Sharks have survived for hundreds of millions of years. They outlived the dinosaurs, Ice Ages, and major climate shifts. Yet today, they are disappearing rapidly - not because of nature, but because of us.



Since the 1970s, their global numbers have fallen by more than 70 percent. The causes are not mysterious: overfishing, finning, bycatch, and growing demand for shark meat. 



The International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) now lists nearly 40 percent of shark species as threatened. Laws and trade bans set rules, but sellers still put sharks on the market.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-meat-trade-uncovered">Shark meat trade uncovered</h2>



A team at the <a href="https://www.unc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> decided to check what is actually on sale in the United States. 



They bought shark products from grocery stores, seafood markets, and online shops. Using DNA barcoding, they tested the species. The results were shocking.



“We found critically endangered sharks, including great hammerhead and scalloped hammerhead, being sold in grocery stores, seafood markets, and online," said study co-author Dr. Savannah Ryburn.



"Of the 29 samples, 93 percent were ambiguously labeled as ‘shark,’ and one of the two products labeled at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-white-sharks-survived-the-ice-age-but-it-changed-them-forever/">species</a> level was mislabeled,” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-misleading-labels-everywhere">Misleading labels everywhere</h2>



Most of the products carried only the word “shark.” Sellers even mislabeled some as safer species. Out of 30 samples, just one had a correct and clear label.



The rest included a mix of 11 species, three of which were critically endangered. Nearly a third came from species already at serious risk of extinction.



This problem isn’t limited to the United States. Around the world, shark meat appears under names like “cazón” in Brazil, “flake” in Australia, and “rock salmon” in the UK. In Peru, most people eating “tollo” did not even know it was shark.



These vague labels hide what consumers are really buying and make it almost impossible to track trade in threatened species. 



Sellers put <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-sharks-study-reveals-hidden-crisis-of-overfishing/">endangered sharks</a> in plain sight, deny scientists the ability to track catches, and prevent buyers from making safe, informed choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meat-sold-at-low-prices">Meat sold at low prices</h2>



Researchers also pointed to the price. Endangered sharks were selling for less than $5 a pound in U.S. grocery stores.



By comparison, red snapper sold for $27 a pound. The numbers show how little the market values these predators, even though they play a critical role in ocean ecosystems.



“The legality of selling shark meat in the United States depends largely on where the shark was harvested and which species are involved, under regulations from CITES and the Endangered Species Act,” Ryburn explained.



“However, by the time large shark species reach grocery stores and markets, they are often sold as fillets with all distinguishing features removed, making it unlikely that sellers know what species they are offering.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/endangered-shark-meat_false-labels_Frontiers_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/endangered-shark-meat_false-labels_Frontiers_1s.webp" alt="Photos exemplifying how some of the samples were labeled and displayed when purchased. (A) Dusky smooth-hound sold whole, missing the head, labeled as “shark” in English and Chinese at an Asian grocery store in Orlando, FL. (B) Shortfin mako shark sold as jerky and purchased online from the Newport Jerky Company in Rhode Island labeled as “mako shark jerky”. (C) Common thresher shark sold as “fresh shark [steak]” at an Asian grocery store in Duluth, GA. The label also included “wild caught/USA”. (D) Blacktip shark labeled as “wild blacktip shark, fresh never frozen” from a Publix grocery store in Cary, NC. The label also included that it was a “product of Florida” and that it was “responsibly sourced”. Credit: Frontiers in Marine Science" class="wp-image-1985976"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Photos exemplifying how some of the samples were labeled and displayed when purchased. (A) Dusky smooth-hound sold whole, missing the head, labeled as “shark” in English and Chinese at an Asian grocery store in Orlando, FL. (B) Shortfin mako shark sold as jerky and purchased online from the Newport Jerky Company in Rhode Island labeled as “mako shark jerky”. (C) Common thresher shark sold as “fresh shark [steak]” at an Asian grocery store in Duluth, GA. The label also included “wild caught/USA”. (D) Blacktip shark labeled as “wild blacktip shark, fresh never frozen” from a Publix grocery store in Cary, NC. The label also included that it was a “product of Florida” and that it was “responsibly sourced”. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Frontiers in Marine Science</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eating-shark-meat-is-dangerous">Eating shark meat is dangerous</h2>



This issue isn’t only about conservation. Sharks such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-great-hammerhead-sharks-rarely-leave-home/">hammerheads</a> and makos carry high levels of mercury and arsenic in their tissues. These metals damage the nervous system, harm unborn children, and increase cancer risks.



Mislabeled products strip consumers of their ability to make safe choices and put families at risk without their knowledge.



The danger grows because heavy metals accumulate over time, meaning even small, repeated servings of shark meat can cause long-term health effects that no label warns about.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clear-labels-protect-sharks">Clear labels protect sharks</h2>



The United States still allows “shark” as a generic market name. In contrast, the European Union requires far more detail, including the scientific name and catch area. 



Without clear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dont-say-vegan-food-labeling-should-focus-on-health-and-sustainability/">labeling</a>, the public cannot know whether their dinner is harmless dogfish or a critically endangered hammerhead.



“Sellers in the United States should be required to provide species-specific names," Ryburn said. "And when shark meat is not a food security necessity, consumers should avoid purchasing products that lack species-level labeling or traceable sourcing."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-extinction-risks-ocean-collapse">Shark extinction risks ocean collapse</h2>



Sharks have been around for half a billion years. If we continue to treat them as cheap, nameless meat, we may be the generation that sees them vanish. Their loss would not be just another statistic on the list of endangered species.



It would mean oceans without their top predators, seas where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-are-quickly-losing-ability-to-support-fish-due-to-plankton-loss/">fish populations</a> explode or collapse without balance, and ecosystems that unravel in ways we cannot easily repair. Communities that depend on healthy oceans for food and livelihoods would also suffer.



Sharks have shaped marine life for millions of years, and their future now depends on the choices we make today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1604454/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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How endangered shark meat ends up on grocery shelves despite global bans

Sharks have survived for hundreds of millions of years. They outlived the dinosaurs, Ice Ages, and major climate shifts. Yet today, they are disappearing rapidly - not because of nature, but because of us. Since the 1970s, their global numbers have fallen by more than 70 percent. The causes are not mysterious: overfishing, finning, bycatch, and growing demand for shark meat. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) now lists nearly 40 percent of shark species as threatened. Laws and trade bans set rules, but sellers...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2021.0590">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a> has revealed that some primate species express grief over the death of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-bats-and-human-infants-engage-in-similar-babbling-behavior/">infants</a> by carrying the corpse with them, sometimes even for months. This study shows that primates may posses an awareness of the phenomenon of death, or at least be able to learn about death over time.



Researchers from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> (UCL) compiled data from anecdotes about primate behavior from 126 publications. In one of the most extensive and rigorous quantitative analyses to date, they identified the behavior of “infant corpse carrying” in primate mothers in 409 cases across 50 species.&nbsp;



“Our study indicates that primates may be able to learn about death in similar ways to humans,” explained study co-author Dr. Alecia Carter from the Anthropology department at UCL. “It might take experience to understand that death results in a long-lasting ‘cessation of function’, which is one of the concepts of death that humans have. What we don’t know, and maybe will never know, is whether primates can understand that death is universal, that all animals – including themselves – will die.”



The scientists found that almost 80 percent of the species in the study performed corpse carrying behavior. Most of the great apes and Old World monkeys carried their infants’ corpses after death. Some primate species that evolutionarily diverged long ago, such as lemurs, did not carry the corpses. However, they were still found to express grief through other types of behavior, such as returning to the corpse or giving mother-infant contact calls.



This study can also shed more light on how non-human primates are processing grief. “It’s known that human mothers who experience a stillbirth and are able to hold their baby are less likely to experience severe depression, as they have an opportunity to express their bond,” said Dr. Carter. “Some primate mothers may also need the same time to deal with their loss, showing how strong and important maternal bonds are for primates, and mammals more generally.”



According to co-author Elisa Fernández Fueyo, mothers that were more strongly bonded to their infants carried their corpses for longer. “Because of our shared evolutionary history, human social bonds are similar in many ways to those of non-human primates. Therefore, it is likely that human mortuary practices and grief have their origins in social bonds,” she concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Primate mothers grieve by carrying their infants after death

A new study published in the journal Proceedings of the...

A team of experts at <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a> is investigating the responses of bats to SARS-CoV-2 to gain new insight into how to treat infection in humans. The study is a major review of how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/15000-year-old-viruses-found-in-tibetan-ice/">virus</a> ravages the human immune system.&nbsp;



In the months since SARS-CoV-2 was first identified in December of 2019, the virus has mutated. The variant strains Alpha, Beta and Delta are more infectious than the original strain.&nbsp;



In particular, the Delta strain is up to 79 percent more contagious than the Alpha mutant, and presumably more deadly, according to study co-author Professor Marcel Nold. He noted that there is an urgent need for effective therapies, at least in part because of the emergence of mutations.



"Preventing SARS-CoV-2 infection, or enabling patients to eradicate it, represents the ultimate goal in combating COVID-19: but it is uncertain when either will become reliably possible," wrote the researchers.



“Therefore, efforts at identifying safe and effective therapies to prevent COVID from progressing to the moderate and severe disease stages, are critical in the fight against the disease,” said Professor Nold.



When bats contract the virus, they exhibit a minimal response. For example, bats do not experience the same lung issues that often affect humans. 



"Preventing progression to severe disease, or effectively treating it - in other words emulating bats - would markedly relieve suffering and save lives," said the researchers.



According to Professor Nold, studying the way bats resist coronaviruses holds substantial promise not only for infections with SARS-CoV-2, but also to better prepare us for the next epidemic or pandemic.



The researchers noted that the common ancestor to the current coronavirus likely appeared in bats between 40 and 70 years ago, but the exact bat species or intermediate host involved in the 2019 outbreak remains elusive.



The study authors propose that some of the ways bats appear to resist COVID could be used in therapeutics to modify the human immune response to the virus, such as blocking inflammasomes in patients. Professor Nold said this could minimize the excessive inflammation, immune exhaustion, and the cytokine storms that are experienced in humans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciimmunol">Science Immunology</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How do bats resist COVID-19 infection?

A team of experts at Monash University is investigating the...

A collection of new studies published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a> explores how leveraging the diversity of aquatic food products (“blue foods”) in the following decades could mitigate malnutrition, increase global health, and lower the environmental footprint of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermarket-layout-influences-food-choice-and-diet/">food</a> system. These studies are the first in a series produced by the&nbsp;<a href="https://bluefood.earth/what-we-do/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Blue Food Assessment</a>&nbsp;(BFA), a group of over 100 experts aiming to assess the benefits of eating aquatic plants and animals.&nbsp;



“Few, if any, countries are developing their blue food sector to provide ecological, economic, and health benefits to its full potential,” said BFA co-chair Rosamond Naylor. “This assessment aims to provide the scientific foundation for decision-makers to evaluate trade-offs and implement solutions that will make blue foods an instrumental part of an improved food system from local to global scales.”



According to the experts, blue foods have more nutritional benefits than terrestrial animal-source foods. Compared to chicken, trout has 19 times more omega-3 fatty acids, oysters and mussels have 76 times more vitamin B-12 and five times more iron, and carps have none times more calcium.



Blue foods are also significantly more sustainable, with many aquatic species such as sardines, anchovies, bivalves, and seaweeds having environmental footprints lower than that of chicken - which represents the lowest impact of terrestrial meat.



“People are trying to make more informed choices about the food they eat, in particular the environmental footprint of their food,”&nbsp;explained Ben Halpern, a marine biologist from the <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">University of California, Santa Barbara</a>.&nbsp;



Together with several colleagues, Halpern explored the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03889-2">environmental sustainability of blue foods</a>,&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-021-00363-0">the opportunities for growth of small-scale producers</a>,&nbsp;and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-021-00368-9">climate risks facing aquatic food systems</a>.&nbsp;



“For the first time we pulled together data from hundreds of studies on a wide range of seafood species to help answer that question. Blue foods stack up really well overall and provide a great option for sustainable food,” he added.



Currently, over 2,500 species of fish and aquatic plants are caught or cultivated for food, providing sustenance for more than one billion people. Researchers hope that in the following decades, blue foods will become even more important, providing not only a healthier food source, but also a more environmentally friendly one.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The Blue Food Assessment group is led by Stanford University’s&nbsp;<a href="https://oceansolutions.stanford.edu/">Center for Ocean Solutions</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://fse.fsi.stanford.edu/">Center on Food Security and the Environment</a>, the&nbsp;Stockholm University’s <a href="https://www.stockholmresilience.org/">Resilience Centre</a>, and&nbsp;<a href="https://eatforum.org/">EAT</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Blue foods are healthy and environmentally friendly

A collection of new studies published in the journal Nature...

An estimated six million people worldwide make use of coral reefs for the purpose of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recreational-fishing-got-a-boost-during-the-pandemic/">fishing</a>. Countless millions more depend on these fish and seafood catches for their dietary needs and incomes, and the livelihoods of many people are derived from tourist or recreational activities based on visiting coral reefs. In this way, coral reef ecosystems provide essential services to humans all over the world.



Unfortunately, these sensitive habitats are under threat from many factors, including overfishing, pollution and climate change. In a first-of-its-kind study, scientists have collected comprehensive data to investigate how various stressors have affected the ability of these reefs to provide essential ecosystem services worldwide. 



“Coral reefs are known to be important habitats for biodiversity and are particularly sensitive to climate change, as marine heat waves can cause bleaching events,” said study lead author Tyler Eddy, a research scientist at the Fisheries &amp; Marine Institute, Memorial University of Newfoundland. “Coral reefs provide important ecosystem services to humans, through fisheries, economic opportunities, and protection from storms.”



The data collected by the research team included assessments of changes in coral cover, biodiversity of coral reefs, fishing statistics, and the consumption of reef-associated seafood by indigenous coastal populations.



The findings reveal that the total area covered by living coral ecosystems has decreased by half since the 1950s. Not surprisingly, the ability of these reefs to provide fishermen with catches has also declined. Catches of reef-associated fish increased steadily from 1950 to 2002, when they peaked with a global catch of 2.3 million tons. Since then, however, catches have steadily decreased. 



Fishing effort increased between 1950 and 2010, and the catch per unit effort (CPUE) peaked in 1971, after which it declines. Today, the CPUE is 60 percent lower than it was in 1950, indicating the decline in abundance of coral reef fish. In addition, reef-associated biodiversity has decreased by 63 percent since 1950.



Countries with the highest per-capita indigenous consumption of coral reef fish were often small-island developing nations, such as Palau, Micronesia, and Kiribati. For people in these countries, reef-associated seafood provides the majority of their animal protein. Therefore, losses in species richness and abundance threatens food security. 



“Our analysis indicates that the capacity of coral reefs to provide ecosystem services has declined by about half globally,” said Professor William Cheung of the UBC Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries. “This study speaks to the importance of how we manage coral reefs not only at regional scales, but also at the global scale, and the livelihoods of communities that rely on them.



The capacity of coral reefs to provide ecosystem services to humans has clearly declined in the past 70 years, threatening the well-being of millions of people who depend on this resource.&nbsp;



“The effects of degraded and declining coral reefs are already evident through impacts on subsistence and commercial fisheries and tourism in Indonesia, the Caribbean, and South Pacific, even when marine protected areas are present, as they do not provide protection from climate change and may suffer from lack of enforcement and marine protected area staff capacity,” wrote the researchers.



“Fish and fisheries provide essential micronutrients in coastal developing regions with few alternative sources of nutrition. Coral reef biodiversity and fisheries take on added importance for Indigenous communities, small island developing states, and coastal populations where they may be essential to traditions and cultural practices." 



"The reduced capacity of coral reefs to provide ecosystem services undermines the well-being of millions of people with historical and continuing relationships with coral reef ecosystems.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.oneearth.org/">One Earth.</a>



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Coral reefs have declined by half since the 1950s

An estimated six million people worldwide make use of coral...

The pastoralist populations from the Eurasian steppe have long been a great source of fascination among scientists, due to their capacity to migrate over long distances. A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03798-4">Nature</a> has found that milk <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-consumption-linked-to-45-percent-lower-cancer-risk/">consumption</a> might have played a fundamental role in the ability of the Bronze Age Yamnaya population to travel extensively and expand out of the Pontic-Caspian steppe over 5,000 years ago.



A research team from the <a href="https://www.shh.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History</a> investigated concentrations of tartar (dental calculus) on the teeth of ancient preserved skeletons. By using advanced molecular methods to extract and analyze the proteins preserved within these materials, they succeeded in identifying which ancient individuals drank milk.



“The pattern was incredibly strong,” explained study leader Dr. Shevan Wilkin. “The majority of pre-Bronze Age Eneolithic individuals we tested - over 90% - showed absolutely no evidence of consuming dairy. In contrast, a remarkable 94% of the Early Bronze Age individuals had clearly been milk drinkers.”



The researchers argue that milk provided the additional nutrients, rich proteins, and concentration of fluids necessary to survive and thrive in the highly arid environment of the steppes. Thus, dairy consumption might have played a key role in the gene flows across vast areas, ultimately connecting pastoralist populations in Scandinavia with groups that expanded into Siberia.



A surprising finding was that, although most of the milk peptides they analyzed come from species such as cow, goat, or sheep, dental calculus from a number of individuals pointed to an unexpected species: horse.



“Our results won’t make everyone happy, but they are very clear,” said senior study author Nicole Boivin. “We see a major transition to dairying right at the point that pastoralists began expanding eastwards,” with domesticated horses probably playing an important role too.&nbsp;



“Steppe populations were no longer just using animals for meat, but exploiting their additional properties –milking them and using them for transport, for example.”



“What we see here is a form of cultural revolution,” concluded Dr. Wilkin, “Early Bronze Age herders clearly realized that dairy consumption offered some fundamental benefits and once they did, vast expansions of these groups across the steppe became possible.”



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Milk played a crucial role in ancient migrations

The pastoralist populations from the Eurasian steppe have long been...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> has found that nearly 85 percent of 5,500 coastal areas all over the world leach sediment to coral reefs. This phenomenon is currently the second largest threat to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-help-corals-survive-when-they-get-into-hot-water/">coral reefs</a> after climate change. Scientists claim that increasing reforestation efforts in these regions could significantly reduce sediment run-off and protect reefs.



Excess sediment run-off along coastal areas is generally caused by land clearing and agrochemical pollution. The sediment causes a massive reduction in light levels, which are crucial for coral growth and reproduction.



“Increased sedimentation can cause aquatic ecosystems to be more sensitive to heat stress, which decreases the resilience of corals to pressures caused by climate change,” explained lead author Dr. Andrés Suárez-Castro&nbsp;from University of Queensland’s&nbsp;<a href="https://cbcs.centre.uq.edu.au/">Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation Science</a>.&nbsp;



“If the link between the land and sea is not recognized and managed separately, any future efforts to conserve marine habitats and species are likely to be ineffective.”



According to Dr.&nbsp;Suárez-Castro&nbsp;and his research team, a key solution to reduce the amount of sediment run-off would be for countries to commit to land and forest restoration along coastal regions. They estimate that if an average of 1,000 hectares per coastal basin was restored, sediments reaching coral reefs could be reduced by 8.5 percent for 63,000 square kilometers of reefs.



“Reforestation is hugely important as it maintains the stability of soils that are vital in limiting erosion risk – it also helps to trap more sediments and prevent them from reaching aquatic systems,” Dr.&nbsp;Suárez-Castro&nbsp;said.



Even though global initiatives such as the Paris Climate Agreement are stressing the importance of forest restoration, it will be a great challenge to get countries and local governments to commit to reforestation activities, said the study authors.



“It’s encouraging to see many countries with high coral diversity committing large areas to land restoration, however the cost of reforestation, as well as political and social barriers may make it difficult to achieve these ambitious goals,” explained Dr. Suárez-Castro.&nbsp;



Further research is urgently needed to facilitate more informed and educated conversations around the importance of an integrated land-sea approach for protecting our planet.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15811">Global Change Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Reforestation needed to save coral reefs from sediment run-off

A new study led by University of Queensland has found...

Microscopic, photosynthetic algae (phytoplankton) form the base of polar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mercury-levels-in-bluefin-tuna-reveal-patterns-of-ocean-pollution/">ocean</a> food webs - some of the largest and most complex in the world. On the other extreme of these polar food webs are top predators such as orcas and polar bears.&nbsp;



Phytoplankton populations vary throughout the world, but prokaryotic species (those with no nucleus) tend to favor warmer waters. Colder waters such as those in polar regions tend to be populated more with eukaryotic species (those containing a nucleus). A new study led by the <a href="https://www.lbl.gov/">Berkeley Lab</a> suggests that prokaryotic phytoplankton could possibly replace the eukaryotic species.&nbsp;



“A lot of our food comes from the North Atlantic, North Pacific and South Pacific fisheries, because of eukaryotic phytoplankton - not prokaryotes," explained study senior author Dr. Thomas Mock. "Prokaryotes are not capable of producing all the juicy proteins and lipids that eukaryotes are.”&nbsp;



For their investigation, the researchers travelled from pole to pole on massive scientific expeditions. Algae assemblages were captured by nets along four transects throughout the world’s oceans. The algae samples were analyzed by DNA sequences to determine the species and gene expression.&nbsp;



The research team discovered a variety of algae communities throughout the ocean, with different communities in distinct regions. Clear boundaries are drawn between different communities in waters with moderate temperatures.&nbsp;



“We can think about the ocean, naively, as a sort of homogeneous medium. In reality, it's not - there is variation of nutrients, temperatures, and other physico-chemical properties," said study co-author Igor Grigoriev. "But still, there are no boundaries in the ocean. Yet, what was found here is that there is this invisible partitioning of algal communities.”



There is a clear difference between microbiome communities, including algae, found in warm waters versus those found in cold waters. Unfortunately, this suggests that the communities are also vulnerable to changes in temperature.&nbsp;



Andy Allen from the Scripps Institute of Oceanography, who was not involved with the research, said that the findings also suggest a certain level of vulnerability we might not have been aware of. "If the system is perturbed, it could be very hard to return to baseline.”



The researchers noted that climate change is severely affecting sea ice and water temperature in polar regions, which endangers these algal communities that are so vital to polar food webs.



“We know so little about these algal communities; they could have beneficial findings, like antibiotics, pharmaceuticals, and novel enzymes that function at low temperature. But these ecosystems are literally melting away," said study co-lead author Katrin Schmidt.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change threatens the base of polar food webs

Microscopic, photosynthetic algae (phytoplankton) form the base of polar ocean...

A research team from the Universities of <a href="https://uni-tuebingen.de/">Tübingen</a> and <a href="https://www.unizar.es/university-zaragoza">Zaragoza</a> has recently discovered the remains of an otter in the 11.4-million-year-old strata at the Hammerschmiede <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-in-five-premature-deaths-tied-to-fossil-fuel-pollution/">fossil</a> site in Germany. This particular otter species was previously thought to exist only in Asia and Africa. 



The surprising finding sheds new light on prehistoric geography and on animal migration patterns during the Late Miocene period.



The Hammerschmiede excavation site became world-famous with the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1731-0">discovery</a> of the bipedal ape Danuvius guggenmosi in 2019. This research was led by Professor Madelaine Böhme in the <a href="https://www.senckenberg.de/en/institutes/shep/">Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Palaeoenvironment</a> at Tübingen.&nbsp;



Since then, Professor Böhme’s team has identified over 130 different species of extinct vertebrates from river deposits in the Allgäu region of Germany. Most recently, they detected the remains of the so-called Vishnu otter (Vishnuonix neptuni), a species that has never been found in Europe.&nbsp;



The Vishnu otters are mid-sized predators weighting between 10 and 15 kilograms that lived 14 to 12.5 million years ago in the rivers of Southern Asia. Their fossils were first discovered in sediments collected from the foothills of the Himalaya mountains.&nbsp;



Recent findings show that this species of otter also reached East Africa about 12 million years ago. However, its current discovery in Bavaria raises new questions about how prehistoric geography had shaped this species’ dispersal.



Like all otters, the Vishnu otter is a largely aquatic mammal and cannot travel long distances on land. Scientists believe that its massive dispersal across three continents was made possible by the geographic situation 12 million years ago.&nbsp;



During that period, the Paratethys Ocean was a large inland body of water stretching from the region north of the Alps, across Central Europe, and finally reaching the Aral Sea in Central Asia. It was connected to the Indian Ocean by the narrow Araks Strait, in the area of modern-day Armenia.&nbsp;



The researchers believe that the Vishnu otter started its migration from the Indian Ocean, passed through the Araks Strait, and traveled along the Paratethys until reaching the Ancient Guenz, where the Hammerschmiede site is currently placed. Such findings highlight the crucial importance of geography in structuring animals’ migration and dispersal patterns.&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/ujvp20/current">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Prehistoric Asian otter discovered in Europe for the first time

A research team from the Universities of Tübingen and Zaragoza...

In a new study published by <a href="https://plos.org/">PLOS</a>, scientists have investigated microbes called Corallicolida that live inside of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-help-corals-survive-when-they-get-into-hot-water/">corals</a>. Patrick Keeling and colleagues at the University of British Columbia describe the mystery of these microbes, noting that they don't seem to have any major effect - good or bad - on the coral cells they inhabit.



Coral reefs are home to remarkably diverse ecosystems that include fish, mollusks, and crustaceans. Corals also host a diverse community of microbes within their cells.



The most well-known of these microbes are photosynthetic symbionts in the genus Symbiodiniaceae. These microorganisms provide essential ingredients that corals need to build their skeletons. In return, the corals provide the microbes with protection and fuel for photosynthesis.&nbsp;



Over the past couple of decades, experts have identified millions of new eukaryotic sequences associated with corals, including the microbial parasites called Corallicolida. These microbes are not photosynthetic symbionts like the Symbiodiniacea.



Corallicolida are colorless and lack key genes needed for photosynthesis. It has been theorized that Corallicolida are the descendants of a photosynthetic symbiont that became a parasite at some point in time.&nbsp;



Now, in a surprising twist, scientists have found that -despite lacking genes for photosynthesis - the Corallicolida genome includes genes for four types of chlorophyll. These genes are subject to natural selection, which suggests that they are still play some role in the cell, according to the study.



Further research is needed to determine whether the Corallicolida are friends or foes to reef-building corals, said the researchers.



“Coral reefs are an important marine habitat and well-studied biodiversity hotspot, so the fact that so many corals around the world are infected with an intracellular parasite that had hardly even been noticed is a testament to how little we know about microbial biodiversity,” explained Keeling.&nbsp;



“For years these parasites were largely known only from hints buried in large-scale molecular sequence surveys, so hopefully by connecting a few dots to link up pictures, sequences, and host identification we can now start to look more deeply into how they infect, spread between hosts, and what effects they have on coral health.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1009845">PLOS Pathogens</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mysterious microbes inside corals - friends or foes?

In a new study published by PLOS, scientists have investigated...

The balance between natural and sexual selection in evolutionary processes has intrigued scientists even since Darwin. These experts have pondered why some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-are-shapeshifting-to-survive-climate-change/">animals</a> such as the peacock, with its luxurious tail feathers, develop traits that make them more visible to predators and less able to flee.&nbsp;



A new study has found evidence of this old conundrum in a fossil bird from the early Cretaceous that had a pair of elaborate tail feathers 150 percent longer than its entire body. Scientists see this as clear proof that sometimes evolution is less about the “survival of the fittest” and more about the “survival of the sexiest.”



The fossil was discovered in northeastern China, in the 120-million-old deposits of the Jehol Biota. Researchers named the bird Yuanchuavis, after Yuanchu, a famous bird from Chinese mythology. Yuanchuavis was the size of a bluejay, but had a very unusual tail.



“We’ve never seen this combination of different kinds of tail feathers before in a fossil bird,” said co-author Jingmai O’Connor, a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> in Chicago. “It had a fan of short feathers at the base and then two extremely long plumes. The long feathers were dominated by the central spine, called the rachis, and then plumed at the end. The combination of a short tail fan with two long feathers is called a pintail, we see it in some modern birds like sunbirds and quetzals.”



According to O’Connor and his colleagues, this peculiar tail shows evidence of sexual selection processes at play in birds from a very old prehistorical period. As first author Wang Min, a researcher at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, explained, "this new discovery vividly demonstrates how the interplay between natural and sexual selections shaped birds’ tails from their earliest history.”&nbsp;



Whereas the short tail fan was aerodynamically functional, helping the bird to fly properly, the elongated feathers were most likely used for display, with the sole function of attracting potential mates.



“Scientists call a trait like a big fancy tail an ‘honest signal,’ because it is detrimental, so if an animal with it is able to survive with that handicap, that’s a sign that it’s really fit,” explained O’Connor. “A female bird would look at a male with goofily burdensome tail feathers and think, ‘Dang, if he’s able to survive even with such a ridiculous tail, he must have really good genes.’”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tail feathers show that sometimes, it's all about survival of the sexiest

The balance between natural and sexual selection in evolutionary processes...

Researchers at Colorado State University (CSU) recently analyzed 20 years of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-an-elephant-uses-its-trunk-like-a-swiss-army-knife/">elephant</a> monitoring data supplied by the nonprofit organization <a href="https://www.savetheelephants.org/">Save the Elephants</a> (STE). The results are disturbing. The study reveals that poaching has a greater impact on African elephants than simply the death of the poached individuals.&nbsp;



The researchers found that poaching both directly and indirectly decreases population growth in elephants. Ultimately, poaching diminishes the entire population because orphaned elephants have a lower chance of survival.&nbsp;



“For social populations, poaching has a larger impact than originally thought, because you have to account for the orphans who are left behind who are surviving less because they don’t have a mother,” explained study lead author Jenna Parker.



Even orphans that were weaned showed a smaller chance of survival without their mothers. The death of elephant calves was found to exacerbate the population decline caused directly by poachers.



“The total impact of poaching is greater than was originally recognized," said Parker. "In populations that we think have undergone a lot of poaching, even as the poaching slows we still need to consider its residual effects.”



The results of this study were reinforced by a second study published by Save the Elephants. The STE research shows that the death of young elephants is much more devastating to overall population trends than expected.&nbsp;



In fact, young elephants seem to lead the overall population trend. When young elephants do well, the population tends to grow, when they fare poorly, so does the population.&nbsp;



“If you really want to get more targeted actions, you need to know who in the population is driving increases or decreases in the population," said George Wittemyer of CSU, lead author of the second study.



Helping young elephants survive is helping entire populations of elephants survive. Hopefully, this research yields workable solutions to the decline of African elephants.&nbsp;



According to Wittemyer's study, human impact is the single greatest factor affecting elephant survival and the subsequent decline or increase of elephant populations.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Poaching has long term impacts on elephants

Researchers at Colorado State University (CSU) recently analyzed 20 years...

Paleontology has underlying assumptions about how the past is imagined. Hypotheses about the behavior, locomotion, and ecology of extinct animals depend on scientists’ perception of modern animals along with their intuitive interpretation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-bones-and-teeth-reveal-remarkable-diversity-at-argentina-fossil-site/">fossil</a> specimens (and it is to some degree intuitive, whether they admit or not). In turn, those hypotheses, once published for other scientists and the public to digest, feed the collective imagination and discourse around paleontology.&nbsp;



Perhaps no other subject illustrates this principle more than the ongoing popular and academic controversy over dinosaur integument, or body coverings. In fact, we can go further and center that debate on one genus and species - Tyrannosaurus rex.&nbsp;



A favorite of fanatics and professors, T. rex, alongside it’s toothy relatives, draws intense scientific and media interest. This has been the case since the first mounted skeleton debuted in New York in the early twentieth century, and only escalated after that same skeleton’s silhouette graced the cover of Michael Crichton’s Jurassic Park in the late 1980s. Just one Tyrannosaurus specimen (Stan) has been featured in over fifty scientific publications, and that same specimen sold for over thirty million to an undisclosed buyer in October of 2020. The scientific significance fed the public’s appetite for this real-life monster, and the allure of studying this toothy critter in turn fueled generations of researchers, fossil hunters, and paleo-artists.&nbsp;



What did T. rex look like when it was alive? One early discovery supposed the animal might have had crocodilian armored scutes, but it was later found the armor was from a different, herbivorous dinosaur. Regardless, up until the 2000s, illustrations ubiquitously painted the animal as generically scaly, with an integument that couldn’t be readily distinguished as anything other than vaguely reptilian. Other dinosaurs had yielded skin fossils, particularly the duck-billed hadrosaurs. In general, these specimens exhibited small, wrinkly scales, more like the skin seen on the feet of tortoises and birds than the overlapping scales of snakes and lizards.



The discovery of small meat-eating dinosaurs from China preserved with primitive, simple, feathers changed this paradigm. The gradation from dinosaur to bird became blurred, not just in the evolutionary sense, but also in the lens dinosaur devotees used to look at bygone Mesozoic era. This stream of discoveries culminated in the discovery of Yutyrannus, a two ton meat-eating cousin of Tyrannosaurus. Suddenly, a feathered T. rex wasn’t such a crazy idea. As the distribution of feathers in dinosauria became wider and wider, some proposed that the group was ancestrally fluffy and that the scales recovered previously were outliers, or at least weren’t telling the complete story.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In fact, to people invested in paleontology, the subject became something of shibboleth. Did you favor the old, scaly depictions that spoke of a primitive world on the savage path to modernity, ascending Aristotle’s “great chain of being?” Or were you committed to a much fuzzier breed of saurian, one that attested to a tightly interconnected, predictable world that easily slotted into the modern paleontological synthesis?&nbsp;



Since Yutyrannus, some direct fossil evidence has come to light. Small skin impressions from T. rex and other tyrant dinosaurs - described in detail by researcher Phil Bell and others in 2017 -&nbsp; have shown finely grained, pebbly skin - not quite feathers, but also not the rugged, draconian look that decades past have shown. Nor are these skin samples concrete evidence of T. rex’s fashion sense - the recovered skin only covers a small area, with the largest segment measuring only several square centimeters. Extant dinosaurs in the form of birds are covered in feathers, but they often have naked skin on the neck and head. Ostriches even have bare skin on their thigh and lower torso, and this epidermis sometimes resembles the pebbly texture seen in T. rex. And if the geologically older and related Yutyrannus possessed feathers, why not T. rex?&nbsp;



On the other hand, large animals often have trouble disposing of excess warmth. For the heaviest land animals today, overheating is a very real problem. This is why elephants, rhinos, hippos, and even water buffalo have only a sparse covering of fur, despite the likelihood that their smaller ancestors were shaggy like most other mammals. Because those animals live in hot climates, their high mass means that they retain more heat than they shed. From what we know, T. rex weighed up to eight and half tons and lived in a climate much like that of Holocene (our current Geological epoch) Florida, so it probably faced similar physiological challenges. It’s possible T. rex might have evolved from feathered ancestors but became secondarily naked to cope with the stresses of gigantism. Embryological studies have shown that the ‘scales’ on bird feet are actually developmentally stunted feathers, and there is no biological law preventing that process from occurring all over a theropod’s body.&nbsp;



All of this also glosses over the important fact of taphonomy - the processes and stresses an organism undergoes as it passes from the world of the living to the world of rock and stone. The fossil record already has a bias against soft-tissue, so any scales or feathers we find must not necessarily be taken at face value. After all, sixty six-plus million years in the ground can facilitate all kinds of distortion.&nbsp;



Perhaps, given the data accumulated so far, paleontologists and dinosaur enthusiasts should allow for a certain degree of flexibility in dinosaurs and their kin. The ‘scales’ some clearly possessed were not those of snakes, nor were they really like the armor of crocodilians. Instead, they were more often than not a kind of pebbly, cornified, epidermis, allowing for protection and flexibility like that of modern animals. On the&nbsp; other hand, as avian feathers evolved we should expect to see a variety of filamentous body coverings, some perhaps suspiciously similar to each other. The development of different integument across different lineages over nearly two hundred million years should give those angling for easy answers pause. Convergence and atavism exist, even and especially among closely related clades. This messiness is the rule in nature, and not the exception.&nbsp;



In the end, whether or not T. rex appeared reptilian or avian (or some combination of the two) is of little relevance to the big paleontological questions of evolution and extinction. It does not help us solve our climate crisis. There is nothing we could learn about thermoregulation in large animals from this fossil species that we could not learn from living ones. However, what it does shed light on are different visions of our shared natural history. If you’ve ever been concerned about the accuracy of dinosaurs in Jurassic World or complained that “Science ruined dinosaurs,” you’re a part of this imaginative landscape. Whether you’ve adopted a retrograde or progessive stance, you’ve invested energy in bringing prehistory to life. To paraphrase famed paleontologist Dr. Robert T. Bakker, "the best and only time machine we will ever have is the one between our ears."



---



By <a href="mailto:rugerpaleo@gmail.com">Alex Ruger</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What did T. rex really look like?

Paleontology has underlying assumptions about how the past is imagined....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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