival secrets of these extraordinary creatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-squirrels-sleep-through-the-cold">How squirrels sleep through the cold</h2>



Documented research over the years has revealed that these ground squirrels hibernate for six to eight months every year during the unforgiving North American <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-winters-are-getting-colder-while-world-is-getting-warmer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">winter</a>.



During this entire hibernation period, they neither consume food nor drink water, even during their sporadic and brief moments of wakefulness.



In their recent endeavor, the scientists sought to unravel the enigma of how such a phenomenon could be possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-squirrel-balancing-act">Squirrel balancing act</h2>



Deepening their investigation into the biochemistry of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-hibernating-squirrels-can-teach-space-travelers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hibernating squirrels</a>, the Yale University team discovered that these critters maintain their blood ion levels close to the levels found in active squirrels. 



They accomplish this by effectively conserving water in their bodies and relocating ion reserves into areas of their bodies where they wouldn't be absorbed into the bloodstream.



The study also brought to light an interesting facet of the squirrel's hormonal activity. Certain hormones in the squirrel’s body act as antidiuretics that aid in water retention.



Furthermore, the areas in the squirrel's brain responsible for the production of such hormones remained active, even during hibernation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-off-thirst-how-do-they-do-it">Turning off thirst: How do they do it?</h2>



The researchers were most eager to uncover the mechanism that allowed the squirrels to switch off their thirst during times of hibernation.



The team observed that when they offered water to the squirrels awakened from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ground-squirrels-have-changed-their-hibernation-patterns-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hibernation</a>, or during their fleeting waking periods, the squirrels adamantly refused to drink. There was no apparent struggle to suppress the desire for water either.



On the other hand, the squirrels readily accepted an offering of salt, hinting at its role in the hibernation process.



In their quest to find the underlying mechanisms that control thirst, the researchers analyzed protein expression in the brain, neural activity, and the neurons’ response to thirst-triggering hormones. 



They discovered that the neurons responded in the same manner they would when the squirrels were not in hibernation. It seems that a certain brain mechanism prevents the neuronal signals from triggering the sensation of thirst.



Although the elusive mechanism that controls this thirst suppression remains a mystery, the team is undeterred.



The researchers are determined in their pursuit, believing that understanding how a mammal like a squirrel can survive the harsh conditions of hibernation, with body temperatures plummeting to near freezing, might provide invaluable insights for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-disruption-threatens-humanitys-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human survival</a> in extreme situations, such as lengthy space missions or enduring long surgeries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-survival">Implications for human survival</h2>



The fascinating discoveries about the hibernation mechanisms of thirteen-lined ground squirrels have implications that go far beyond the animal kingdom.



Scientists believe these insights could revolutionize our understanding of human survival under extreme conditions. 



For instance, the ability to suppress thirst and conserve resources efficiently could inform the development of advanced medical techniques for patients undergoing prolonged surgeries or recovering in intensive care units.



Moreover, the study holds promise for space exploration. As missions to Mars and beyond become increasingly plausible, replicating these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-are-squirrels-adapting-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptive traits</a> could help astronauts endure long-duration space travel. 



Researchers envision that mimicking such biochemical and neural processes might pave the way for humans to sustain life in resource-scarce environments without jeopardizing their health.



The tiny squirrel’s ability to endure months of extreme cold and scarcity serves as a remarkable biological blueprint for overcoming challenges that humans may face in the future. 



This makes these seemingly ordinary creatures extraordinary in terms of their potential impact on science and innovation.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp8358" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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How squirrels survive winter without food or water

Can you imagine surviving the chilly winter months without food...

In a remarkable discovery, researchers have unearthed fossils of tiny whiteflies preserved in incredible detail. 



These fossils, found in Miocene-age sediments at Hindon Maar near Dunedin, measure about 1.5mm by 1.25mm (0.059 inches by 0.049 inches). Despite their small size, the fossils reveal essential insights into ancient ecosystems.



Dr. Uwe Kaulfuss from the University of Göttingen in Germany led the excavation that uncovered these minute yet extraordinary specimens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whitefly-fossils-and-their-preservation">Whitefly fossils and their preservation</h2>



Adult whiteflies measure about 3mm (0.12 inches), while immature ones are even smaller.



The fossils discovered at Hindon Maar are preserved in their natural living positions, attached to the underside of fossil leaves. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemicals-are-changing-insects-in-subtle-yet-deadly-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a>, with oval black bodies, share similarities with modern whiteflies but feature distinctly defined body segments separated by deep sutures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-discovery-of-whitefly-fossils">Rare discovery of whitefly fossils</h2>



"Fossils of adult whitefly insects are not uncommon, but it takes extraordinary circumstances for the puparia – the protective shell the insect emerges from – to become fossilised," Dr. Kaulfuss explained.



"Some 15 million years ago, the leaf with the puparia must have become detached from a tree, blown into the small lake and sank to the deep lake floor to be covered by sediment and become fossilized. It must have happened in rapid succession as the tiny insect fossils are exquisitely preserved."



According to Dr. Kaulfuss, this new genus and species confirm that whiteflies were part of ancient forest ecosystems on New Zealand’s South Island.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-whitefly-fossils">Importance of whitefly fossils</h2>



Professor Daphne Lee from the <a href="https://www.otago.ac.nz" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Otago</a>’s Department of Geology emphasized the rarity and significance of these fossils.



"The fact that they are still in life position on the leaf is incredible and extremely rare. These little fossils are the first of their kind to be found in New Zealand and only the third example of such fossil puparia known globally," said Professor Lee.



Twenty years ago, only seven insect fossils older than the Ice Ages had been found in the country. Today, that number exceeds 750, with most housed at the Otago Geology Department. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-for-biodiversity">Broader implications for biodiversity</h2>



The findings from whiteflies' fossils showcase the long history of insects in Aotearoa New Zealand. 



With 14,000 insect species in the country - 90 percent of which are unique to New Zealand - these fossils add a critical data point for understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary histories</a>.



"Discovery of these minute fossils tells us this group of insects has been in Aotearoa New Zealand for at least 15 million years. This provides a well-dated calibration point for molecular phylogenetic studies," explained Professor Lee.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-knowledge-through-collaboration">Expanding knowledge through collaboration</h2>



The discovery from <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Göttingen</a> is part of a broader trend of uncovering new insect fossils in Otago. 



In addition to whiteflies, researchers have identified fossils of danceflies, craneflies, phantom midges, and marsh beetles this year. 



These studies highlight extensive global collaborations, with contributions from scientists in Germany, France, Spain, Poland, and the United States.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-value-of-small-fossils">Value of small fossils</h2>



While large fossils often capture public attention, Professor Lee stressed the significance of tiny fossils. 



Most animals in forests are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-leaf-eating-insects-have-a-huge-impact-on-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a>. These small but vital creatures form the backbone of forest ecosystems. 



Each discovery - whether whiteflies or other insects - adds to the growing appreciation of their ecological roles in shaping ancient environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-whiteflies">More about whiteflies</h2>



Whiteflies belong to the insect family Aleyrodidae and are known for their small size and winged forms. These insects thrive in warm climates and are often found on the underside of leaves, where they feed on plant sap. 



Whiteflies are significant agricultural pests, as their feeding habits can damage crops and transmit plant diseases. Their life cycle consists of four main stages: egg, nymph, pupa, and adult, with each stage adapted to different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-changing-color-to-adapt-to-human-destruction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a>.



Despite their agricultural impact, whiteflies also play a role in ecosystems by serving as food for predators like ladybugs and lacewings. Their ability to adapt to various plant hosts and environments has made them a subject of study in evolutionary biology. 



Research on modern whiteflies often focuses on controlling their population while understanding their genetic diversity. These studies provide a backdrop for examining their ancient counterparts, highlighting changes and continuities over millions of years.



Ultimately, the discovery of whitefly fossils at Hindon Maar offers a rare glimpse into New Zealand’s ancient forests. These fossils not only enhance our understanding of past biodiversity but also highlight the importance of small creatures in ecological research.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12549-024-00628-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeobiodiversity and Palaeoenvironments</a>.



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'Extremely rare' fossils reveal how whiteflies live on leaves

In a remarkable discovery, researchers have unearthed fossils of tiny...

Scientists have finally determined the number of bonobos residing in one of the largest pristine tropical forests on Earth. This region, Salonga National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), serves as a critical sanctuary for these endangered great apes. 



A comprehensive study, conducted over two decades by 48 scientists, estimates that between 8,000 to 18,000 adult bonobos inhabit Salonga. While the population appears stable, researchers have noted signs of a potential decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-estimating-the-park-s-bonobos-population">Estimating the park's bonobos population</h2>



The findings not only shed light on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-endangered-than-previously-known/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobo numbers</a> but also identify factors essential for their survival, offering actionable steps for their conservation.



"Estimating the population of bonobos in Congo's largest protected park is a significant step in conservation efforts," said Mattia Bessone, first author on the study.



"We highlight the effectiveness of park rangers in preserving this endangered species, showing that Salonga’s success can serve as a model for other conservation projects."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-africa-s-largest-pristine-forest">Africa's largest pristine forest</h2>



Salonga National Park, Africa’s largest protected forest, spans an area equivalent to Switzerland. 



Its untouched primary forest provides a haven for bonobos, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species of great ape</a> found exclusively in the Congo. 



Unlike other regions, Salonga shields bonobos from the severe threats of deforestation and commercial hunting. Despite its reputation as a stronghold, the actual number of bonobos within the park had remained unknown due to the lack of comprehensive surveys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revisiting-bonobo-data-in-salonga">Revisiting bonobo data in Salonga</h2>



"There was an old number floating around of how many bonobos there were in Salonga, but this was an assumption based on surveys covering less than twenty percent of the entire park," said Barbara Fruth, a group leader at the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior (<a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPI-AB</a>).



Salonga's unique research opportunity: 33,000 km² (12,741 sq miles) of protected forest and 9,000 km² (3,475 sq miles) of human settlement corridors offer vital insights into bonobo conservation.



"The unique thing about Salonga is that it is the only place where surveys have been repeated in the same areas. In this vast country, only Salonga offers the opportunity to model trends and assess whether bonobos are declining in Congo," noted Fruth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-compiling-two-decades-of-data">Compiling two decades of data</h2>



The monumental task of compiling two decades of survey data fell to Mattia Bessone, a postdoctoral researcher with Fruth. 



Between 2000 and 2018, 13 surveys were conducted by a team of 48 scientists. However, varying survey methods - ranging from traditional nest counting to modern motion-triggered cameras - posed challenges.



Bessone applied statistical techniques to reconcile these differences, ensuring the data provided a clear picture of bonobo populations across the park, even in previously unstudied areas.



The resulting analysis represents the most extensive temporal comparison of bonobo populations to date, offering insights critical for conservation planning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-in-salonga-stable-yet-vulnerable">Bonobos in Salonga: Stable yet vulnerable</h2>



The study estimates that 8,000 to 18,000 adult bonobos inhabit Salonga, a figure aligning with past extrapolations from smaller surveys. 



While the population has remained stable since 2000, the researchers noted a concerning downward trend in density and distribution. Although this trend is not statistically significant, it signals the need for vigilance.



"What this tells us is that bonobos are not in immediate danger, but we need to stay vigilant and to keep investing in conservation efforts if we are to ensure their survival," said Bessone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bonobos-thrive-in-salonga-park">How bonobos thrive in Salonga Park</h2>



The study highlights factors that influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-cooperation-challenges-beliefs-about-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobo distribution</a> and abundance. 



Primary forest cover emerges as the main predictor of bonobo presence, while proximity to villages has a negative impact. Interestingly, bonobos are more frequently found near park ranger posts, suggesting a protective effect of law enforcement.



"We can’t say what the rangers do specifically that leads to this effect," noted Bessone. "It could be that rangers are a possible deterrent to poachers. Whatever the reason, it is clear that just the presence of law enforcement has a positive effect on bonobos."



Another intriguing finding relates to the park’s southern side, home to traditional minority communities who have coexisted with bonobos for generations. 



"In these villages there is a cultural taboo that prevents hunting of bonobo," said Bessone. "It could be this that creates the positive effect they have on bonobo abundance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-for-bonobo-conservation">Benefits for bonobo conservation</h2>



Overall, the findings underline the importance of preserving forest cover and investing in law enforcement to ensure bonobo survival. Salonga’s long-term monitoring efforts have provided a model for other conservation initiatives across Africa.



"The biggest threats to bonobos are deforestation and commercial hunting, and our findings show that preserving forest and investing in law enforcement has concrete benefits for <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/chimpanzees-vs-bonobos-whats-the-difference/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobo</a> conservation," said Fruth.



"We hope this motivates national and international conservation authorities to invest more into Salonga and other protected areas to ensure that bonobos remain part of our world far into the future."



By combining decades of research with actionable recommendations, this study has laid a strong foundation for future conservation efforts, offering hope for one of the world’s most endangered species.



The study is published in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10764-024-00468-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Journal of Primatology</a>.



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Bonobos are thriving in Salonga National Park

Scientists have finally determined the number of bonobos residing in...

A recent discovery in a quarry near Bristol has sparked intense debate and controversy in the scientific community. Unearthed from Triassic-aged rocks, a tiny fossil skeleton has been identified as&nbsp;Cryptovaranoides microlanius, a modern-type lizard that died at least 205 million years ago.



This remarkable fossil is now the oldest lizard of its kind on record, which reframes our understanding of lizard evolution by pushing the origin of the Squamata group - which includes all lizards and snakes - back by 35 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-hidden-predator">A hidden predator</h2>



The original study, conducted by a team from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, named the creature Cryptovaranoides microlanius. This translates to "hidden <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-lizard-day-2024-celebrating-our-scaly-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizard</a>, small butcher," which is a nod to its sharp teeth that probably helped it tear its prey apart.



The research team was led by Dr. David Whiteside, Dr. Sofia Chambi-Trowell, and Professor Mike Benton. 



The experts identified key anatomical features of the skull and skeleton that placed the fossil firmly within the Squamata and close to the Anguimorpha group, which includes modern anguids and monitors.



"We knew our paper would be controversial. But we were confident that we had looked at every possible feature and compared it with everything we could," explained Dr. Whiteside.



Their confidence was rooted in meticulous research, which included detailed examination of the fossil specimen and CT scans to analyze the intricate details of the skull and jaw.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controversy-around-the-lizard-fossil">Controversy around the lizard fossil</h2>



Despite their thorough investigation, the findings were greeted with skepticism.



In 2023, a rival team of researchers challenged the classification of Cryptovaranoides, suggesting it was not a lizard or even a lizard relative. 



Instead, they proposed that it belonged to the archosauromorph group, which includes crocodilians and dinosaurs. This claim surprised the original researchers.



"We were therefore surprised, perhaps even shocked, that in 2023 another team of academics suggested that Cryptovaranoides was not a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-lizard-faces-an-unexpected-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizard</a> or even a lizard relative, but in fact an archosauromorph, more closely related to crocodilians and dinosaurs," said Professor Benton.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revisiting-the-lizard-fossil">Revisiting the lizard fossil</h2>



Determined to validate their findings, the Bristol team revisited the fossil and CT scan data. Their reassessment involved examining the original specimen alongside X-ray scans, which revealed details hidden within the rock. 



"We had the marvelous images from those CT scans as well as further access to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sea-lizard-khinjaria-had-teeth-like-daggers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> which enabled us to check all their suggestions. We found that most of the concerns raised were wrong," noted Dr. Chambi-Trowell.



The team’s new analysis scrutinized the criticisms point by point. They provided detailed descriptions and supplementary evidence, including additional photographs and 3D images, to substantiate their claim.



"All the details of the skull, the jaws, the teeth, and the limb bones confirm that Cryptovaranoides is a lizard, not an archosauromorph," Professor Benton stated.



"In our new paper, we provide great detail of every criticism made and we provide more photographs of the specimen and 3D images from the scans, so everyone can check the detail."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-s-oldest-modern-type-lizard">World's oldest modern-type lizard</h2>



The team’s confidence was further bolstered by phylogenetic analysis, a method that codes hundreds of anatomical features of Cryptovaranoides and compares them with other modern and fossil lizards, as well as archosauromorphs. 



"The result of all this had to be tested by a phylogenetic analysis. This is where we code hundreds of anatomical features in Cryptovaranoides and other modern and fossil lizards, as well as various archosauromorphs," explained Dr. Whiteside about the rigorous testing process.



"We ran the analysis time after time, and it gave our original result, that the little Bristol reptile is indeed the world’s oldest modern-type lizard."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-discovery">Significance of the discovery</h2>



This discovery has far-reaching implications for our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-lizards-scuba-dive-by-using-air-bubbles-to-breathe-underwater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reptile</a> evolution. 



Squamata, the group that includes all lizards and snakes, is one of the most diverse vertebrate groups today. Tracing its origins back 205 million years provides new insights into how modern reptiles evolved and adapted over millions of years.



Dr. Whiteside and his colleagues hope their findings will settle the debate and reaffirm the significance of Cryptovaranoides.



By pushing the timeline of Squamata’s origin further back, the discovery challenges existing models of reptilian evolution and highlights the importance of continued research and exploration in paleontology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visual-evidence-in-the-lizard-fossil">Visual evidence in the lizard fossil</h2>



The fossil’s remarkable preservation has provided invaluable data. Detailed CT scans allowed the team to analyze internal structures and confirm its classification. 



One image, created by Dr. Chambi-Trowell, shows the inside of the skull and lower jaw on the right, juxtaposed with an exterior CT scan of the same bones on the left. These images reveal a level of detail crucial for accurate classification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



While this lizard fossil discovery is remarkable, it opens new questions about the early evolution of reptiles. What other fossils might remain hidden in similar Triassic rocks? 



Could they reveal even older ancestors of Squamata? The Bristol team’s work underscores the value of re-examining existing specimens and using advanced technologies like CT scanning to unlock hidden details.



"The little Bristol reptile is a remarkable window into the past. It helps us understand the origins of one of the most successful vertebrate groups on Earth," said Dr. Whiteside.



"We look forward to more discoveries that will continue to illuminate the fascinating history of life on our planet."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.231874" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Fossil discovery shifts the origin of lizards back 35 million years

A recent discovery in a quarry near Bristol has sparked...

Quantum states, such as quantum superposition "cat states," are notorious for their fragility, often disappearing in the blink of an eye. But imagine keeping such a delicate state stable not just for seconds, but for nearly half an hour. 



That's exactly what a team of scientists has achieved, maintaining a quantum superposition -- known as a "cat state" -- for an astonishing 23 minutes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-cat-states-and-superposition">Quantum "cat states" and superposition</h2>



Quantum superposition is the idea that tiny particles can be in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-a-simple-way-to-grasp-this-impossible-concept-carl-kocher/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multiple states at the same time</a>. A great way to understand this is through Schrödinger's cat, a famous thought experiment.



Imagine you have a cat in a closed box with a device that has a 50% chance of releasing poison based on something random happening at the quantum level, like an atom decaying. 



According to superposition, until you open the box to check, the cat is both alive and dead at the same time. 



This strange scenario shows just how weird and mind-bending quantum mechanics can be, challenging our everyday ideas about how things work.



The "cat state" takes this superposition idea and applies it to something bigger and more familiar, like a cat, to highlight <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-a-simple-way-to-grasp-this-impossible-concept-carl-kocher/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how bizarre quantum theory really is</a>. 



By imagining the cat being both alive and dead, we can better understand the tricky parts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-speed-measured-for-first-time-too-fast-to-comprehend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics</a> and why simply observing something can change its state. 



This example is still a key part of conversations about what reality is really like and the mysterious behaviors of the quantum world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maintaining-cat-state-stability">Maintaining cat state stability</h2>



Leading the charge is Zheng-Tian Lu, a researcher at the <a href="https://en.ustc.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Science and Technology</a> of China. 



His team's record-shattering achievement completely disrupts our understanding of quantum mechanics and opens up exciting possibilities for future technologies.



Creating such states isn't new, but keeping them stable has been a monumental challenge. 



Usually, these superpositions collapse into a single state almost as soon as they form. Lu and his colleagues decided to tackle this problem head-on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-did-they-pull-this-off">How did they pull this off?</h2>



They took about 10,000 atoms of ytterbium -- a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-coal-ash-holds-tons-of-rare-earth-elements-worth-8-4-billion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rare earth element</a> -- and cooled them down to a few thousandths of a degree above absolute zero. 



Then, they used lasers to trap the atoms with electromagnetic forces. 



Under these ultra-cold conditions, they could control the atoms' quantum states with incredible precision. Each atom was placed into a superposition of two states with very different spins.



Now, you'd expect environmental disturbances to ruin the party pretty quickly, causing the atoms to settle into a single spin state in milliseconds or seconds. But here's where the magic happens. 



The researchers fine-tuned their lasers just right, allowing the cat states to last an unprecedented 1,400 seconds -- that's 23 minutes, or about the time it takes to watch your favorite sitcom without commercials.



Barry Sanders from the <a href="https://www.ucalgary.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Calgary</a> was impressed by the feat. He told New Scientist, “It's a big deal because they're making this beautiful cat state in an atomic system and it's stable.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-quantum-cat-states-matter">Why quantum cat states matter</h2>



Why should you care about this? For starters, these long-lasting cat states are incredibly sensitive to their environment. 



Think of them like ultra-sensitive probes that can detect the slightest changes around them. 



Sanders explained, “A probe gets jiggled and pushed and nudged and prodded, and then by seeing what happens, you learn about the things that interact with it.”



The researchers showed that their cat state's sensitivity for measuring magnetic fields is already nearing the fundamental limits set by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-impossibility-made-possible-using-exotic-mathematics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum mechanics</a>. 



Because it sticks around for so long, the cat state isn't just a one-trick pony; it can gather data over extended periods, capturing both quick blips and slow changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-applications">Real world applications</h2>



This could have big implications for studying subtle magnetic forces or even uncovering exotic effects in fundamental physics. 



Imagine being able to detect minute changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plasma-can-bend-magnetic-fields-into-unique-shapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic fields</a> that were previously beyond our reach.



Looking to the future, these cat states might find a home in quantum information processing. 



They could act as super-stable memory units, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/transmitting-quantum-information-using-electron-spin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storing extra information</a> and helping devices like quantum computers correct errors on the fly.



It's not every day that we see such a leap in quantum stability. This achievement <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/impossibility-paradox-calculating-incalculable-quantum-realm-particles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pushes the boundaries of what's possible</a> and brings us closer to practical quantum technologies. It's like unlocking a new level in a game we thought we had figured out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



To sum it all up, this achievement by Zheng-Tian Lu and his team is a game-changer in quantum physics. 



By keeping a quantum "cat state" alive for 23 minutes, they've shattered previous records and opened up a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-quantum-revolution-will-impact-all-aspects-of-society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whole new world of possibilities</a>. 



Their clever use of ytterbium atoms and precise laser tuning demonstrates incredible control over quantum states.



It's exciting to think about where this could lead us. From super-sensitive probes that can detect the tiniest magnetic forces to more stable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/code-breaking-encryption-quantum-computers-takes-big-step-closer-to-becoming-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum computers</a> that can fix their own errors, the implications are huge. 



While we might not see immediate changes in our daily lives, this kind of research pushes the boundaries of what's possible and gets us one step closer to the next big leap in technology



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.09331v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



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"Quantum cat" survives in superposition for a record-shattering 23 minutes

Quantum states, such as quantum superposition "cat states," are notorious...

A fascinating study reveals that chimpanzees, like humans, are gradually improving their tool-using skills through the exchange of ideas and information across different populations.



The research was led by Cassandra Gunasekaram, a doctoral student at the University of Zurich.



The study highlights parallels between the knowledge-sharing behaviors of chimps and early humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tool-use-by-chimpanzees">Tool use by chimpanzees</h2>



Scientific evidence has shown us that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzee-cultures-are-more-complex-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimps</a> are quite skilled at passing down behaviors like tool use from one generation to another.



However, their "culture," defined as socially learned behaviors, appeared to have remained more or less constant. Gunasekaram and her team sought to unravel this mystery.



The team from the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a> meticulously combined genetic data tracking ancient chimp migrations across Africa with observations of 15 distinct foraging behaviors across multiple populations and subspecies.



The behaviors fell into three categories: those requiring no tools, those using simple tools, and the most complex ones involving toolsets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-behaviors-and-group-interactions">Complex behaviors and group interactions </h2>



The pivotal outcome of the chimpanzee study was the finding that the use of advanced tools correlated strongly with populations connected by genetic exchanges in the past 5,000 to 15,000 years. This is an indication that complex behaviors had spread when groups interacted.



Interestingly, the regions where three subspecies overlapped demonstrated the most complex tool use. 



On the other hand, simpler behaviors such as foraging without tools seemed less tied to migration and likely evolved independently in different areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-chimp-connection">Human-chimp connection</h2>



"They've become so complex that one person alone could not reinvent them from scratch," noted Gunasekaram.



The advanced tool use seen in chimps mirrors the human progress from early abacuses to modern smartphones – a result of sharing ideas and incremental innovation.



However, unlike humans, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-feel-the-pressure-to-perform-with-an-audience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimps</a> have far fewer opportunities to encounter new individuals and ideas. This is primarily due to gradual migrations driven by sexually mature females that move to avoid inbreeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-tool-use-in-chimpanzee-culture">Evolution of tool-use in chimpanzee culture</h2>



One of the biggest challenges in studying the evolution of chimpanzee culture is the limited window of observation since the species has only been scientifically researched for about a century. 



Moreover, chimpanzee tools made of sticks and stems are perishable, making it nearly impossible to trace how their artifacts have evolved over time. The team overcame these hurdles by analyzing ancient genetic flows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-influence-of-social-learning">Influence of social learning</h2>



Social learning plays a crucial role in the development and transmission of chimpanzee culture. Through observation and imitation, young chimpanzees acquire valuable skills and knowledge from experienced individuals within their social groups. 



This process allows for the transfer of learned behaviors, such as tool use and foraging techniques, across generations. 



The ability to learn from one another and adapt to changing environments has contributed to the richness and diversity of chimpanzee cultural practices, including their use of tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-variations-among-chimpanzees">Cultural variations among chimpanzees</h2>



Similar to human cultures, chimpanzee cultures also exhibit variations and regional differences. 



Different chimpanzee populations have been found to possess unique cultural practices and behaviors that are specific to their social groups and environments. 



These variations can be observed in different tool-use techniques, communication patterns, and even forms of social interaction. 



By studying these cultural variations, researchers gain valuable insights into the adaptive nature of chimpanzee culture and the influence of local environments on their behavioral repertoire.



By exploring the influence of social learning and highlighting cultural variations among chimpanzee populations, we gain a deeper understanding of the complexity and significance of chimpanzee culture and the use of tools in their evolutionary journey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-will-chimpanzee-tools-surpass-humans">Will chimpanzee tools surpass humans?</h2>



While it's unlikely that chimps will match human ingenuity, given enough time, they could become more efficient foragers. 



For instance, some populations are already more advanced in cracking nuts with stone-made hammers and anvils. A particularly innovative group has even invented a stabilizer for the anvil.



Ultimately, this study serves as a reminder of the significant role of interaction and collaboration in driving innovation and technological progress – a lesson we share with our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-are-constantly-mastering-new-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">closest living relatives</a>, the chimpanzees.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk3381" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Chimpanzees pass tool-use skills across generations

A fascinating study reveals that chimpanzees, like humans, are gradually...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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