Digger wasps exhibit remarkable memory skills when managing their nests. These wasps create separate burrows for each egg, storing food inside and returning after a few days to provide more. 



They can remember the locations of up to nine nests simultaneously, despite the chaotic surroundings filled with hundreds of other females' nests. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-find-inside-the-eye-of-a-tiny-wasp-megaphragma-viggianii/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wasps</a> rarely make mistakes, ensuring that each offspring receives adequate nourishment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digger-wasps-manage-multiple-nests">Digger wasps manage multiple nests</h2>



Mother <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasitic-wasp-had-a-flytrap-for-snatching-its-victims/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wasps</a> feed their young in age order, adjusting the sequence if one larva dies. 



They can also delay feeding larvae that received more food during the first visit. This intricate scheduling prevents starvation and ensures all larvae get sufficient food. 



“Our findings suggest that the miniature brain of an insect is capable of remarkably sophisticated scheduling decisions,” said Professor Jeremy Field, from the&nbsp;<a href="https://ecologyconservation.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centre for Ecology and Conservation</a>&nbsp;on Exeter’s Penryn Campus in Cornwall.



“We tend to think that something so small couldn’t do something so complex. In fact, they can remember where and when they have fed their young, and what they fed them, in a way that would be taxing even to human brains.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-episodic-memory-in-wasps">Episodic memory in wasps</h2>



Humans use episodic memory to recall past actions and adjust future plans. Professor Field suggests that wasps may use a similar mechanism to remember where and when they last fed each larva. 



Although the exact process remains unknown, the study indicates that these wasps can track multiple nests, the food given, and the timing of each feeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caterpillar-hunting-and-feeding-strategy">Caterpillar hunting and feeding strategy</h2>



Digger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-wasp-species-named-after-famous-thieves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wasps</a> hunt caterpillars on heather plants, paralyzing them before placing them in burrows with eggs. The larva consumes the caterpillar as its first meal. 



Mothers then seal the burrow entrance and leave to either start a new burrow or continue feeding existing offspring. They return after two to seven days to check on the larvae. 



If a larva is dead, the mother lays a new egg and reorders the feeding schedule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigating-hundreds-of-nests">Navigating hundreds of nests</h2>



Despite nesting in nearly featureless sand with hundreds of other nests, mother wasps maintain exceptional spatial awareness. 



They use visual landmarks like stones to locate their nests with impressive accuracy. The study recorded just 1.5% of 1,293 food deliveries going to the wrong nest, emphasizing the precision of their navigation skills.



The researchers also tested the wasps by swapping caterpillars as mothers prepared burrows.



Wasps given larger caterpillars waited longer before providing more food, indicating a flexible feeding strategy based on larval needs. This adaptability helps manage resources effectively and supports the survival of the young.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wasp-memory-nests-and-scheduling">Wasp memory, nests, and scheduling</h2>



Professor Field noted that memory is energetically expensive, requiring neural machinery to store and process information.



While many lab-based studies explore memory in controlled settings, this study demonstrates the ecological relevance of memory in the wild, showing why natural selection may have favored these capabilities.



The researchers used various experiments to explore wasp memory and scheduling. One experiment involved replacing food items in nests, testing whether wasps adjusted feeding schedules based on food size. 



Mothers given larger prey items delayed further feeding, initiating new nests sooner. This behavior allowed them to increase reproductive output without compromising larval survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-wasps-adjust-after-losing-a-nest">How wasps adjust after losing a nest</h2>



Mothers could remember up to nine active nests and adjust feeding schedules without revisiting nests. 



However, when larvae died, mothers replaced them with new eggs, moving these nests to the back of the feeding order. This strategy minimized energy loss and prevented resource wastage.



Fieldwork at Witley Common, UK, revealed that digger wasps evolved cognitive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/an-8-year-olds-backyard-discovery-of-ants-wasps-changed-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategies</a> to counter parasitism and food scarcity. 



Parasitic flies pose a significant threat, laying eggs on wasp larvae. To minimize exposure, mother wasps avoid revisiting nests unless parasitism risk is low. This reduces the chances of parasites accessing vulnerable offspring. 



Additionally, food scarcity prompted wasps to develop efficient nest management. By remembering up to nine nests, mothers allocate food based on larval age without resampling, conserving time and resources. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-cognitive-traits">Evolution of cognitive traits </h2>



Researchers suggest that these memory and scheduling abilities may have laid the foundation for social behaviors seen in more advanced insect lineages. 



Managing multiple offspring, tracking nest locations, and adjusting feeding schedules align with the caregiving patterns observed in social insects like ants and bees. 



The study highlights how ecological pressures can drive the evolution of complex cognitive traits even in insects with tiny brains.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00509-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



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Wasp moms manage multiple nests with remarkable memory

Digger wasps exhibit remarkable memory skills when managing their nests. These wasps create separate burrows for each egg, storing food inside and returning after a few days to provide more. They can remember the locations of up to nine nests simultaneously, despite the chaotic surroundings filled with hundreds of other females' nests. The wasps rarely make mistakes, ensuring that each offspring receives adequate nourishment. Digger wasps manage multiple nests Mother wasps feed their young in age order, adjusting the sequence if one larva dies. They can also...

Scientists at <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/">Johns Hopkins Medicine</a> are describing why insects are much smarter than what you would expect. After meticulously counting the neurons in fruit flies and three species of mosquitos, the experts found that their brains contained an average of 200,000 cells. 

A human brain contains 86 billion neurons, while a rodent brain contains about 12 billion. According to the researchers, the average number of brain cells found in the insects likely represents a "floor" for the number needed to execute complex tasks. 

"Even though these brains are simple (in contrast to mammalian brains), they can do a lot of processing, even more than a supercomputer," said Dr. Christopher Potter.

"They enable the insects to navigate, find food and perform other complicated tasks at the same time, and our study offers one answer to the question of how many brain cells come together to conduct these behaviors."

According to Dr. Potter, those who study insect behavior and brain function have long suspected these insects must have hundreds of thousands of brain cells. In collaboration with Dr. Joshua Raji, he searched for documentation to support this theory, but came up without any proof.

The experts set out to find their own proof using a relatively simple counting method called an isotropic fractionator, which is a method used to determine the cellular composition of nervous tissue.

First, Dr. Raji broke down all of the brain tissue of individual insects. Then, he used a pipette to break apart the tissue and distribute the cells evenly through a buffered solution.

Dr. Potter said the most challenging part of the technique was the microdissection of a brain that is smaller than the tip of a pencil. "It takes a really steady hand and lots of practice."

The solution that contained the brain cells was spread on a microscope slide and placed on top of a small grid. Dr. Raji thoroughly counted the cells on each slide.

The experiment revealed that the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, had 199,380 brain cells plus or minus 3,400. 

For three species of mosquito, the researchers found 217,910 plus or minus 6,180 in Aedes aegypti; 223,020 plus or minus 4,650 in Anopheles coluzzii; and 225,911 plus or minus 7,220 in Culex quinquefasciatus.

The brain cells in each species were made up of about 90 percent neurons, while the rest are most likely supportive cells called glia, explained the experts. 

Dr. Potter said that researchers have determined the number of brain cells in only a few species of insects, including wasps and ants. "It would be interesting to apply this approach to social insects like bees, and see if there are differences between queens and drones."

The counting technique used for this study is a simple one that most researchers could perform, said Dr. Potter, and it is an opportunity for any researcher to contribute the counts to scientific literature.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Some insects have more than 200,000 brain cells

Scientists at Johns Hopkins Medicine are describing why insects are...

Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-rarely-try-to-avoid-inbreeding/">animals</a> will not be able to survive climate change, and predicting how individual species will respond can be very challenging. In a new study from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a>, scientists have used genome sequencing to reveal that some animals, like the threespine stickleback fish, can adapt remarkably quickly to extreme new environments. 

According to the researchers, the findings could help scientists forecast the evolutionary future of stickleback populations.

Threespine stickleback fish are known to be very resilient. They can live in both seawater and freshwater, and under a wide range of temperatures. The researchers set out to investigate the genetic foundation of such adaptations.

"The modern version of Darwin's idea of evolution by natural selection posits that organisms with genes that favor survival and reproduction will tend to leave more offspring than their peers, causing the genes to increase in frequency over generations. As a result, populations become adapted or better-suited to their environments over time," explained study lead author Alan Garcia-Elfring.

"However, this process has typically been studied retrospectively, in populations that adapted to their current environments long in the past. This can make it difficult to understand the sequence of events - for example, which traits were most important and when - that led to their adaptation."

To study natural selection among threespine stickleback fish, the experts tracked six populations before and after seasonal changes to their environment through genome sequencing. 

In estuaries along the coast of California, dramatic seasonal shifts take place that range from wet winters to dry summers. The habitat structure changes, as well as the balance of saltwater and freshwater, which means that fish must rapidly adapt to survive from season to season. 

For example, when sandbars form during dry summer months, estuaries become temporarily shut off from the ocean. Such conditions present a unique opportunity for experts to study natural selection in real time.

"These changes probably resemble the habitat shifts experienced by stickleback populations when they colonized many newly created freshwater lakes from the ocean after the glaciers receded 10,000 years ago" said Professor Barrett. "We hope to gain insight into the genetic changes that may have resulted from natural selection long in the past."

The researchers discovered genetic changes in the stickleback fish driven by seasonal shifts in habitat that were comparable to differences found between long-established freshwater and saltwater populations. 

"These genetic changes occurred in independent populations over a single season, highlighting just how quickly the effects of natural selection can be detected," said Alan Garcia-Elfring.

"The findings are important because they suggest that we may be able to use the genetic differences that evolved in the past as a way to predict how populations may adapt to environmental stressors like climate change in the future."

The research highlights the importance of studying species that adapt to dynamic environments to gain a better understanding of how natural selection works. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1365294x">Molecular Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Stickleback fish provide new insight into natural selection

Many animals will not be able to survive climate change,...

Dinosaur,Model,In,The,Jungle,At,Phu,Kum,Khao,Dinosaur

After the largest mass extinction in Earth's history, herbivores rapidly evolved to eat different types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diversity-will-decline-along-with-rainfall-in-dry-regions/">plants</a>, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>. The researchers discovered that herbivores with powerful jaws to chew tougher plants, including some of the earliest dinosaurs, were the most successful. 

The Permian-Triassic extinction event, also known as the Great Dying, took place about 250 million years ago and wiped out at least 90 percent of all species.  The Triassic Period that followed was a time of great change when many new plants and animals emerged. 

"I wanted to focus on the plant-eaters, including some of the first dinosaurs," said Dr. Suresh Singh. "The main animals in any ecosystem tend to be the herbivores, and we found that they show remarkable evidence of specialization in the turbulent times after the great mass extinction." 

"In fact, the environmental shocks that killed so many species, such as global warming and acid rain, were still returning from time to time, but the survivors were set on exploring new diets."

"We were surprised to be able to identify definite specializations among the herbivores," said Dr. Tom Stubbs. "We call these groups, the ingestion generalists, prehension specialists, durophagous specialists, shearing pulpers, and heavy oral processors; these names reflect the power of their jaws, their teeth, and the kinds of plants they would likely have been eating."

Professor Emily Rayfield noted that it may seem hypothetical to identify the diets of animals that died over 200 million years ago. 

"But we measured hundreds of fossil jaws and compared their shapes with living animals, and we estimated key functional values from the fossil jaws such as mechanical advantage and bite force, measuring the leverage of the jaws and how fast or forcefully they could shut," explained Professor Rayfield.

The investigation was focused on the 80 million years that followed the mass extinction event. 

"We were able to map the evolution of all the functional characters relating to feeding across the evolutionary tree and through time," said Dr. Armin Elsler. 

"We found to our surprise that, during this time, several new groups diversified as herbivores, and they seemed to take over their roles by pushing potential competitors aside, not necessarily by wiping them out."

Plants were also diversifying throughout the Triassic, and certain aspects of the evolution of herbivores can be linked to the availability of new kinds of plant food. 

"One key thing was the expansion of groups that were able to handle tough plant material, with powerful jaws for chopping and chomping," explained Dr.  Singh. 

"This reflects the drying conditions especially in the Late Triassic, when many softer plant groups became less common, and dry-adapted conifers for example, spread worldwide. These changes combined with strictly enforced niche separation drove patterns of extinction as the generalist, hardy herbivores thrived, as other herbivores died out."

"This kind of macroecological analysis represents a huge amount of work," said Professor Mike Benton. "But it sheds real light on key processes at an ecological level and helps explain why some groups died out and were replaced by others such as the first dinosaurs." 

"We can be reasonably certain of the results because we have excellent data on the geological ages of the specimens, their relationships to each other, and the key features of their jaws and teeth that correspond to their ancient diets. What was once quite a speculative kind of project has now become much more analytical and testable."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Herbivores evolved powerful jaws to survive the Triassic

After the largest mass extinction in Earth's history, herbivores rapidly...

In a new report from the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a>, scientists are describing the largest-ever trial of artificial insemination in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-attract-illegal-fishing-in-protected-areas/">sharks</a>. The study has revealed that "virgin births" are more common than what was previously realized.

The project resulted in 97 baby sharks. According to the researchers, some of the babies have parents that live on opposite sides of the country, and a few have no fathers at all.

"Our goal was to develop artificial insemination as a tool that could be used to help support and maintain healthy reproducing populations of sharks in aquariums," said study lead author Jen Wyffels, who conducted the research with the South-East Zoo Alliance for Reproduction &amp; Conservation.

Through captive breeding programs, experts aim to pair up sharks in ways that will increase genetic diversity.

"Moving whole animals from one aquarium to another to mate is expensive and can be stressful for the animal, but now we can just just move genes around through sperm," said study co-author Kevin Feldheim, who led the DNA analysis of the newborn sharks to determine their parentage.

Identifying the parents of a baby shark can be challenging. In some species, the females can store sperm for months after mating, so the father of a newborn shark is not necessarily the male that the mother most recently had contact with. 

Some female sharks are even capable of reproducing with no male at all. In a process called parthenogenesis, the female's egg cells are able to combine with each other and create an embryo that only contains genetic material from the mother.

The current investigation was focused on whitespotted bamboo sharks, which are small and gentle.  

"When people think of sharks, they picture great whites, tiger sharks, and bull sharks - the big, scary, charismatic ones," said Feldheim. "Whitespotted bamboo sharks are tiny, about three feet long. If you go to an aquarium, they're generally just resting on the bottom."

According to the researchers, whitespotted bamboo females do not require frequent and repeated mating during their laying season and use sperm that they have stored to fertilize eggs. These sharks are also known to reproduce parthenogenetically.

Overall, 20 female sharks located at Ripley's Aquarium of the Smokies and the Aquarium of the Pacific were inseminated. Baby sharks hatched from fertilized eggs after 4 months of incubation. 

"The hatchlings are about the size of your hand, and they have distinctive spot patterns that help to tell them apart," said Wyffels. 

Tissue samples were collected from all of the babies and the parents for DNA analysis at the Field Museum's Pritzker Laboratory for Molecular Systematics and Evolution.

"We sequenced the DNA and found sections where the code repeats itself," said Feldheim. "These repeating bits of code serve as signatures, and when we see them in the babies, we match them up to the potential dads."

The experts determined that freshly collected semen was effective in fertilizing eggs in 27.6 percent of cases, while semen that had been cold-stored for 24 hours had a success rate of 28.1 percent.

The genetic analysis of the offspring revealed two instances of parthenogenesis - where the mother reproduced without using the sperm she had been inseminated with. 

"These cases of parthenogenesis were unexpected and help illustrate how little we know about the basic mechanisms of sexual reproduction and embryo development among sharks," said Wyffels.

"One of the goals of this pilot project was to just see if it worked," said Feldheim. "Now, we can extend it to other animals that actually need help breeding, from other species in aquariums to sharks under threat in the wild."

The researchers noted that if their work contributes to the conservation of sharks in the wild, it will be largely thanks to aquariums. 

"Aquariums allow you to observe the same individual animals over time, and that's very difficult to do in the wild," said Wyffels. "Aquarists have eyes on their animals every day. They pick up on subtle changes in behavior related to reproduction, and they tell us what they see. Research like this depends on that collaboration."

"We are already taking what we learned from this study and applying it to other species, especially the sand tiger shark, a protected species that does not reproduce often in aquariums."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Artificial insemination project confirms "virgin births" in sharks

In a new report from the Field Museum, scientists are...

Fossilized footprints that were recently found within the Hanna Formation may represent the earliest evidence of mammals gathering on the seashore, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/">University of Utah</a>. 

The research suggests that mammals first used marine habitats during the late Paleocene. This is at least 9.4 million years earlier than previously thought.

The rocks of the Hanna Formation, which are hundreds of miles away from the ocean in Wyoming, were once oceanfront around 58 million years ago.

"Trace fossils like footprints record interactions between organisms and their environments, providing information that body fossils alone cannot," explained study co-author Dr. Anton Wroblewski. 

"In this case, trace fossils show that large- bodied mammals were regularly using marine environments only eight million years after non-avian dinosaurs went extinct."

The tracks are preserved in sandstone and stretch over more than half a mile. They were made by two animals - one with four toes and one with five.

The five-toed tracks were likely left behind by Coryphodon, a semi-aquatic mammal that is similar to a hippopotamus. The animal responsible for the four-toed tracks remains a mystery.

"Paleontologists have been working in this area for thirty years, but they've been looking for bones, leaf fossils, and pollen, so they didn't notice footprints or trackways," said Dr. Wroblewski, who first saw the tracks in September 2019. 

"When I found them, it was late afternoon and the setting sun hit them at just the right angle to make them visible on the tilted slabs of sandstone. At first, I couldn't believe what I was seeing; I had walked by this outcrop for years without noticing them. Once I saw the first few, I followed out the ridge of sandstone and realized they were part of a much larger, more extensive trackway."

Based on fossilized plants and pollen, the researchers determined that the tracks are 58 million years old, dating back to the Paleocene epoch. Prior to this finding, the earliest evidence of mammals on the seashore was linked to the Eocene epoch, around 9.4 million years later. 

Dr. Wroblewski noted that the Hanna Formation tracks are the first Paleocene mammal tracks found in the United States and only the fourth in the world. He said that it is also the largest accumulation of Paleocene mammal tracks in the world in both aerial extent and the absolute number of tracks.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study reveals earliest evidence of mammals at the seashore

Fossilized footprints that were recently found within the Hanna Formation...

A new study has revealed that orangutans on the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia are severely threatened by food shortages. Scientists have discovered that the muscle mass of orangutans is significantly lower when less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-can-travel-six-million-times-their-body-length/">fruit</a> is available. 

Orangutans are critically endangered as a result of habitat destruction and deforestation. The finding that they are further threatened by low fruit availability was unexpected because orangutans are thought to be particularly good at storing and using fat for energy. 

The study, led by <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a>, suggests that further disruption of the food supply could have serious consequences for orangutans.

"Conservation plans must consider the availability of fruit in forest patches or corridors that orangutans may need to occupy as deforestation continues across their range," said study lead author Caitlin A. O'Connell.

Orangutans can live to be as old as 55 and weigh up to about 180 pounds. They are the most solitary of the great apes, spending almost all of their time in trees. 

Steep declines in orangutan populations in recent decades have been primarily driven by deforestation linked to palm oil production, logging, and paper pulp.

In their Southeast Asian forest habitats, orangutans must deal with unpredictable fruit availability and frequent shortages. They often struggle to eat enough to meet their nutritional needs and maintain a healthy weight. 

Study senior author Erin R. Vogel runs the Laboratory for Primate Dietary Ecology and Physiology at Rutgers. Here, the experts measured creatinine - a waste product formed when muscle breaks down - in wild orangutan urine. The goal was to estimate how much muscle the primates had when fruit was scarce compared to when fruit was abundant.

In humans, burning through muscle as the main source of energy marks the third and final phase of starvation. This phase occurs after body fat stores are greatly reduced. 

The researchers were surprised to find that both male and female orangutans of all ages had reduced muscle mass when fruit availability was low. This indicated that they had burned through most of their fat reserves and their bodies had resorted to burning muscle.

"Orangutans seem to go through cycles of building fat and possibly muscle mass and then using fat and muscle for energy when preferred fruits are scarce and caloric intake is greatly reduced," said study senior author Erin R. Vogel. 

"Our team plans to investigate how other non-invasive measures of health vary with muscle mass and how the increasingly severe wildfires on Borneo might contribute to muscle loss and other negative health impacts."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Orangutans are starving from fruit shortages

A new study has revealed that orangutans on the island...

A team of experts led by the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/">University of Bath</a> is describing a previously unknown lizard species, Pluridens serpentis, that was thriving during the the end of the Cretaceous period in Morocco. 

The giant mosasaur, which reached up to eight metres in length, was wiped out by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-impact-helped-flowering-plants-take-over-rainforests/">asteroid</a> impact that killed the dinosaurs 66 million years ago.

"It's a new species of a large predator which, with its eight meter length, comes to confirm the diversity of the faunas of the seas just before the Cretaceous crisis," said study co-author Dr Nour-Eddine Jalil.

"Pluridens serpentis highlights the importance of the paleontological heritage of Morocco to help illustrate the history of life."

Pluridens represents the third new mosasaur species to be described from the region in less than a year, bringing the total number up to 13. These massive marine reptiles were related to snakes and Komodo dragons. 

The fossils found in Morocco have revealed that mosasaurs were extremely diverse. Some had small teeth for preying on fish and squid, some had blunt teeth for crushing clams and crustaceans, and some had teeth that could rip apart marine animals, including other mosasaurs.

"The diversity in these fossils is just astonishing. Far from declining in diversity, the mosasaurs seem to be peaking just before they went extinct," said study lead author Dr. Nick Longrich.

"We're not seeing any evidence that this group was struggling before they went extinct - From an evolutionary standpoint, they were succeeding, they did everything right- but nothing can prepare you for an asteroid."

According to the researchers, Pluridens had long, slender jaws with over a hundred sharp teeth. The ancient lizard had small eyes, which indicates that it also had poor vision. 

However, the experts discovered that Pluridens had a snout with dozens of openings for nerves, possibly representing the ability to hunt by sensing water movements. These nerves may have been sensitive to tiny variations in water pressure, which is an adaptation found in sea snakes.

"Typically, when animals evolve small eyes, it's because they're relying more heavily on other senses," said Dr. Longrich.

"If it wasn't using the eyes, then it's very likely that it was using the tongue to hunt, like a snake. Many aquatic snakes and lizards - sea snakes, filesnakes, water monitors- flick their forked tongues underwater, using chemical cues to track their prey." 

"Mosasaurs would have resembled whales and dolphins, so it's tempting to assume they lived like them. But they're very different beasts - they're huge lizards - so they probably acted like them."

Along with its massive size, Pluridens had thick, heavily built jawbones. "It's possible that big males were fighting with these jaws," said Dr. Longrich. 

"In some beaked whales, the males have massive jaws they use to fight with, and male sperm whales can be highly aggressive. Some Pluridens jaws show healing injuries, which suggests some violent fights."

Dr. Nathalie Bardet is an expert on mosasaurs, particularly those from the Phosphates of Morocco at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle of Paris.

"Working on this group of marine reptiles since more than 20 years, I never stop being surprised by the incredible diversity of these predators, who all lived there and shared the available space and food resources," said Dr. Bardet.

"These latest discoveries show perfectly that the list of species present here is far from being closed and that the future still holds great surprises and discoveries!"

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/cretaceous-research">Cretaceous Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Giant lizards were thriving during the age of dinosaurs

A team of experts led by the University of Bath...

Therapy dogs can help stressed out <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/malaysian-schools-closed-pollution/">students</a> overcome pressure to perform better in college, according to a new study from <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a>. 

The researchers found that programs exclusively focused on petting therapy dogs improved thinking and planning skills among students more effectively than traditional stress-management programs.

The study revealed that stressed out college students exhibited cognitive skill improvements for up to six weeks after completion of a four-week-long program involving therapy dogs.

"It's a really powerful finding," said Professor Patricia Pendry. "Universities are doing a lot of great work trying to help students succeed academically, especially those who may be at risk due to a history of mental health issues or academic and learning issues." 

"This study shows that traditional stress management approaches aren't as effective for this population compared with programs that focus on providing opportunities to interact with therapy dogs."

The researchers measured executive functioning skills in 309 college students. These skills are needed for planning, organization, motivation, concentration, and memorization, which Professor Pendry describes as "all the big cognitive skills that are needed to succeed in college."

In a previous study, Professor Pendry and colleagues demonstrated that petting animals for just 10 minutes had physiological impacts that reduced stress among students. 

For the current study, students were randomly assigned to one of three academic stress management programs featuring varying combinations of human-animal interactions.

"The results were very strong," said Professor Pendry. "We saw that students who were most at risk ended up having most improvements in executive functioning in the human-animal interaction condition. These results remained when we followed up six weeks later."

For years, universities such as WSU have provided academic stress management programs and workshops, where students listen to an expert, watch slideshows, and take notes. The topics include getting more sleep, setting goals, or managing stress and anxiety.

"These are really important topics, and these workshops are helping typical students succeed by teaching them how to manage stress," explained Professor Pendry. 

"Interestingly though, our findings suggest that these types of educational workshops are less effective for students that are struggling. It seems that students may experience these programs as another lecture, which is exactly what causes the students to feel stressed."

According to the researchers, human-animal interaction programs help by letting struggling students relax as they talk and think about their stressors. By petting animals, students are more likely to relax and cope with these stressors rather than become overwhelmed. 

This enhances students' ability to think, set goals, get motivated, concentrate and remember what they are learning, said Professor Pendry.

"If you're stressed, you can't think or take up information; learning about stress is stressful!" 

"You can't learn math just by being chill. But when you are looking at the ability to study, engage, concentrate and take a test, then having the animal aspect is very powerful. Being calm is helpful for learning especially for those who struggle with stress and learning."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/home/ero">AERA Open</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Therapy dogs boost cognitive skills in college students

Therapy dogs can help stressed out students overcome pressure to perform...

In a new study, scientists have identified special transporters that horseradish flea beetles use to accumulate high amounts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diversity-will-decline-along-with-rainfall-in-dry-regions/">plant</a> toxins in their bodies to use for their own defense.

As they feed on and take up nutrients from their host plants, horseradish flea beetles also ingest mustard oil glucosides, which are the characteristic defense compounds of horseradish and other brassicaceous plants. The beetles use these compounds to turn themselves into a "mustard oil bomb" to deter predators.

A team of experts at the <a href="https://www.ice.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology</a> has discovered that the beetles are equipped with special transporters in the excretory system that prevent the excretion of mustard oil glucosides. 

Many types of insects that feed on toxic plants have the ability to acquire defense compounds through their diet.

"The horseradish flea beetle belongs to an economically important group of insects, because several Phyllotreta species are crop pests," said study first author Zhi-Ling Yang.

"This beetle, which can accumulate vast amounts of host plant glucosinolates, regulates the levels and composition of glucosinolates in the body at least partially by excretion. This suggested that Phyllotreta armoraciae possesses very efficient transport and storage mechanisms, which we wanted to uncover."

The team was led by Franziska Beran, head of the Sequestration and Detoxification in Insects Research Group at the Max Planck Institute. 

In a previous study, the researchers uncovered how horseradish flea beetles use glucosinolates from their host plant to defend against a predatory ladybug. For the current study, the experts set out to identify glucosinolate transporters within the beetles.

"The search for these transporters was literally like looking for a needle in a haystack," said Beran. "We found 1,401 putative membrane transporters in the gut and excretory system of this beetle. Narrowing down our search to transporters that are specific for the horseradish flea beetle helped us to identify a group of glucosinolate-specific transporters."

The glucosinolate transporters are located in the excretory system, or the Malpighian tubules. In insects, the function of the Malpighian tubules is similar to that of the kidneys in vertebrates. 

"We silenced the expression of several transporter genes that are localized in the Malpighian tubules and found that the beetles excreted more glucosinolates than a control group of beetles with normal gene expression. Because of the higher excretion rate, the levels of defense compounds in the beetle body went down," explained Yang. 

"Our study is the first to identify transporters in the Malpighian tubules that enable an insect to accumulate plant defense compounds."

According to the researchers, their study demonstrates that sequestration is a complex process - much more than just the uptake of plant metabolites into the animal's body. The insect must adapt its entire physiology to use plant defense compounds. 

"Sequestration is probably one of the most complex adaptations that herbivorous insects have evolved. It most certainly also contributes to the evolutionary success of insects that specialize in certain host plants, such as the horseradish flea beetle," said Beran.

Going forward, the team plans to explore other transporters involved in sequestration. The researchers also plan to investigate which natural enemies of the horseradish flea beetle the glucosinolates provide protection from. A better understanding of pests like the horseradish flea beetle could ultimately lead to improved strategies for their control.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Horseradish flea beetles take up plant toxins for their own defense

In a new study, scientists have identified special transporters that...

Pelicans have more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/murrelets-rely-on-each-other-to-find-breeding-sites/">breeding</a> success when they are given the freedom to choose their social relationships, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. 

Based on a social network analysis, the researchers found that reproductive success was improved among pelicans with partnerships that formed naturally. 

The investigation was focused on the social behavior of a breeding flock of great white pelicans at Blackpool Zoo during two research periods.

The study revealed that the pelicans chose their specific social relationships. The experts also discovered a social structure across the flock in which "teenagers" spent more time with each other than with adult birds.

The researchers noted that while pelicans are commonly found in zoos, their captive breeding record is poor. This is because pelicans receive little research attention compared to other popular zoo-housed birds such as penguins.

"Despite their popularity with visitors and representation in many zoos globally, ex situ populations of pelicans may not be fully sustainable, with some flocks achieving only sporadic breeding success," explained the study authors.

"Even in well‐established flocks, poor breeding results caused by infertility, trampling of eggs and limited display of breeding activity can be noted."

At Blackpool Zoo, the research team collected data on the space use, social preferences, and behavior of great white pelicans during two nesting events in 2016 and 2017.

"Evaluating space use and behavior to ensure that pelicans have the choice to behave in a way that they wish is essential to good animal welfare," said study lead author Dr. Paul Rose.

"Social network analysis enables us to identify the strongest bonds and discover who is influential in the flock. Therefore we can work out which birds might initiate breeding and encourage this activity in others."

"This is important for flock management. If birds are to be moved between flocks, we should preserve these important bonds and the experience they provide."

"Alongside the good care the birds get from zoo staff, this experience of what to do and when to do it is likely why the flock we analyzed nested successfully on multiple occasions."

The experts also identified specific behavioral changes across the season that may signal when breeding is about to take place. For example, data showed that the flock was more vigilant before the pelicans started nesting, which indicates that vigilance is a precursor for courtship or nesting activity.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10982361">Zoo Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Social bonds are key to breeding success among pelicans

Pelicans have more breeding success when they are given the...

Porcupines are being illegally hunted and exploited for meat and medicine in Indonesia, according to a new study published by <a href="https://pensoft.net/">Pensoft</a>.

"Indonesia is home to five species of porcupines, three of which are island endemics. While all five species are currently assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, impacts of harvest and trade have not been factored in," wrote the researchers.

"To gain a fuller understanding of the porcupine trade in Indonesia, this study examines seizure data of porcupines, their parts and derivatives from January 2013 to June 2020."

The investigation revealed a total of 39 incidents involving an estimated 452 porcupines. There are no harvest quotas for any porcupine species in Indonesia, which means that all hunting and trade activities are illegal. 

The study authors explained that porcupines are targeted for a number of reasons. Their meat is consumed as an alternative source of protein, and their bezoars are traditionally used in South East Asia and Europe for the treatment of conditions including cancer, poisoning, typhoid, and hepatitis.

The Sunda porcupine is the only one of the five Indonesian species that is currently protected. When the Sunda porcupine received its protected status in 2018, the Malayan species was removed from the updated protection list.

"The reasons for this are unclear, but certainly unwarranted, considering that the Malayan porcupine is the species most frequently identified as confiscated, and one can only assume the reason for its removal is due to its commercial value," said study co-author Lalita Gomez, Programme Officer of <a href="https://mcrsociety.org/">Monitor Conservation Research Society</a>.

While porcupine populations are known to be declining in Indonesia, there seems to be little control or monitoring on extraction and trade. The researchers noted that this is particularly concerning because four of the five species in Indonesia have a restricted range.

Gomez recommends that all porcupines be categorized as protected species under Indonesian wildlife laws and listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which would require any international trade to take place through a supervisory system.

"What clearly emerges from this study is that porcupines are being illegally hunted and exploited throughout their range in Indonesia facilitated by poor enforcement and legislative weakness," wrote the study authors.

"Porcupines are in decline due to habitat loss, retaliatory killings and uncontrolled poaching. It is therefore crucial that effective conservation measures are taken sooner rather than later to prevent further depletion of these species."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://natureconservation.pensoft.net/">Nature Conservation</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Porcupines are exploited for meat and medicine in Indonesia

Porcupines are being illegally hunted and exploited for meat and...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiger-sharks-can-take-a-direct-hit-from-a-major-hurricane/">Sharks</a> attract illegal fishing in protected areas, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. The researchers found that thousands of sharks have been illegally caught in a Marine Protected Area (MPA) around the Chagos Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, where fishing has been banned since 2010.

The vast protected area, also known as the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT), contains pristine reefs. While data suggests that more than 14,000 sharks were caught as a result of illegal fishing in the MPA from 2010 to 2020, local fishermen say the true number is "considerably higher."

"Enforcement of MPA rules in a large, remote area such as this is extremely difficult," said study lead author Claire Collins.

"Our findings highlight the threat of illegal fishing to sharks in the BIOT MPA, which is home to critically endangered species such as the oceanic whitetip and scalloped hammerhead."

"Fishers often target reef areas, where many of the sharks are juveniles, and taking sharks at this life stage could be especially damaging to species numbers."

Collins said it is important to note that, despite evidence of illegal fishing, the MPA still provides a vital refuge in the Indian Ocean, and shark numbers remain much higher than in most other places. At the same time, many shark species in this region are under intense pressure from fishing.

"Following the recent news that the Maldives was considering lifting its shark-fishing ban, the importance of large areas within the Indian Ocean where shark fishing is banned was brought to everyone's attention," said Collins. 

"This study emphasises the need to ensure that sharks within these important areas are fully protected."

The researchers conducted interviews with fishermen in two Sri Lankan communities that were previously associated with illegal fishing in the BIOT MPA.

The fishermen reported that vessels often fished in the MPA without being detected. According to the study authors, this provides clear evidence that total extraction was considerably higher than the estimate of 14,340 based on detected vessels.

"It is crucial to work with fishing communities to understand where, when and why people fish illegally - and how we can improve deterrence," said study co-author Tom B Letessier.

"For example, we found fishers had very different ideas of the fines they could face, and some felt there were very unlikely to be caught - so improving awareness of the sanctions, in addition to increasing the probability of being caught, could be beneficial."

Efforts are underway to improve enforcement in the MPA, including increased use of satellite tracking of vessels.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sharks attract illegal fishing in protected areas

Sharks attract illegal fishing in protected areas, according to a...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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