Beautiful,Spider,Web,Close-up,On,The,Background,Of,Nature.,Selective

Scientists have bred spiders that weave bright red, fluorescent draglines, proving that the animals’ silk can be genetically re-engineered inside the living organism. This finding shows a new path toward designer fibers with tunable strength, elasticity, and surface chemistry.



The experiments were carried out by the Biomaterials research group at the <a href="https://www.uni-bayreuth.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bayreuth</a>. Using the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing system</a>, the team inserted a fluorescent marker gene into the spiders’ silk-protein DNA, then confirmed the edit when the offspring produced crimson red threads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-spider-silk-excites-engineers"><a></a>Why spider silk excites engineers</h2>



Dragline silk already outperforms many man-made fibers. It resists tearing, stretches without snapping, weighs very little and breaks down harmlessly in nature. 



If its molecular recipe can be tweaked at will, future filaments could combine even greater toughness with added functions ranging from antimicrobial activity to electrical conductivity. Over the past decade CRISPR-Cas9 has become biology’s precision scalpel. 



The enzyme-guide complex targets chosen DNA sites, cuts them, and lets the cell’s own repair crew delete unwanted sequences or patch in new ones. The method has been applied to plants, insects, mice and more, yet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-spiders-have-personalities-what-new-research-reveals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> had remained untouched.



“Considering the wide range of possible applications, it is surprising that there have been no studies to date using CRISPR-Cas9 in spiders,” said senior author Thomas Scheibel, a professor of biochemistry at Bayreuth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-egg-injection-to-glowing-fiber"><a></a>From egg injection to glowing fiber</h2>



Scheibel and doctoral researcher Edgardo Santiago-Rivera mixed the gene-editing components with a sequence coding for a red fluorescent protein. They injected this cocktail into unfertilized spider eggs and later mated the females.



Because the edit happened before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-are-picky-when-choosing-their-mate-for-fertilization/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilization</a>, every cell in the brood carried the new blueprint. When the juveniles spun safety lines, the filaments glowed scarlet under blue light, confirming a successful gene knock-in.



“We have demonstrated, for the first time worldwide, that CRISPR-Cas9 can be used to incorporate a desired sequence into spider silk proteins, thereby enabling the functionalization of these silk fibers,” Scheibel said.



“The ability to apply CRISPR gene-editing to spider silk is very promising for materials science research. For example, it could be used to further increase the already high tensile strength of spider silk.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-learned-from-red-spider-silk">Lessons learned from red spider silk</h2>



The fluorescent marker acts as a beacon, showing where and how the modified proteins fold into the fiber. That view should help unravel the still-mysterious link between amino-acid sequence, spinning process, and macroscopic performance.



With the roadmap clearer, scientists can test added modules that stiffen the thread, alter its stickiness or carry therapeutic payloads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-artificial-vs-natural-spider-silk">Artificial vs. natural spider silk</h2>



Earlier attempts to engineer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/holy-grail-artificial-spider-silk-indistinguishable-from-natural-silk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">silk</a> relied on copying genes of spiders into bacteria, yeast, plants or even goats. While those hosts churn out raw protein, the artificial threads seldom match the natural product because spinning in air differs from extrusion through a spider’s duct.



Editing the spider itself preserves the native assembly line, letting researchers fine-tune properties without losing the fiber’s intricate nanostructure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-innovation-and-ecology"><a></a>Balancing innovation and ecology</h2>



The gene-edited arachnids remained confined to secure laboratories, and the team stresses that large-scale production will require strict containment.



Spiders play key roles in ecosystems, so any field release of modified lines would demand careful risk assessment. For now. the focus lies on fundamental insight and small-batch, high-value uses such as surgical sutures or micro-mechanical springs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-next-web-strands-to-come">The next web strands to come</h2>



Having proved that complex proteins can be knitted into dragline <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/holy-grail-artificial-spider-silk-indistinguishable-from-natural-silk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">silk</a>, the Bayreuth group plans to insert sequences that enhance strength, adjust elasticity, or add sensing abilities.



Marker colors beyond red could enable multicolored performance mapping. Researchers also hope to explore the spider’s six other silk types - each specialized for tasks like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-adapt-their-webs-to-filter-out-human-made-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">web</a> capture or egg protection - to see how far CRISPR can stretch nature’s design space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-point-for-sustainable-fibers">Turning point for sustainable fibers</h2>



By merging a molecular editing toolkit with the planet’s premier fiber spinner, the study opens a fresh chapter in biomaterials science. It hints at a future where customized, biodegradable threads are spun at ambient temperature by miniature eight-legged factories - no smokestacks or petrochemicals required. 



For now, a vivid red glow in a strand of spiders silk stands as proof that the possibilities are real, and only beginning to be woven.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/anie.202502068" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Angewandte Chemie</a>.



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World's first gene-edited spiders spin red silk

Scientists have bred spiders that weave bright red, fluorescent draglines, proving that the animals’ silk can be genetically re-engineered inside the living organism. This finding shows a new path toward designer fibers with tunable strength, elasticity, and surface chemistry. The experiments were carried out by the Biomaterials research group at the University of Bayreuth. Using the CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing system, the team inserted a fluorescent marker gene into the spiders’ silk-protein DNA, then confirmed the edit when the offspring produced crimson red threads. Why spider silk excites engineers...

Even though chimpanzees are typically divided into four geographical subspecies, some studies have found evidence of genetic connectivity among all populations. 

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>, experts have discovered recent genetic connectivity between chimpanzee subspecies, despite periods of isolation.

"Given the high degree of behavioral variability and flexibility across chimpanzee populations, characterizing range-wide patterns of genetic diversity in chimpanzees is important for understanding how they adapt to changing environmental conditions," explained the researchers.

In collaboration with the Pan African Programme: The Cultured Chimpanzee (PanAf), an international team of experts collected over 5,000 fecal samples from 55 sites across the chimpanzee range in 18 countries. This is by far the most complete sampling of chimpanzees to date.

"Collecting these samples was often a daunting task for our amazing field teams. The chimpanzees were almost all unhabituated to human presence, so it took a lot of patience, skill and luck to find chimpanzee dung at each of the sites," said study senior author Mimi Arandjelovic.

"We used rapidly-evolving genetic markers that reflect the recent population history of species and, in combination with the dense sampling from across their range, we show that chimpanzee subspecies have been connected, or, more likely, reconnected, for extended periods during the most recent maximal expansion of African forests," said study first author Jack Lester.

This means that although chimpanzees were separated into different subspecies in their distant past - prior to human disturbances - the geographic barriers were permeable to chimpanzee dispersal. 

"It is widely thought that chimpanzees persisted in forest refugia during glacial periods, which has likely been responsible for isolating groups of populations which we now recognize as subspecies," explained study co-author Paolo Gratton. 

"Our results from fast-evolving microsatellite DNA markers however indicate that genetic connectivity in the most recent millennia mainly mirrors geographic distance and local factors, masking the older subspecies subdivisions."

According to PanAf co-director Hjalmar Kuehl, the results suggest that the great behavioral diversity observed in chimpanzees is not due to local genetic adaptation but to their reliance on behavioral flexibility to respond to changes in their environment.

At sites that were associated with human disturbances and pressures, the researchers noted signals of reductions in diversity. There were even some locations where no chimpanzees were detected, even though they had been present in recent decades. 

"Although not unforeseen, we were disheartened to already find the influence of human impacts at some field sites where genetic diversity was markedly lower than what we expected," said Lester.

The findings highlight the importance of genetic connectivity for chimpanzees in their recent history. While chimpanzees are adaptable and can survive in human-modified landscapes, they are currently facing multiple threats including habitat loss and diseases. The results of this study indicate that if habitat fragmentation and isolation continue, there will be serious consequences for the genetic health and viability of chimpanzees.

Christophe Boesch, co-director of the PanAf and director of the Wild Chimpanzee Foundation, concluded that every effort should be made to re-establish and maintain dispersal corridors across their range, with perhaps special attention to trans-national protected areas.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsbio/">Communications Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Recent genetic connectivity found among chimpanzee subspecies

Even though chimpanzees are typically divided into four geographical subspecies,...

Antarctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bearded-seals-may-not-be-loud-enough-to-survive-ocean-noise-pollution/">seals</a> are providing new insight into why glaciers are disappearing. A study from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> reveals that an unexpectedly large amount of meltwater is modifying the climate and preventing sea ice from forming.

For the investigation, the researchers attached instruments to the heads of seals living near Pine Island Glacier in the remote Amundsen Sea west of Antarctica. This allowed the scientists to capture full-depth glacial meltwater observations in winter for the first time. 

The data collected by the tagged seals was used to measure water temperature and salinity. The experts found that meltwater distribution was highly variable with two primary layers - one in the upper 250 meters and another at around 450 meters deep. These two layers were connected by meltwater-rich columns. 

The meltwater provides near-surface heat that promotes areas of open water that are close to glaciers. The warmer water accelerates the melting rate of the ice shelves. 

"The temperature and salinity of water change everywhere glacial meltwater exists. Just like looking for a 'fingerprint' of glacial meltwater, we use temperature and salinity data to track the glacial meltwater," said study lead author Yixi Zheng.

"The glacial meltwater distribution is very patchy. It doesn't mix well with the ambient water, instead flowing along two meltwater-rich layers in the upper 250 meters and at around 450 meters, connected by meltwater-rich columns."

"As the glacial meltwater is warmer and fresher than the ambient water, it is lighter than the ambient water and more likely to rise up. It brings heat and nutrients such as iron to the near surface, which may melt the sea ice near glaciers and increase the nutrient level near the surface. This enhances the air-sea interactions, and the meltwater-related nutrients may boost the growth of marine planktons like algae."

The wintertime ocean processes described in the study are likely responsible for bringing nutrients to the near-surface layer prior to the spring bloom, and for bringing heat to the surface that prevents sea ice from forming. As a result, open areas of water near glaciers expand and persist.

Many glaciers around Antarctica are rapidly shrinking, and this is primarily due to melting that occurs at the interface between the ocean and the ice shelf glacier, or basal melting. The strongest melt has been reported in glaciers in west Antarctica.

According to the experts, further research is needed considering that the study was based on one year of seal-tag data from Pine Island Glacier, and it can't be used to calculate trends over time.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/subjects/earth-and-environmental-sciences/ncomms">Communications Earth and Environment</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Meltwater is a driving force behind disappearing glaciers

Antarctic seals are providing new insight into why glaciers are...

A prehistoric "killing machine" that was previously thought to have been heavy and sluggish was actually much faster than its prey, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/">University of the Witwatersrand</a>. Anteosaurus was a premammalian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-accelerates-aging-in-fish-amphibians-and-reptiles/">reptile</a> that lived in Africa during the middle Permian between 265 to 260 million years ago. 

Despite being just about the size of an adult rhinoceros, the ancient animal was a ferocious carnivore with powerful jaws and massive, bone-crushing teeth. However, experts have theorized that Anteosaurus was too slow and heavy on its feet to be an effective hunter. 

The surprising new study reveals that these creatures were built to outrun, track down, and kill their prey with ease.

Anteosaurus was a Dinocephalian, a mammal-like reptile that predated the dinosaurs. Dinocephalians dominated the planet in their time, but died out about 30 million years before dinosaurs emerged.

Dinocephalians bones, which are found in many places throughout the world, stand out as being extremely large and heavy. Anteosaurus, in particular, had a skull covered with large bumps and lumps above the eyes and a long crest on top of the snout. 

The heavy nature of the creature's bones led scientists to believe that it was a slow animal that had to scavenge or ambush its prey. "Some scientists even suggested that Anteosaurus was so heavy that it could only have lived in water," said study co-author Dr.  Julien Benoit.

Using X-ray imaging and 3D technology, the researchers created a digital reconstruction of the Anteosaurus skull and analyzed its internal structures. The study revealed that specific characteristics of the brain and balance organs were developed in such a way that would have made the reptile the opposite of slow-moving.

"Agile predators such as cheetahs or the infamous Velociraptor have always had a very specialized nervous systems and fine-tuned sensory organs that enable them to track and hunt down prey effectively," said Dr. Benoit. "We wanted to find out whether the Anteosaurus possessed similar adaptations."

The experts report that the organ of balance in Anteosaurus, which is located within the inner ear, was relatively larger than that of its closest relatives and other predators. This indicates that Anteosaurus was capable of moving much faster than its prey and competitors. 

"Even though Anteosaurus lived 200-million years before the famous dinosaur Tyrannosaurus rex, Anteosaurus was definitely not a 'primitive' creature, and was nothing short of a mighty prehistoric killing machine," said Dr. Benoit.

The researchers also found that the brain region responsible for coordinating eye movements in Anteosaurus was exceptionally large, which would have given the reptiles remarkable tracking abilities.

"In creating the most complete reconstruction of an Anteosaurus skull to date, we found that overall, the nervous system of Anteosaurus was optimised and specialized for hunting swiftly and striking fast, unlike what was previously believed," said study co-author Dr.  Ashley Kruger.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.app.pan.pl/">Acta Palaeontologica Polonica</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Anteosaurus was a killing machine millions of years before the dinosaurs

A prehistoric "killing machine" that was previously thought to have...

Declining butterfly populations have been linked to fall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/livestock-production-could-be-hit-hard-by-global-warming/">warming</a> and drier conditions in the western United States, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a>. The experts found that Western butterfly populations have been steadily declining at an estimated rate of 1.6 percent per year over the past four decades. 

The research involved data on more than 450 butterfly species across 72 sites. In particular, the latest population count of the western monarch indicates a 99.9 percent decline over the 42-year study period from 1977 to 2018.

"The monarch population that winters along the West Coast plummeted from several hundred thousand just a few years ago to fewer than 2,000 this past year," said study co-author Professor Katy Prudic. 

"Essentially, the western monarch is on the brink of extinction, but what's most unsettling is they are situated in the middle of the pack, so to speak, in our list of declining butterfly species."

Professor Prudic said the takeaway is that western U.S. butterflies are declining quickly, and autumn warming - not spring warming or land use change - is an important contributor to the decline.

While spring tends to get most of the attention when it comes to climate change, fall warming trends have been observed in 230 cities across the United States. The largest fall temperature increases have been found in much of the Southwest.

"In Arizona, for example, the period between September and November has warmed about 0.2 degrees Fahrenheit per decade since 1895," said study co-author Professor Michael Crimmins. "Fall temperatures have warmed especially fast since the late 1980s and it's not clear why."

The study noted that declining butterfly populations have been observed in areas experiencing these fall warming trends across the West. The researchers suggest fall temperature increases may not only induce physiological stress on butterflies, but may influence development and hibernation preparation. Warmer fall temperatures can also reduce the availability of food or host plants, and extend the length of time that predators are a threat to butterflies.

Study lead author Matt Forister is a professor of Biology at the <a href="https://www.unr.edu/">University of Nevada, Reno</a>.

"The widespread butterfly declines highlight the importance of careful management of the lands that we do have control over, including our own backyards where we should use fewer pesticides and choose plants for landscapes that benefit local insects," said Professor Forister.

"Our report is unique in covering a wide area of relatively undeveloped land as compared to, for example, studies from heavily populated areas of western Europe."

"The fact that declines are observed across the undeveloped spaces of the western U.S. means that we cannot assume that insects are okay out there far from direct human influence. And that's because the influence of climate change is, of course, not geographically restricted."

The findings are shedding new light on the impacts of climate change on Western butterfly populations, and suggest that a new approach is needed for butterfly conservation that is focused on groups of species with similar habitats and needs rather than on individual species. 

"Western butterfly declines are associated with increasing fall temperatures across the U.S. wildlands," said study co-author Katy Prudic. "Conservation, management and restoration on public lands, especially along cooler riparian areas, will be critical for preventing butterfly declines and extinction."

According to the researchers, management of developed areas can have immediate benefits for insect populations but the impacts of climate change across all landscapes cannot be ignored. They noted that society should not assume that the legal protection of open spaces is sufficient without action to limit the advance of human-caused climate change.

"We relied heavily on data from citizen or "community" scientists," said Professor Forister. "Volunteers are generating amazing data these days, and we wouldn't have been able to study as many locations without decades of hard work from hundreds or maybe thousands of people."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Western butterfly populations are steadily vanishing

Declining butterfly populations have been linked to fall warming and...

Vocal signals are key to reproductive success among frogs, but how do females hear the mating calls produced by males against a noisy background? In a new study published by <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>, experts have discovered that frogs have lungs that act like noise-canceling headphones.

When the lungs are inflated, the eardrum's sensitivity to environmental noise in a specific frequency range is reduced. According to the researchers, this makes it easier for female frogs to hear the calls of males from their own species.

"In essence, the lungs cancel the eardrum's response to noise, particularly some of the noise encountered in a cacophonous breeding 'chorus,' where the males of multiple other species also call simultaneously," said lead author Professor Norman Lee of St. Olaf College.

The specialized function of the lungs produces an effect known as "spectral contrast enhancement." The effect makes the frequencies in the spectrum of a male's call stand out against noise at adjacent frequencies.

"This is analogous to signal-processing algorithms for spectral contrast enhancement implemented in some hearing aids and cochlear implants," said study senior author Mark Bee. 

"In humans, these algorithms are designed to amplify or 'boost' the frequencies present in speech sounds, attenuate or 'filter out' frequencies present between those in speech sounds, or both. In frogs, the lungs appear to attenuate frequencies occurring between those present in male mating calls." 

"We believe the physical mechanism by which this occurs is similar in principle to how noise-canceling headphones work."

The researchers explained that frogs possess a unique sound pathway that can transmit sounds from their air-filled lungs to their air-filled middle ears through the glottis, mouth cavity, and Eustachian tubes. While this sound transmission pathway has been previously described, its function has remained a mystery. 

Some studies have suggested that the lungs may increase the degree to which eardrum vibrations are direction dependent, which would improve a frog's ability to hear mating calls. 

However, the current study has produced a different explanation. The experts found that while the state of the lungs' inflation appeared to have no effect on directional hearing, there was a substantial impact on the sensitivity of the eardrum. 

When a frog's lungs were inflated, the eardrum vibrated less in response to sounds in a specific frequency range. This led the researchers to speculate that the lungs were dampening vibrations, and canceling out noise as a result. 

The study ultimately confirmed that inflated lungs in green treefrogs make it harder to hear the calls of other species, but do not affect their ability to hear their own species.

"Needless to say, we think this result - a frog's lungs canceling the eardrum's response to noise created by other species of frogs - is pretty cool!" said Bee.

According to the researchers, the findings demonstrate the power of evolution to co-opt pre-existing adaptations for new functions. Going forward, they plan to further investigate the physical interaction between the various sources of sound that influence the eardrum's sensitivity. The experts also want to explore how widespread noise cancellation is among frogs.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Frogs have lungs that cancel out background noise

Vocal signals are key to reproductive success among frogs, but...

A new study of tropical rainforests has revealed a previously unknown link between mammal diversity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-pigs-help-build-and-maintain-tree-diversity-in-rainforests/">forest</a> production. Researchers at <a href="https://www.rice.edu/">Rice University</a> analyzed camera-trap data from 15 wildlife preserves located within tropical rainforests. 

"In general, rainforest ecosystems are extremely diverse, and our study shows that mammal communities in rainforests can be predictably different, and these differences may be controlled, in part, by differences in plant productivity in forests," said study co-author Daniel Gorczynski.

Even in protected areas, it is difficult to keep track of the health of wildlife and ecosystems. The Rice team turned to camera-trap photos from the Tropical Ecology Assessment and Monitoring Network (TEAM), which uses motion-activated cameras to monitor species trends in tropical forests in Asia, Africa, and South America.

According to study co-author Professor Lydia Beaudrot, the study's scientific contributions demonstrate the importance of having the same data collection replicated on the ground in forests all around the world.

"The TEAM data are an incredible resource for basic and applied ecology and conservation," said Professor Beaudrot. "Given the pace of tropical forest loss, it is more important now than ever to use standardized camera-trap data to understand environmental and anthropogenic effects on wildlife."

For each site, the researchers collected data on all species of terrestrial mammals with an average body mass greater than one kilogram. All mammals at the same site were treated as a single community, and data was compiled for communities with as many as 31 species and as few as five. 

By compiling the functional traits for the species in each community - like diet and reproductive habits - the experts calculated the community's "functional diversity." 

"We found that species with unique characteristics - for example, species that are very large or eat unique foods - are relatively more common in forests with high productivity," said Gorczynski. The research also showed that species with unique characteristics were less common at sites with low productivity.

"Higher productivity is thought to make rare resources, like certain food types that unique species often eat, more readily available, which unique species can capitalize on. And because they are unique, they don't have to compete as much with other species for rare resources, and they can persist at higher abundances."

Gorczynski explained that the species that are considered unique varied by site. These included elephants, tapirs, and ground-dwelling monkeys. He noted that this relationship between mammal diversity and productivity had not been previously recognized.

"Most studies of rainforest mammals rely on range maps, which don't give you an idea of how common different species are," said Gorczynski. "We were able to find this relationship because we used camera trap observations. The observational data gives us an idea of how common different species are, which allows us to compare the relative abundances of species with different traits."

According to study co-author Jorge Ahumada, the research also shows that destructive human activities, like deforestation, decrease the diversity of species' traits in protected areas. He said that simply counting the number of species in a tropical forest does not provide a full picture of mammal diversity or ecosystem health. 

"We found that in areas where local species extinctions have been documented due to significant deforestation or poaching, such as in Korup National Park in Cameroon, large carnivores like leopards and golden cats are the first to go," said Ahumada. 

"Without these apex predators, entire food chains can be thrown out of balance. Eventually, populations of smaller herbivores will skyrocket, forcing more competition for the same limited resources."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mammal diversity in rainforests linked to plant productivity

A new study of tropical rainforests has revealed a previously...

Dynamic,Jump,Of,Killer,Whale,Hunting,Fish

A new study has investigated the diversity of fish species that support the diets of Southern Resident killer whales. The researchers found that killer whales rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-poop-stores-1-65-billion-tons-of-carbon-annually/">fish</a> from across a massive geographic range that reaches as far north as Alaska and as far south as California's Central Valley.

The diverse salmon stocks each have their own migration patterns and timing. The various species supply food for the killer whales across the entire year. The problem is that, like the killer whales, many of the salmon species they depend on are also endangered.

"If returns to the Fraser River are in trouble, and Columbia River returns are strong, then prey availability to the whales potentially balances out as the whales have evolved to move rapidly throughout their range. But if most of the stocks throughout their range are reduced then this could spell trouble for the whales," explained study lead author and <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/">NOAA Fisheries</a> wildlife biologist Brad Hanson.

The experts analyzed more than 150 prey and fecal samples collected from killer whales from 2004 to 2017. The research has produced the most comprehensive picture yet of Southern Resident prey over the course of the year.

"When so many prey species are endangered, then they lose some of that diversity," said Hanson. "The question for managers is how do you support and improve this diverse portfolio of species and stocks."

The analysis revealed that the killer whales prey almost exclusively on Chinook salmon when they are available in the summer. Over the rest of the year, they diversify their diet to include other species such as steelhead, chum, and coho salmon. 

Most of the salmon consumed by the whales during the winter and spring months come from three large river systems: the Columbia, Sacramento, and rivers entering Puget Sound.

The researchers pointed out that increased production of hatchery fish could help support the 75 remaining whales, but that this strategy is not without risks. Study co-author Robin Baird explained that many hatchery fish are already available for killer whales at certain times of the year. Increasing the diversity of hatchery fish in the wintertime, when the whales appear to have less food, may be most helpful.

"We don't need more cookie-cutter fish that all come back during the time when Chinook are most abundant; we need to diversify and increase availability at other times of the year," said Baird.

NOAA Fisheries has designated the Southern Residents one of nine national species in the spotlight. These species are highly endangered and can benefit from focused recovery efforts, including conservation of their prey. 

Lynne Barre is a marine biologist who is the recovery coordinator for the Southern Residents at NOAA Fisheries West Coast Region.

"Knowing what these whales eat throughout the year and across their various habitats helps us focus recovery efforts for both the Southern Residents and the salmon they rely on," explained Barre.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS One</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Killer whales may need to further diversify their diets

A new study has investigated the diversity of fish species...

In a new study of peregrine falcons, experts have found compelling evidence that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-grow-more-down-feathers-in-higher-elevations/">birds</a> have a "migration gene." The researchers said their findings add further evidence to suggest that genetics play a strong role in the distance of migration routes.

The study combined satellite tracking and genome sequencing to pinpoint a specific gene associated with migration in peregrine falcons. Best known for their ultrafast diving speeds, which can reach more than 200 miles per hour, peregrine falcons are the fastest birds in the world.

For the investigation, the experts tagged 56 peregrine falcons and monitored their migratory journeys by satellite. The annual flight distances and directions of the birds were tracked in great detail.

The peregrine falcons were found to use five migration routes across Eurasia. According to the researchers, these routes were likely established between the last ice age 22,000 years ago and the middle-Holocene 6,000 years ago.

Using complete genome sequencing, the team identified a gene that was associated with differences in migratory distance among peregrine falcons. This gene, ADCY8, is known to regulate long-term memory in other animals.

The researchers frequently found a variant of ADCY8 in long-distance migrant populations of peregrines. This finding indicates that the variant is preferentially selected because it increases long-term memory to support longer migrations.

Study co-author Professor Mike Bruford is a molecular ecologist from the School of Biosciences at <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk">Cardiff University</a>.

"Previous studies have identified several candidate genomic regions that may regulate migration - but our work is the strongest demonstration of a specific gene associated with migratory behaviour yet identified," explained Professor Bruford.

To predict the potential impacts of global warming, the team looked at simulations of future migratory behavior. "In this study we were able to combine animal movement and genomic data to identify that climate change has a major role in the formation and maintenance of migration patterns of peregrines," said Professor Bruford.

The results suggest that if global warming continues at the current rate, peregrine falcons in western Eurasia have the highest probability of population decline and may stop migrating altogether.

"Our work is the first to begin to understand the way ecological and evolutionary factors may interact in migratory birds - and we hope it will serve as a cornerstone to help conserve migratory species in the world," said study co-author Professor Xiangjiang Zhan.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study of peregrine falcons suggests birds have a migration gene

In a new study of peregrine falcons, experts have found...

Wild pigs in Malaysia are typically known for being environmentally destructive, but a new study from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> suggests that they actually play an important role in building <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-from-ancient-rainforests-can-be-identified-in-fossil-teeth/">rainforests</a>. The research shows, for the first time, that wild pigs help to promote biodiversity across forest ecosystems. 

While studying the impacts of native pigs in Malaysian rainforests, Dr. Matthew Luskin discovered that their nests may be critical to maintaining diverse and balanced tree communities.

"We've shown that wild pigs can support higher diversity ecosystems and are not just nuisances and pests, thanks to a beneficial effect of their nesting practices," explained Dr. Luskin.

"Prior to giving birth, pigs build birthing nests made up of hundreds of tree seedlings, usually on flat, dry sites in the forest."

"As they build their nests, the pigs kill many of the dominant seedlings and inadvertently reduce the abundance of locally dominant tree species, but usually not rarer local species, supporting tree diversity."

Dr. Luskin noted that wild pigs descended from the same species of domestic pigs and both have generally been considered pests by farmers, land managers, and conservationists. "Their negative impacts on natural and cultivated ecosystems have been well documented - ranging from soil disturbances to attacking newborn livestock."

The researchers tagged more than 30,000 tree seedlings in a Malaysian rainforest. After recovering over 1,800 of the tree tags from inside more than 200 pig birthing nests, the experts were able to investigate how tree diversity changed in the areas where pigs nested.

"You could consider pigs 'accidental forest gardeners' that prune common seedlings and inadvertently maintain diversity," said Dr. Luskin. 

"In many regions, there's a focus on managing overabundant pig populations to limit their negative environmental impacts. But our results suggest there may be some positives to maintaining pigs in the ecosystem."

Since the fieldwork was conducted in Malaysia where pigs are native, the impacts of invasive pigs in Australia may not create similar effects, explained Dr. Luskin.

"We're currently in the process of designing new research to study the same pig processes here in Queensland, and we'll also be comparing our initial Malaysian results with conditions in a nearby Malaysian forest that is heavily hunted and where many native pigs have been killed."

"It's an intriguing insight, as pigs have become the most widespread large animal on Earth, so documenting any new ecological impacts has massive repercussions globally."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wild pigs help promote tree diversity in rainforests

Wild pigs in Malaysia are typically known for being environmentally...

Cuttlefish have the capacity to delay <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dealy-instant-gratification-money/">gratification</a>, according to a surprising new study from the <a href="https://www.mbl.edu/">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> (MBL). 

The experts found that cuttlefish can resist a tempting meal and hold out for a better one. Furthermore, the researchers discovered that individual fish who delayed gratification the longest also performed better in a learning test.

The study represents the first time a link between self-control and intelligence has been demonstrated in an animal other than humans and chimpanzees.

"We used an adapted version of the Stanford marshmallow test, where children were given a choice of taking an immediate reward (1 marshmallow) or waiting to earn a delayed but better reward (2 marshmallows)," said study lead author Alexandra Schnell of the University of Cambridge.

"Cuttlefish in the present study were all able to wait for the better reward and tolerated delays for up to 50-130 seconds, which is comparable to what we see in large-brained vertebrates such as chimpanzees, crows and parrots."

The cuttlefish that could wait longer for a meal exhibited greater cognitive ability. The fish were trained to associate a visual cue with a food reward. Then, the conditions were changed so that the reward became associated with a different cue. 

"The cuttlefish that were quickest at learning both of those associations were better at exerting self-control," explained Schnell.

The experts said that the reasons why cuttlefish have evolved the capacity for self-control is a mystery. 

Among humans, delayed gratification is thought to strengthen social bonds. This ability may also benefit tool-building animals, who must hold off on hunting while they construct tools.

However, noted the researchers, cuttlefish are not social species and they do not build tools. The study authors propose that delayed gratification may be a byproduct of the cuttlefish's need to use camouflage for survival.

"Cuttlefish spend most of their time camouflaging, sitting and waiting, punctuated by brief periods of foraging," said Schnell. 

"They break camouflage when they forage, so they are exposed to every predator in the ocean that wants to eat them. We speculate that delayed gratification may have evolved as a byproduct of this, so the cuttlefish can optimize foraging by waiting to choose better quality food."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cuttlefish have a surprising capacity for delayed gratification

Cuttlefish have the capacity to delay gratification, according to a...

A,Queen,Of,Antlion,Resting,On,A,Twig

A new study from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> has explored how long some animals will fake their own death to evade predators. The researchers investigated whether certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-lions-have-mastered-the-timing-to-prey-on-chinook-salmon/">prey</a> species may be sitting motionless for unnecessarily long periods, or if they have mastered the timing.

Death-feigning is a fairly common survival tactic among ants, beetles, and other insects. Some animals will even give off a foul-smelling to dodge an attack. Predators instinctively avoid eating dead animals because they may harbor dangerous bacteria.

While Charles Darwin recorded a beetle that remained stationary for 23 minutes, the new research has documented an individual antlion larva pretending to be dead for a total of 61 minutes. 

The experts report that the amount of time an individual remains motionless is unpredictable, which means that predators have no concept of how long they should wait on an individual to start moving again. Considering that predators are hungry and cannot wait indefinitely for a meal, the targeted prey are basically wasting time if they fake their death for too long. 

The researchers used computer simulations that utilize the marginal value theorem, a classical model in optimization, to evaluate the potential benefits of death-feigning among small populations of conspicuous prey in the face of predators. 

"Imagine you are in a garden full of identical soft fruit bushes. You go to the first bush. Initially collecting and consuming fruit is fast and easy, but as you strip the bush finding more fruit gets harder and harder and more time consuming," said study lead author Professor Nigel R. Franks.

"At some stage, you should decide to go to another bush and begin again. You are greedy and you want to eat as much fruit as quickly as possible. The marginal value theorem would tell you how long to spend at each bush given that time will also be lost moving to the next bush."

"We use this approach to consider a small bird visiting patches of conspicuous antlion pits and show that antlion larvae that waste some of the predator's time, by 'playing dead' if they are dropped, change the game significantly. In a sense, they encourage the predator to search elsewhere."

According to the model projections, antlion larvae would not gain significantly if they remained motionless for even longer than they typically do. This suggests that over the course of evolution, prey species have determined the optimal amount of time that is needed to fake their death to avoid predation.

"Thus, playing dead is rather like a conjuring trick. Magicians distract an audience from seeing their sleights of hand by encouraging them to look elsewhere," said Professor Franks. "Just so with the antlion larvae playing dead - the predator looks elsewhere. Playing dead seems to be a very good way to stay alive."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Faking death is a good way for animals to stay alive

A new study from the University of Bristol has explored...

The latch-spring mechanism of trap-jaw ants evolved up to 10 different times independently throughout the world, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.oist.jp/">Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University (OIST)</a>

Trap-jaw ants are famous for their powerful mandibles, which close about 2,300 times faster than the blink of an eye. To catch prey and dodge <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmers-can-use-flowers-to-attract-predatory-insects/">predators</a>, the ants' jaws accelerate at 100,000 times the force of gravity, and this force up to 500 times their body weight.

The trap-jaw does not rely on muscles to open and close, but instead latches itself open, storing energy like a stretched spring. When released, the jaws snap shut in one strike. The OIST team wanted to know how this complex mechanism evolved from simpler ancestors.

The experts have now discovered that the core mechanism that drives the extraordinary speed of the trap-jaw arose multiple times, followed by the diversification of the mandible shape.

The researchers reconstructed the evolutionary relationships among 470 species of Strumigenys miniature trap-jaw ants. They also observed the jaws in motion using X-ray microtomography, 3D modeling, and high-speed videos.

The study revealed that the trap-jaw mechanism evolved 7 to 10 times independently across the world.

The experts found that only a very small change in form was required to drastically change the function of the jaw from the gripping mechanism to the trapping mechanism. After the new function evolved, the muscles in the head of trap-jaw ants began to dramatically restructure, and their jaws became longer and grew to open wider. 

"Previously, we had thought that all trap-jaws had both divergent form and divergent function, so it was much less obvious as to whether the change in function could occur at the start or whether a lot of changes to the form were first needed as a precondition, but it turned out there are many intermediate forms out there of the trap-jaw mechanism that people just hadn't identified before, some which differ only slightly from the ancestral form," explained Professor Evan Economo.

"One of the central questions in biology is: how does something complex arise from something simple? Structures like the trap-jaw depend on multiple interacting parts to function correctly."

"At first it can be hard to see how such complexity can arise through the gradual stepwise changes of evolution. Nevertheless, when we look closely biologists can uncover evolutionary pathways to complexity."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLOS Biology</a> 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How trap-jaw ants got the fastest bite in the animal kingdom

The latch-spring mechanism of trap-jaw ants evolved up to 10...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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