Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations.



In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways.



This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-share-alcoholic-fruit-to-increase-social-bonding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human trick</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-calls-and-language-origins">Chimpanzee calls and language origins</h2>



Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts, and hoos that can match specific events or contexts. Scientists studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> communication often focus on whether these calls can be recombined to express novel ideas.



“Generating new or combined meanings by combining words is a hallmark of human language, and it is crucial to investigate whether a similar capacity exists in our closest living relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos, in order to decipher the origins of human language,” said Dr. Crockford. 



Observing apes in rich forest environments over many years helped researchers gather thousands of vocal utterances, matching them to various daily events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-chimpanzees-use-call-combinations">How chimpanzees use call combinations</h2>



Previous analyses suggested that primates usually rely on single calls. But chimpanzees in this project displayed a variety of two-call combinations that seemed to deliver more complex messages than either single call alone.



“Recording chimpanzee vocalisations over several years in their natural environment is essential in order to document their full communicative capabilities, a task that is becoming increasingly challenging due to growing human threats to wild chimpanzee populations,” said Roman Wittig, co-author of the study and director of the Taï Chimpanzee Project. 



Calls like hoo, pant, and grunt were often linked to feeding, traveling, approaching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">companions</a>, or even building a nest.



Some paired calls strayed far from the meaning of either individual call. Others narrowed or clarified the meaning of one call by combining it with another.



Researchers also discovered that a pair of calls could add both meanings together. Sometimes, flipping the order of the same two calls changed which events triggered that combination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-are-complex">Chimp calls are complex</h2>



“Our findings suggest a highly generative vocal communication system, unprecedented in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-chimp-nests-can-tell-us-about-early-independence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a>, which echoes recent findings in bonobos suggesting that complex combinatorial capacities were already present in the common ancestor of humans and these two great ape species,” said Cédric Girard-Buttoz, first author of the study. 



”This changes the views of the last century which considered communication in the great apes to be fixed and linked to emotional states.”&nbsp;



Humans rely on syntax to shift the message of a group of words by rearranging them. Chimpanzee call combinations seem to share a similar principle, at least in miniature form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-and-specific-events">Chimp calls and specific events</h2>



Scientists matched each vocal utterance to events such as resting, traveling, or social interactions. 



Earlier <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982205010407" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> found that certain hoo calls link with resting or feeding. This project took that approach further by analyzing two-call sequences in multiple communities of wild chimpanzees.



Some call pairs combined rest and social signals, while others popped up in contexts that had little to do with either call used alone. The addition or repositioning of a second call often changed the full vocal sequence’s event links.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-hint-at-early-language">Chimp calls hint at early language</h2>



Human language can create countless meanings from a limited set of sounds. These chimpanzee findings point to a flexible communication system that can widen its meaning capacity using simple steps.



Researchers say it is possible that human ancestors carried similar abilities. Over time, these may have expanded into the more detailed language structures we know today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-researchers-still-need-to-learn">What researchers still need to learn</h2>



Questions remain about longer sequences that might chain three or more calls. Future studies may investigate how that chaining impacts clarity or social bonding among chimpanzees.



Scientists also want to see if other primates or animals use multiple call-combining strategies. Some suggest that more species might do the same if studied across enough time and daily contexts.



Experts emphasize that playback experiments could confirm how receivers interpret each combination. Wild animals rarely stand still for tests, but careful monitoring might reveal which part of a call they respond to.



There is also the question of whether some call pairs express reference to upcoming events. Knowing that certain sequences appear during, say, nest-building might help reveal how apes convey planning or intention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-data-is-needed">More data is needed </h2>



With more data, researchers hope to better map how these combinations relate to specific events or states. Each new finding challenges the idea that only humans generate layered meanings from limited vocal elements.



Spending years in the field was crucial. It took that long to observe enough high-quality instances of different chimp calls, especially for rarer behaviors like nest-building.



Many wonder if these chimp call strategies might extend to gestures or other signals. Studies of both vocal and non-vocal communication could fill in gaps that remain.



Efforts to protect wild populations are also vital. Researchers stress that deforestation or poaching will cut short our chance to learn more about ape communication in its natural setting.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq2879" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Chimpanzees mix vocal calls to create new meanings, like humans

Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations. In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways. This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively human trick. Chimpanzee calls and language origins Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts,...

An in-depth review of the history of sage grouse hunting and population trends across the Intermountain West has shown that a significant decline in the bird’s numbers during past decades prompted important changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/domestic-cats-go-hunting-out-of-instinct-rather-than-hunger/">hunting</a> season regulations in order to protect the endangered birds.&nbsp;



In a study published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0253635">PLOS One</a>, a research team investigated the history of grouse hunting regulations in 11 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces, as well as the impact of these regulations on growth rates of this species.&nbsp;



Once numbering millions across the Intermountain West, sage grouse populations dwindled in the first decades of the 20th century, prompting wildlife agencies to impose hunting restrictions in the 1930s and 1940s. These restrictions included reducing possession limits and hunting season lengths, and setting season starting dates later in September in order to avoid the killing of females with young broods.&nbsp;



“We found that wildlife agencies throughout western North America have set increasingly more conservative harvest regulations over the past 25 years to conserve sage grouse,” said study co-author Jeffrey Beck, a professor of Wildlife Habitat Restoration Ecology at the <a href="http://www.uwyo.edu/">University of Wyoming</a>.



“It appears that, overall, agencies are doing well with adjusting the timing of hunting seasons, reducing season lengths and maintaining later hunting seasons as supported by previous research,” added study lead author Jonathan Dinkins, an assistant professor of Agricultural Sciences at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a>.&nbsp;



“Also, by retaining hunting seasons but lowering bag and possession limits, agencies continue to bring in important funding for conservation from hunting permits while ensuring hunter take is limited to sustain populations.”



However, regarding the overall effect of hunting season regulations on population growth rates, the scientists found mixed results: although discontinuing harvest in the largest sage grouse population in Idaho resulted in greater population growth rates, this was not the case for smaller populations.&nbsp;



In a separate study published in the same <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0257198">journal</a>, the researchers also assessed the impact of weather conditions, human activity such as oil and gas development, and habitat loss due to fires on population trends. The team once again found that not all sage grouse populations were influenced by the same factors in the same ways.&nbsp;



Although these studies come with mixed results, the researchers hope that their models will help management agencies better understand population trends and focus conservation efforts on factors that may lead to increasing the survival and reproduction rates of endangered birds.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hunting regulations have helped safeguard the sage grouse

An in-depth review of the history of sage grouse hunting...

A poll of 800 voters in Washington state shows that the majority support a plan that includes removing four dams on the Snake River in support of salmon. The plan also included investments in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clean-energy-should-be-prioritized-during-covid-19-recovery/">clean energy</a> and agricultural infrastructure. Among those people polled, 58 percent wanted scientists, tribes, local communities and other stakeholders to collaborate on plans for dam removal on the Snake River in order to save salmon from extinction.&nbsp;



“Voters understand the situation is urgent, and they want action. Washington voters are determined that we cannot let salmon disappear, and that we can also take care of farm and energy needs at the same time," said Mark Mellman, CEO of <a href="https://mellmangroup.com/">The Mellman Group</a>, which conducted the poll.&nbsp;



The results of the survey also showed that across the political spectrum and throughout Washington, 62 percent of people are extremely worried about salmon going extinct in the state.&nbsp;



An estimated 7,000 Chinook salmon are returning to spawn in the Salmon River Basin. This figure represents half the 10 year average of returning salmon. In particular, less than 3,000 steelhead returned, the lowest number recorded since counts began in 1938.&nbsp;



“The loss of salmon is an existential threat to Native Nations, fishers, business owners, and communities - and would trigger ecological devastation in our region," said Alyssa Macy, CEO of Washington Environmental Council and Washington Conservation Voters.



"We must take decisive action to prevent extinction, including removal of dams on the lower Snake River and replacement of their benefits. If salmon no longer exist, who will we be?”



Governor and one time presidential candidate, Jay Inslee has previously said he’s committed to engaging stakeholders in a plan to save both salmon and the orcas that depend on them from extinction. Details of this plan are not yet released.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The poll was funded by the <a href="https://waterfdn.org/">Water Foundation</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Washington voters want dam removal to save salmon

A poll of 800 voters in Washington state shows that...

Killer whales are some of the most widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-remains-unclear-which-mammals-can-survive-climate-change/">mammals</a> in the world. A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a> in Canada has found a previously unknown type of killer whale living off the west coast of the United States. These so-called “outer coast transient whales” prefer deep water for hunting, have a unique high-pitched vocal dialect, and prey on large sea mammals, including even other species of whales, such as the baby grey whales.



By analyzing over 100,000 photographs of killer whales taken off the United States west coast, the research team discovered a species that lives and hunts hundreds of kilometers further from the coast than the typical killer whales, in the offshore waters between Oregon and central California.



“Killer whales are found all over the world,” said study lead author Josh McInnes, a master’s student at the University of British Columbia. “They spend most of their time in coastal waters, but we’re now finding that they do inhabit the offshore oceanic waters. And there’s basically nothing known about them out there.”



The outer coast killer whale is thought to be a subspecies of Bigg’s killer whales, which are known for their highly coordinated hunting patterns. However, researchers found significant differences between these whales and their coastal cousins. While Bigg’s transients hunt smaller mammals, such as harbor seals and porpoises, the outer coast ones prefer elephant seals, oceanic dolphins, and even grey whale calves.



Besides having different habitats and dietary preferences, outer coast and nearshore whales also seem to have different dialects. According to McInnes, because of the need to be heard above the roar of offshore winds, the outer coast whales use higher pitched calls than their nearshore counterparts.&nbsp;



“People talk about biodiversity a lot,” said Lawrence Dill, a behavioral ecologist at <a href="https://www.sfu.ca/">Simon Fraser University</a> in British Columbia. “Most people tend to understand that as species diversity. It’s important to realize that within species, sometimes even within a population, there’s behavioral diversity.” The discovery of outer coast transient whales is an important step forward in understanding the diversity characterizing the world’s killer whales.



The study is published by the&nbsp;<a href="https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/30740">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists discover a new type of killer whale

Killer whales are some of the most widespread mammals in...

A new <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.09.24.461654v1">study</a> led by the <a href="https://www.mun.ca/">Memorial University of Newfoundland</a> in Canada has found that snowshoe hares are starting to lose their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glass-frogs-rely-on-a-previously-unknown-form-of-camouflage/">camouflage</a> abilities due to climate change. Mismatched traits, such as coat color change misaligned with seasonal patterns, generally decrease survival rates in animals. But now, researchers discovered that in the case of the snowshoe hare, coat change functions may actually confer advantages that supersede mismatch costs.



Snowshoe hares are typically found in northern United States and Canada, and until recently, would turn white in the winter, and rusty brown in the summer and autumn, in order to appear less visible to a wide range of predators, such as foxes, coyotes, or bobcats.&nbsp;



However, with climate change altering seasonal patterns, snowshoe hares’ coat colors are becoming increasingly mismatched with their environments, making scientists worry that their mortality risks due to predation will increase. Strangely, this has not happened: only one in seven hares that were captured by predators were mismatched.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Researchers studied 347 snowshoe hares in southwest Yukon during three autumns and four springs between 2015 and 2018. They found that white coated hares rummaging through a brown autumn environment did not face more danger than their matched counterparts. In fact, they even seemed to fare better. “We found that mismatch reduced rather than increased autumn mortality risk of snowshoe hares in Yukon by 86.5 percent,” said the study authors.&nbsp;



The scientists suspect that the white coating might provide more insulation which helps hares spend less energy while foraging. “We suggest that the increased coat insulation and lower metabolic rates of winter acclimatized hares confer energetic advantages to white mismatched hares that reduce their mortality risk,” they explained.



Moreover, the researchers discovered that during autumn, white mismatched hares foraged between 17 and 77 minutes less per day than the matched brown hares, thus lowering their predation risk and increasing survival.



However, no effects of mismatch on spring mortality risks were found. According to the study authors, this suggests “a potential temperature limit where the costs of conspicuousness outweigh energetic benefits.”



With climate change accelerating, it is not yet clear how the snowshoe hares’ traits, behavior, and survival rates will evolve. Further research is needed to understand how animals adapt to major and rapid environmental changes.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Snowshoe hares with less camouflage can still avoid predators

A new study led by the Memorial University of Newfoundland...

Humans have introduced non-native species to ecosystems all over the globe. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>, researchers have found that specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-explore-the-fascinating-topic-of-vocal-learning-in-animals/">animals</a> such as silver carp and American signal crayfish cause declines in other important species in aquatic environments.&nbsp;



The experts report that these types of invasive fish can push lake ecosystems to a tipping point beyond which there is an abrupt shift from healthy to degraded conditions. According to the researchers, this shift is difficult to reverse.



The introduction of invasive fish leads to a decrease in water quality. When a freshwater ecosystem collapses and becomes unhealthy, it is often dominated by algal blooms. These blooms create toxins that poison freshwater supplies as well as block sunlight, destroying other life forms in a pond or lakes.&nbsp;



“Algal blooms represent one of the most significant threats to the security of the Earth’s surface freshwaters," said study first author Dr. Sam Reynolds. "Simply undoing the circumstances that triggered a tipping point will not restore the ecosystem - the road to recovery is slow and steep,”



While some invasive species can push a freshwater ecosystem towards collapse, other non-native species such as zebra mussels actually help stall ecosystem collapse and may even restore degraded lakes.&nbsp;



“Managers of drinking water reservoirs, for example, may be able to avoid the cost of dealing with blooms of harmful algae, by removing invasive crayfish but allowing established non-native zebra mussels to remain and act as biological filters," said study senior author Professor Davis Aldridge.



"Early detection and rapid response plans should always be our first line of attack. But in situations where invaders have already established and can no longer be eradicated, it may be appropriate to embrace their positive effects.”



Although the research focuses on relatively shallow lake ecosystems, the scientists believe the framework of their research could also be used for other ecosystems facing the threat of collapse.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.&nbsp;



---By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Invasive fish can cause ecosystem collapse

Humans have introduced non-native species to ecosystems all over the...

Tardigrades, also known as water bears or moss piglets, are a phylum of eight-legged segmented micro-animals that are approximately 0.02 inches in length. They are some of the sturdiest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-explore-the-fascinating-topic-of-vocal-learning-in-animals/">animals</a> on the planet, being able to survive in a variety of extreme conditions. 



For instance, in a 2007 trip to space, some tardigrades were exposed to the space vacuum and to damaging solar radiation, and still managed to survive and reproduce after returning to Earth. 



Recently, a research team led by <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> has found a new species of tardigrade (Paradoryphoribius chronocaribbeus) conserved in 16 million years old Dominican amber.&nbsp;



Although tardigrades have survived all the five <a href="https://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/140/1/259">Phanerozoic Great Mass Extinctions</a> and are found on all the continents and in various marine, freshwater, and terrestrial environments, the earliest modern looking tardigrades are only known from approximately 80 million years ago. 



Due to their microscopic size and non-biomineralizing bodies, the tardigrade fossil record is extremely sparse. Thus, the newly found tardigrade fossil is only the third to be fully described and formally named until now.



This fossil was found embedded in Miocene Dominican amber from 16 million years ago. It is the first fossilized representative of the tardigrade superfamily Isohypsibioidea. 



Because of its extremely small size, researchers needed a special microscope to observe it in detail. By using confocal laser microscopy, they managed to fully visualize the fossil’s internal morphology and found significant differences from contemporary tardigrades.&nbsp;



“Even though externally it looked like a modern tardigrade, with confocal laser microscopy we could see it had this unique foregut organization that warranted for us to erect a new genus within this extant group of tardigrade superfamilies,” said study lead author Marc A. Mapalo, a PhD candidate in the <a href="https://oeb.harvard.edu/">Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology</a> at Harvard. “Paradoryphoribius&nbsp;is the only genus that has this specific unique character arrangement in the superfamily Isohypsibioidea.”



“If you look at the external morphology of tardigrades, you might&nbsp;assume that there are no changes that occurred within the body of tardigrades. However, using confocal laser microscopy to visualize the internal morphology, we saw characters that are not observed in extent species but are observed in the fossils."



"This helps us understand what changes in the body occurred across millions of years. Furthermore, this suggests that even if tardigrades may be the same externally, some changes are occurring internally,” Mapalo concluded.



The study was published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2021.1760">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



Image Credit: Original art created by Holly Sullivan



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists discovered a 16 million-year-old tardigrade species

Tardigrades, also known as water bears or moss piglets, are...

Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) inhabit intertidal zones and spend their lives clinging to the rocks for dear life. In the face of considerable wave force and alternating submersion and exposure, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mollusks-contain-high-levels-of-microplastics/">mollusks</a> manage to manufacture an adhesive that successfully sticks them to the rocks.



Scientists have long been interested in the composition and properties of this glue. There are many instances where effective adhesives are needed for use in wet environments, such as surgical and dental procedures. After ten years of research into the topic, an international research team led by <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a> has identified the cellular mechanisms by which mussels make their underwater adhesive.



Study first author Tobias Priemel, a PhD student in the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/harringtonlab/">Harrington Lab</a>, has been working on this research for the past seven years, originally as an MSc student in Germany.



“The specific mechanism by which mussels produce their adhesive has been shrouded in mystery until now because everything occurs hidden from view inside the mussel foot,” said Priemel. “To understand the mechanisms involved, we applied advanced spectroscopic and microscopic techniques and developed an experimental approach that combined several advanced and basic methodologies from across biochemistry, chemistry, and materials science.”



The scientists discovered that there are micron-sized channels within the muscular foot of the mussel. These channels, which range in diameter from 1/10 to the full width of a human hair, convey small packets (vesicles) of active ingredients that are released by the mussel’s cells. The active ingredients are distributed down to the distal areas of the byssal threads, the hair-like structures that join the mussel’s body onto the substratum.&nbsp;



While some of the vesicles contain condensed fluid proteins, others store metal ions of iron and vanadium, absorbed from the seawater. Just as in modern adhesives, these two components must not mix until just before use. In mussels, the metal ions are slowly released and come into contact with the fluid proteins, in a carefully timed process that results in the eventual hardening of the proteins into a solid glue.



The researchers were particularly interested in the way in which the metal vanadium is used in this process. The accumulation and use of vanadium is rare in living organisms and it is important to determine the exact role that this chemical element plays in the hardening of the glue. This will be an area of future investigation for the team of researchers.&nbsp;



“Mussels can make their underwater adhesive within 2-3 minutes by mixing metal ions with the fluid proteins,” explained study senior author Professor &nbsp;<a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/chemistry/faculty/matthew-j-harrington">Matthew Harrington</a>. “It’s a matter of bringing together the right ingredients, under the right conditions using the right timing. The more we understand about the process, the better engineers will later be able to adapt these concepts for manufacturing bio-inspired materials.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How do mussels make underwater glue?

Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) inhabit intertidal zones and spend their...

Research from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> has revealed that birds can learn to avoid plants that host toxic insects. While it was known that young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brood-parasites-target-host-birds-with-small-eyes/">birds</a> easily learn to recognize the coloration and markings found on dangerous prey, the new study is the first to show that birds also remember the plants that harbor them.&nbsp;



“Our findings suggest that insect herbivores that specialize on easily recognizable host plants gain enhanced protection from predation, independent of their warning signal alone," said study co-author Professor Nick Scott-Samuel.



To investigate, the scientists placed artificial, brightly colored cinnabar caterpillars alongside non-signalling fake caterpillars on two types of plants. The experts used ragwort, the natural host of cinnabar caterpillars, and bramble, a non-toxic plant that is not a natural host of the cinnabar. When foraging birds were abundant, both target types survived better on ragwort compared to bramble.



Study lead author Callum McLellan, a graduate student at the School of Biological Sciences, noted that Cinnabar caterpillars have a recognizable yellow and black appearance. "They also only live and feed on ragwort, which itself has distinctive yellow flowers," said McLellan.



The researchers wanted to learn whether birds use these bright yellow flowers as a cue to avoid ragwort. They removed the spikes of flowers from the ragwort and pinned them onto the bramble.



This experiment revealed that only the non-signaling targets survived better on plants with ragwort flowers, compared to the same plant type without the flowers. Meanwhile, the cinnabar lookalikes survived equally across all of the plants.&nbsp;



"We have shown that birds learn that the ragwort flowers are a cue for danger, so can avoid going anywhere near toxic prey. It’s more efficient to avoid the whole plant than make decisions about individual caterpillars," explained McLellan.



“Interestingly, any camouflaged caterpillars living on the same plant also benefit from birds’ learnt wariness of ragwort, despite being perfectly good to eat," said Professor Innes Cuthill, who devised the study.



“Our results provide the opening to a brand-new discussion on how toxicity initially evolved in insect prey, and the conditions under which warning coloration is, or is not, favored.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Birds can recognize plants that host toxic insects

Research from the University of Bristol has revealed that birds...

The use of wild meat, also known as bush meat, has been frowned upon in the past as it can be detrimental to populations of wild animals. However, it provides an essential source of protein and micronutrients if appropriately monitored and managed. Wild meat consumption also leads to the protection of intact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-create-cloud-cover-that-cools-the-climate/">forests</a> and, according to a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>, a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.



The study was conducted by researchers from the University of East Anglia (UEA) and Brazil’s Universidade Federal do Mato Grosso do Sul. The team collected data on wild meat consumption by 150,000 people living at 49 forest sites in Afrotropical and Neotropical countries, including Nigeria, Ghana, Tanzania, Brazil, Peru and Bolivia.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The researchers recorded an average annual per capita consumption of 41.7 kg of wild meat harvested from 27 species in Amazonia and 22 species at the Afrotropical sites. They then calculated that this consumption would spare 71 metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent when compared to a beef diet, and 3 metric tons when compared to a diet of poultry. The production of livestock is associated with high emissions of greenhouse gases and therefore with a high carbon footprint.&nbsp;



Under the conservation approach that involves payments for ecosystem services (PES), such a saving in carbon emissions would generate as much as US $3M or US $185K per year in carbon credit revenues for these forest dwelling populations.&nbsp;



Payments for ecosystem services (PES) are a range of schemes through which the beneficiaries, or users, of ecosystem services provide payment to the stewards, or providers, of those services. Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+) is a multilateral carbon credit trading mechanism enabling polluters in usually high-income countries to pay low-income countries for reducing deforestation and forest degradation.



“The calculations represent considerable incentives for forest wildlife conservation, as well as potential revenues for local communities," said study co-author Professor Carlos Peres. "Our results clearly illustrate the potential value and importance of considering sustainable game hunting within the REDD+ political process at both national and international scales.”



“Securing the sustainable consumption of wild meat for populations that are socially vulnerable is very important, not just in terms of food security and well-being, but also to serve the interests of climate change mitigation efforts in REDD+ accords through avoided greenhouse gas emissions," said study lead author André Nunes from the Universidade Federal do Mato Grosso do Sul.



In addition to potentially bringing in an income for forest communities by way of carbon credits, the sustainable use of wild game for meat also leads people to conserve intact forest areas. In contrast to the farming of beef and other domestic livestock, preservation of forests is good for biodiversity conservation as well as for lowering carbon emissions.



Land-use conversion to croplands and cattle pastures is the principal driver of deforestation worldwide. Cattle ranching is, for instance, directly responsible for 71 percent of all Latin American deforestation, and pasture expansion has been the single-largest driver of deforestation across the region since the 1970s.



Forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing more carbon from the atmosphere than they release. Tropical forests, in particular, store an estimated 460 billion tons of carbon, more than half the total atmospheric content. Across the vast Amazon basin, for example, intact forest areas are concentrated mainly within indigenous territories and protected areas, which collectively store some 42 gigatons of carbon. “Tropical grazeland expansion for ruminant livestock production to feed domestic meat consumption and exports is a double-jeopardy because we lose both the carbon stocks from formerly pristine old-growth forests and woody savannahs and generate a powerful perennial methane pump," said Professor Peres. “Subsistence hunting of game animals by local communities, which is pervasive in tropical forests, needs to become a sustainable mechanism of both helping justify and add economic value to otherwise undisturbed forests in terms of low-carbon animal protein production."



The authors note that harvesting wild meat will have to be done in an ecologically sensitive and sustainable way or the populations of wild game will become threatened.&nbsp;



“These challenges should be confronted in collaboration with local communities through community-based wildlife management projects to safeguard relatively intact forests, carbon storage, and long-term hunting yields,” said Dr Nunes. “Enabling resource co-management by marginalized tropical forest communities will require transparency and devolution of tangible benefits from carbon credit revenues.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wild meat consumption reduces greenhouse gas emissions

The use of wild meat, also known as bush meat,...

Just one week before world leaders <a href="https://www.unep.org/events/conference/un-biodiversity-conference-cop-15">meet</a> to agree on a set of goals for protecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-biodiversity-expected-to-shuffle-but-not-decline/">biodiversity</a>, a new study has found that the world has already lost 14 percent of its coral between 2009 and 2018. This is a huge quantity, amounting to more than all the coral currently living in the Australian reef.



Coral reefs can be found in over 100 countries and territories and they support at least 25 percent of all the marine species. Furthermore, they are fundamental for the coastal protection, well-being, food and economic security of hundreds of millions of people all over the world. They support&nbsp;$2.7 trillion a year in goods and services, including $36 billion in the tourist industry.



However, corals are among the most vulnerable ecosystems, facing threats not only from land-based and marine pollution, or destructive fishing practices, but also from climate change and ocean acidification.&nbsp;



In a recent <a href="https://gcrmn.net/2020-report/">report</a> of the <a href="https://gcrmn.net/">Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network</a>, scientists warn that climate change is wiping out coral reefs due to rising sea surface temperatures in South Asia, Australia, the Pacific, and other regions. Although local factors such as pollution, fishing, or construction operations on the coasts play an important role in their destruction, coral bleaching caused by increased temperatures has definitely done the most harm, according to data from 40 years and 73 countries.



When the water becomes too warm, corals evict the algae they shelter in return for food, and turn white if their colorful partners do not return soon. Without these algae, they can ultimately starve to death. In 1998, the first mass global bleaching event killed eight percent of the world’s coral.&nbsp;



However, the reports’ warnings come with a glimmer of hope: underwater ecosystems have bounced back in the past after experiencing various types of pressures. If we take fast enough measures to curb greenhouse emissions and thus mitigate climate change, the world’s corals could still be saved.&nbsp;



“We are running out of time: we can reverse losses, but we have to act now,” concluded Inger Andersen, the head of the <a href="https://www.unep.org/">United Nations Environment Program</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change has destroyed 14 percent of the world’s coral reefs

Just one week before world leaders meet to agree on...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a> has found that Darwin’s ground sloth (Mylodon darwinii), which lived in South America until 10,000 or 12,000 years ago, was not strictly herbivorous - as all its living relatives are. 



Through a chemical analysis of amino acids preserved in sloth hair, the scientists found evidence that this ancient species of sloth was omnivorous, occasionally eating meat and other protein in addition to plants.



Although the six living sloth species are all small vegetarian tree-dwellers living only in the tropical forests of Central and South America, fossil evidence shows that giant sloths (some even as large as an elephant) roamed the ancient landscapes of today’s North, Central, and South America. Scientists estimate that Darwin’s ground sloth was almost ten feet long and weighted between 2,200 and 4,400 pounds.&nbsp;



Based on its dental and jaw structures, preserved excrement from fossil species, and the fact that all living sloths are herbivorous, researchers initially believed that this sloth was also fully vegetarian. However, by using an innovative approach known as “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352249615300033#:~:text=Compound%2Dspecific%20isotope%20analysis%20of%20amino%20acids%20(CSIA%2DAA,isotopic%20change%20during%20trophic%20transfer.&amp;text=(2013)%20applied%20AA%20methods%20to,containing%20a%20parasitoid%20and%20hyperparasitoid.">amino acid compound-specific isotope analysis</a>” to test samples from seven living and extinct species of sloths and anteaters, as well as from a variety of other omnivores, the scientists found that Darwin’s ground sloth was not exclusively herbivorous.



“Whether they were sporadic scavengers or opportunistic consumers of animal protein can’t be determined from our research, but we now have strong evidence contradicting the long-standing presumption that all sloths were obligate herbivores,” explained lead author Julia Tejada, a research associate at the American Museum of Natural History and postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.umontpellier.fr/en/">University of Montpellier</a>, France.&nbsp;



According to prior research, there were too many herbivores than could be supported by ancient South America’s existing plant ecosystem, suggesting that at least some of these animals must have consumed different types of food too. This new study provides evidence that this hypothesis was true.&nbsp;



“These results, providing the first direct evidence of omnivory in an ancient sloth species, demands reevaluation of the entire ecological structure of ancient mammalian communities in South America, as sloths represented a major component of these ecosystems across the past 34 million years,” Tejada concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-97996-9">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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Image Credit: Artistic reconstruction by Jorge Blanco



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Darwin’s ground sloth was not fully vegetarian

A new study led by the American Museum of Natural...

Respiratory diseases spread quickly among mountain gorillas. Because humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-apes-politely-end-their-social-interactions/">apes</a> are so closely related, diseases pass back and forth between the two easily. 



Scientists from the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund studied 15 respiratory outbreaks over the past 17 years to investigate how diseases are transmitted among populations of mountain gorillas in Rwanda. The research is aimed at making conservation decisions in the future.&nbsp;



“If we can better understand how diseases have spread in the past, we can better prepare for and respond to outbreaks in the future," said study lead author Dr. Robin Morrison.



The research found that disease is largely spread by social connections among gorillas, meaning that disease was not transmitted as much between different groups. In fact, disease transmission could be predicted by the group's social network.&nbsp;



“The outbreaks we investigated all appeared to stay within a single group rather than spreading through the wider population," said study co-author Yvonne Mushimiyimana.



Gorilla groups interact fairly infrequently, and when they do, they tend to keep their distance, rarely approaching to within that crucial 1-2 meter distance.”



The study shows a large difference between gorillas and chimpanzees, which showed slower transmission rates in general as they have more diffuse social groups. However, transmission among chimpanzees was still predictable based on social networks.&nbsp;



The divisions between groups of gorillas is helpful in stopping the transmission of disease but it still begs the question, “where are outbreaks coming from?” Unfortunately the research shows humans are to blame.&nbsp;



“Our best guess is that these infections in mountain gorillas are coming from humans," said Morrison, "It really highlights the importance of ongoing efforts to minimize wild great ape exposure to human diseases during activities like research, tourism and protection."



"Vaccination, mask wearing and maintaining adequate distance are all more important than ever in the midst of a global pandemic.”



The research highlights the importance of safety protocols for tourists visiting gorillas in the wild to protect both gorillas and humans.&nbsp;



“The findings from this study suggest that since respiratory diseases transmit quickly within gorilla groups and transmission between groups is much less common, strategies that prevent initial transmission into a group may be most effective,” said Dr. Tara Stoinski, president and chief scientific officer of the Fossey Fund. 



“For COVID-19 and other human respiratory pathogens, that means preventing that first introduction of a disease from a human to a gorilla.”



“Although the research was completed well before the appearance of COVID-19, the current pandemic highlights the fact that it is more vital than ever to minimize pathways of human-ape disease transmission, which pose a risk to wild great apes and humans alike."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gorilla groups practice social distancing

Respiratory diseases spread quickly among mountain gorillas. Because humans and...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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