If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot.



In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. 



But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things get messy. Female choices become unpredictable. This isn’t just a frog issue - it ties into a broader idea that scientists call “choice overload.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-face-chaos-in-the-chorus">Frogs face chaos in the chorus</h2>



In nature, frogs gather in large, noisy groups called choruses. Picture a shallow pond in spring, with dozens of males calling out at the same time. It’s the frog equivalent of a dating scene in a packed nightclub.



The researchers found that the crowded conditions of these choruses might be too overwhelming for females to reliably pick the best mate. It’s not that they stop caring - it’s that they can’t tell who’s who.



Professor Jessie Tanner of the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee, Knoxville</a>, led a team studying how choice overload affects evolution.



“Because female mate choice can drive evolution, our results suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> might happen more slowly than we thought before,” she said. 



“Some males that are fairly unattractive could still mate, especially if they take advantage of crowded spaces where females might be less able to discriminate between attractive and unattractive males.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-choices-are-too-hard">What happens when choices are too hard?</h2>



The idea of choice overload is pretty common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">human behavior</a>. You walk into a store to buy toothpaste and face 50 brands. You either freeze, grab something random, or walk away. Same goes for dating apps with endless swiping.



“We wanted to understand how having to make mating decisions in crowded environments, where choice overload could be a problem, might drive the evolution of calls,” Tanner explained. 



“Since males that are chosen by females pass on their genes to the next generation, this mate choice can cause the population to change over time.”



When animals, like people, face too many options, their decision-making can break down. That opens up a chance for less attractive mates to get picked - not because they became more appealing, but because the chooser got overwhelmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choice-overload-in-other-animals">Choice overload in other animals</h2>



This isn’t just about frogs. Scientists are now looking at how this effect shows up in other animals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">Bumblebees</a>, for instance, are on the list. So are wood roaches.



“Our lab is working to understand how choice overload and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-have-lungs-that-cancel-out-background-noise/">noise</a> may each contribute to the difficulty female treefrogs face in making mating decisions,” Tanner said. 



“We are also working to understand whether this choice overload is something that occurs generally in many different kinds of animals or is more specific to individual species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simultaneous-cricket-songs">Simultaneous cricket songs </h2>



Tanner, who has a background in both psychology and biology, first got into animal behavior while studying mate choice as an undergrad. She later became interested in sound - especially how it plays into animal communication.



That led to earlier work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-male-crickets-go-silent-how-females-adapt-and-respond/">crickets</a>. Like treefrogs, male crickets use sound to attract mates. A study on cricket mating showed that noisy environments might either block females from hearing calls or make them too confused to pick. It was hard to tell which was causing the problem.



“During that study, it became clear that our work was consistent with both the possibility that many simultaneous cricket songs created noise that made it hard for females to hear, and the possibility that the females were experiencing choice overload,” Tanner said. “Our current work looks to disentangle those ideas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-average-becomes-good-enough">When average becomes good enough</h2>



The research adds a new layer to how scientists think about evolution. Normally, stronger signals - like a faster frog call - are expected to win out and spread through the population over time. 



But if crowded conditions keep females from consistently picking the top performers, evolution slows down. Mediocre traits stick around longer.



That changes the math for survival. In nature, being the best isn’t always enough - and sometimes, being just okay is good enough, especially if the crowd’s loud and the choices are many.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Frogs settle for average mates when dating gets too noisy

If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot. In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things...

While many animals are seriously threatened by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warm-river-habitats-are-important-for-cold-water-fish/">habitat</a> loss, a new study from <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a> reveals that African elephants do not fall into this category. The researchers found that African elephants only inhabit a small portion of their potential range.

The drastic reduction in range has been caused by an increasing human presence, as well the slaughtering of elephants for their ivory.

The study authors explained that due to 2,000 years of human pressure, African elephants have suffered dramatic population declines, and their range has shrunk to just 17 percent of what it could be.

If the threat of poaching was taken off the table, elephants could co-exist with humans to a much greater extent. The experts determined that 62 percent of Africa, which is over 18 million square kilometers, still contains suitable habitat for elephants. In some of this area, however, conflict with people could make it unrealistic.

The team analyzed data from GPS tracking devices and satellite imagery to investigate where elephants roam and why. 

Study lead author Dr. Jake Wall is the director of research and conservation at the Mara Elephant Project in Kenya. 

"We literally looked at every square kilometer of the continent," said Dr. Wall. "We found 62% of those 29.2 million square kilometers is suitable habitat."

The biggest areas of potential habitat include the Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo. The study also highlighted the extreme habitats that African elephants do not visit.

"The major no-go areas include the Sahara, Danakil, and Kalahari deserts, as well as urban centres and high mountaintops," said Iain Douglas-Hamilton, founder of Save the Elephants. 

"That gives us an idea of what the former range of elephants might have been. However, there's a dearth of information about the status of African elephants between the end of Roman times and the arrival of the first European colonizers."

The research was coordinated by Save the Elephants and included researchers from the Mara Elephant Project, the University of British Columbia, Oxford University, Colorado State University, the Wildlife Conservation Society, the University of Stirling, and Elephants Alive.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

African elephants only inhabit a small part of their potential range

While many animals are seriously threatened by habitat loss, a...

The unique skin adaptations of hippos and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grays-beaked-whales-have-been-stable-for-over-a-million-years/">whales</a> did not come from a common ancestor, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a>. The researchers found that even though hippos and whales are close relatives, their nearly hairless skin evolved independently. 

"How mammals left terra firma and became fully aquatic is one of the most fascinating evolutionary stories, perhaps rivaled only by how animals traded water for land in the first place or by the evolution of flight," said study co-author John Gatesy. 

"Our latest findings contradict the current dogma in the field - that relatives of the amphibious hippo might have been part of the transition as mammals re-entered life in the water."

Fully aquatic cetaceans, including whales, dolphins, and porpoises, share a common ancestor that lived about 55 million years ago. They also share some characteristics that are not common among mammals, such as giving birth underwater and lacking most of their hair.

Since these traits are rarely found in other mammals, it would seem that they were already present in the common ancestor of hippos and cetaceans. 

The experts set out to determine whether hippos and cetaceans developed adaptations for an aquatic lifestyle independently, or if they inherited these traits from an amphibious ancestor.

"The simplest hypothesis is that the ancestor of whales and hippos was already amphibious, but evolution isn't always the shortest distance between two points," said study lead author Professor Mark Springer of UC Riverside.

To investigate, the researchers focused on the animals' skin, which changed dramatically in response to life in the water.

"When a group of animals becomes aquatic, skin becomes much more streamlined and uniform throughout," said study co-author Maksim Plikus. 

"Complex derivatives like hairs, nails, or sweat glands are no longer needed, and in fact, can become a hinderance to life under water, so those go away. And it loses the barrier function performed by the outer layer of skin, which in terrestrial mammals, is vital to keeping water from evaporating out of the body and preventing pathogens from getting in."

The researchers used genetic screening to compare the anatomy of hippo and cetacean skin, and assembled a list of "skin genes" that have been deactivated in both groups. The team also assembled the first genome sequence of the pygmy hippo, one of only two living hippo species.

"When you look at the molecular signatures, there is a striking and clear answer," said study co-author Michael Hiller. "Our results strongly support the idea that 'aquatic' skin traits found in both hippos and cetaceans evolved independently. And not only that, we can see that the gene losses in the hippo lineage happened much later than in the cetacean lineage."

The genetic differences are reflected in the skin itself. For example, cetaceans only have a few whiskers, while hippos are fully whiskered. 

In addition, hippos have a specialized sweat gland that whales do not possess. The sweat gland produces "blood sweat," an orange-colored substance that is believed to have natural antimicrobial and sunscreen properties. Furthermore, cetacean skin is much thicker than hippo skin.

"These differences are fully consistent with the record of evolutionary history that is written in their genomes, which shows the independent knockout of skin genes on the cetacean lineage and on the hippo evolutionary line," said Professor Springer. "None of the inactivating mutations that would have suggested a common aquatic ancestry are shared between these two lineages."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hippos and whales evolved their hairless skin independently

The unique skin adaptations of hippos and whales did not...

The cost of invasive species to human society totaled at least $1.28 trillion from 1970 to 2017, and the damage is tripling every decade, according to researchers at <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a>. The experts report that in 2017 alone, the cost of invasive species hit $162.7 billion.

Invasive species have damaged crop yields, critical national infrastructure, and human health. However, these damages are not sufficiently recognized by policy makers or the public. 

The researchers analyzed thousands of cost estimates to calculate the annual economic losses tied to invasive species. These annual costs are expected to rise into the trillions in the coming years due to the increasing frequency of biological invasions.

Study lead author Dr. Christophe Diagne is an invasion ecologist at the University Paris-Saclay. He said that his team has created a reliable, standardized catalog of the economic costs caused by biological invasions to help clarify the importance of effective management policies going forward.

"This trillion-dollar bill doesn't show any sign of slowing down, with a consistent threefold increase per decade," said Dr. Diagne.

"Our annual global estimates signify the huge economic burden, with the average cost exceeding the gross domestic product of 50 countries on the African continent in 2017, and it's more than 20 times higher than the total funds available for the World Health Organization and UN combined."

Professor Corey Bradshaw noted that biological invasions are increasingly exacerbated by globalization and climate change, but no government is prepared to manage the crisis without substantial costs. "We found that costs roughly doubled every 6 years, a pattern that mimics the continuous increase in the number of alien species worldwide."

Despite the enormous impacts associated with biological invasions, the public remains largely unaware of these threats. For example, invasive species are the second biggest driver of extinctions.

"The global costs of invasive alien species are so massive that we spent months verifying our models and this overall estimate, to insure we were not exaggerating," said Dr. Diagne. "As it turns out, our very conservative approach is in fact a massive underestimation of the actual economic costs".

"The trend can be explained by a combination of factors: the ongoing intensification of global trade and transport creates many more opportunities for invasions; the growing 'land take' of the planet surface, for example, expansion of agriculture and infrastructure, makes our societies sensitive to impacts from these invasions."

The researchers warn that the costs in both developed and developing economies are soaring, and will continue to do so unless governments coordinate effective international policies to reduce the risks. 

"That's why we're calling for international policy agreements that aim to reduce the burden of invasive species," said Professor Bradshaw.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Invasive species have racked up more than $1.28 trillion in damages

The cost of invasive species to human society totaled at...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a> reveals that tilapias do not die in stressful conditions like most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warm-river-habitats-are-important-for-cold-water-fish/">fish</a>. Instead, these resilient animals survive in rough environments by stunting their growth and carrying on with their lives in dwarf form.

In stressful environments like crowded aquaculture ponds, tilapias adapt so well that they stop growing and reproduce at a smaller size.

"Tilapia and other fish in the Cichlidae family do not spawn 'earlier' than other fishes, as it is commonly believed. Rather, they are uncommonly tolerant of stressful environmental conditions which, however, elevate their oxygen demand," explained study lead author Upali S. Amarasinghe of the University of Kelaniya.

Just like all fish, tilapias need more oxygen to sustain bodily functions when their metabolism increases. However, the gills eventually reach a point where they cannot supply enough oxygen for a larger body, so the fish either dies or just stops growing.

Study co-author Daniel Pauly is the principal investigator of the Sea Around Us initiative at UBC's Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries. 

"Gill surface area grows in two dimensions, that is, length and width, but they cannot keep up with bodies that grow in three dimensions - length, width and depth," said Pauly.

"As fish get bigger, their gills provide less oxygen per unit of body weight. Thus, to stay alive in stressful conditions, which increase their oxygen demand, fish have to remain smaller. This theme is further developed in what I called the Gill Oxygen Limitation Theory."

For tilapias, the stress they experience in their environment is compounded by the stress of their gills not keeping with the increasing oxygen demand of their growing bodies. The subsequent cascade of hormones triggers maturation and spawning at smaller sizes than what would occur under optimal conditions.

The experts noted that the spawning does not simply occur at a younger age, as the fish's growth process has already ended.

For their investigation, the researchers analyzed the maximum lengths reached among nine different fish species, including tilapia and other cichlids, in lakes and aquaculture ponds across the world. Overall, the team studied 41 populations of fish in places like Brazil, Uganda, Egypt, and Hong Kong.

When they looked at the ratio between the maximum lengths these fishes can reach and their lengths when they reproduce for the first time, they found it was the same for tilapias that has been previously identified in other fish.

"This ratio tells us that tilapias in stressful conditions don't spawn 'earlier,' they just adjust their size downward, but their life cycle continues," said Amarasinghe.

"These findings will matter to fish farmers, notably in Asia, whose ponds are often full of wildly reproducing, small tilapia for which there is no market," noted Pauly.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.asianfisheriessociety.org/publication/">Asian Fisheries Science</a>. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tilapias stunt their own growth to survive stressful conditions

A new study from the University of British Columbia reveals...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> propose that having friends and enemies makes evolutionary sense among the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/faking-death-is-a-good-way-for-animals-to-stay-alive/">animals</a> that age slowly and live for many years. The scientists argue that natural selection favors complex social structures and relationships in long-lived animals. 

Animals that live fast and die young focus their energy on reproduction, while animals that age much more slowly invest in survival and live longer lives.

For long-lived animals, knowing their friends and enemies comes more easily, and helps them to live even longer. Animals that live and die at a fast pace, however, should only bother with social relationships if it increases their chances of reproduction, explained the researchers.

"Slow-living species can afford to invest in social relationships, as they live long enough to enjoy the pay-offs," said Professor Dave Hodgson. "There is strong evidence that strong social bonds are beneficial for survival in slow-living species, including humans."

"We suggest there is a 'positive feedback' - certain social behaviours lead to a longer life, and longer lifespan promotes the development of social bonds."

Professor Hodgson said there is growing evidence that differentiated social relationships have a stronger supportive effect on survival than on reproduction. As a result, fast-lived species do not gain the same evolutionary advantages from social relationships as long-lived species.

"If we want to understand more about social relationships and lifespan, we need to think about the relationship between the two," said Dr. Matthew Silk. He noted that further research is needed to explore the social structures of wild animals, and could help to clarify the links between social bonds, survival and reproduction.

"Our proposal, that strong and weak social bonds will be more prevalent in slower-living animals, is theoretical," said Professor Hodgson. "We know a lot about animal lifespans, but we know too little about the social structures of many types of animal. If we are right, then social bonds could really be key to longer life."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/home">Trends in Ecology and Evolution</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Social bonds are more advantageous for long-lived animals

Researchers at the University of Exeter propose that having friends...

Coral reefs may rely on poop from their predators, according to a surprising new study from <a href="https://www.rice.edu/">Rice University</a>. The revelation was made in the lab of marine biologist Adrienne Correa, where researchers discovered that coral predator feces are packed with living symbiotic algae that corals depend on for survival. 

It's an unexpected twist on coral reef symbiosis, said Correa. The study confirms that poop from coral-eating fish is an important source of symbiotic dinoflagellate algae for corals.

Correa explained that coral-eating predators are typically thought of as biting and weakening reef structures, thereby generating hiding spaces for other organisms and, ultimately, beach sand. By contrast, grazing fish take the credit for helping reefs maintain healthy coral cover.

"The message is, 'Move over grazers, it's not just you helping maintain coral dominance. These coral-eating fishes are probably helping too by spreading beneficial coral symbionts,'" said Correa.

"This tells us we don't really know all of the interactions that are happening on coral reefs, and some species may be important for coral reef conservation in ways that we haven't imagined," said study lead author Carsten Grupstra.

During an expedition to the island of Mo'orea in French Polynesia, the researchers followed fish that ate different amounts of coral and algae. The team documented what the fish ate and where they defecated. Meanwhile, Grupstra gathered samples of predator and grazer poop to examine in the lab.

"I left some samples in the window sill for a couple of weeks in Mo'orea," said Grupstra. "Later, when I started looking at them (under a microscope), I found tons of symbionts. A lot of them were swimming around and some were dividing."

The sheer number of live symbionts was both unexpected and potentially important in the larger picture of reef ecology, said Correa. 

Symbionts have been previously found in the feces of some coral predators, but it has remained unclear if they were useful to corals. The Rice team has now discovered high concentrations of live symbionts in the feces of a diverse group of coral predators. 

The researchers estimate that two species in particular, Chaetodon ornatissimus and Chaetodon reticulatus, each spread about 100 million live symbionts per day over an area of reef approximately the size of six parking spaces.

"This expands how we can think about the roles of coral-eating fishes on reefs," said Correa. "They don't just break up reef frameworks. They also disperse symbionts that corals and other organisms need."

The discovery that predator poop creates hotspots of live symbiotic dinoflagellates on reefs raises questions about whether and how coral use them. 

Going forward, Correa's team will conduct a series of experiments on corals to determine how readily they absorb beneficial symbionts from the poop. She said many questions remain about how corals take up symbionts from the environment. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://animalmicrobiome.biomedcentral.com/">Animal Microbiome</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Do corals depend on poop from their predators?

Coral reefs may rely on poop from their predators, according...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.qut.edu.au/">Queensland University of Technology</a>, researchers have solved the mystery of what killed millions of shearwater birds in 2013. The team found evidence that migrating seabirds are eating materials that are not even food, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pumice-raft-carried-nutrients-to-the-great-barrier-reef-from-nearly-2000-miles-away/">pumice</a> stones, because they are starving.

Study lead author Dr. Lauren Roman is a researcher at Australia's national science agency CSIRO. She said there was much discussion in the scientific community about the causes of mass mortality of seabirds which are often found with plastic and other non-food items in their stomach.

"We found that in the instance of the shearwater bird deaths in 2013, these birds were starving, and in their starved state had reduced prey discrimination," said Dr. Roman.

"Our study investigates the chicken-and-egg dilemma - do animals starve from eating non-food or do animals eat non-food because they are starving?""

Seabirds are indicator species that can be used to monitor the health of marine ecosystems. Mass mortalities are often indicative of changing food webs and ecological conditions.

The study was focused on short-tailed shearwaters, which migrate from Australia to the North Pacific in April and return late in the year. Among 172 deceased seabirds that were recovered from the New South Wales and Queensland, 96.7 percent had ingested pumice or plastic.

The researchers used satellite systems to track the 2013 shearwater migration and compared the data to locations of a large pumice raft produced by the 2012 Havre eruption north of New Zealand.

"We proposed that a short time period between non-food ingestion and death would indicate that birds were already starving at the time of non-food ingestion, and a starving state would be reflected by poor body condition and reduced muscle mass," explained study co-author Professor Scott Bryan, who has been studying pumice rafts for over 20 years.

"Death after a longer period would indicate that birds starved following ingestion of non-food."

Professor Bryan said detailed information about the route of the pumice raft was an integral part to determining the answer of where the birds had consumed the pumice.

"We combined the tracking information data of the short-tailed shearwaters, using location tags on migrating birds, and the geological signature of the ingested pumice."

"By October 2013 when the shearwaters were returning to Australia on their annual migration from the North Pacific, the floating pumice was now located along their flight path as they approached Australia."

Once the experts had established when the birds ate the pumice, and their physical condition at the time, they were able to conclude that the birds were already starving when they ate the pumice. Furthermore, the study revealed that the seabirds had ingested the pumice about 12 to 41 hours before death.

"With a projected increase in challenging times for wildlife because of threats such as climate change, marine pollution and over exploitation of resources, this study has implications for mass mortalities and exacerbation of existing threats to marine species," said Dr. Roman.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.jstor.org/journal/mariecolprogseri">Marine Ecology Progress Series</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Migrating seabirds are starving and eating non-food items

In a new study from the Queensland University of Technology,...

A study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> is shedding new light on an elusive whale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-species-of-screech-owls-are-already-critically-endangered/">species</a> in the Southern Ocean. The experts report that Gray's beaked whales appear to be resilient to ecosystem changes and human activities, and have maintained a stable population for more than a million years.

Gray's beaked whales live in the deep oceans of the Southern Hemisphere and are rarely spotted. Prior to this study, the biology of the whales was almost entirely a mystery.

Gray's beaked whales are small whales that spend most of their time deep below the ocean's surface feeding on squid. Observational data on the species is impossible to obtain. Whalers refer to them as "scamperdown whales" due to their evasive behavior.

In collaboration with experts at the University of Copenhagen, the Exeter team set out to investigate the history of the population over the past 1.1 million years. The researchers analyzed the genome sequences of 22 Gray's beaked whales that were previously stranded on beaches in South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand 

"The population approximately doubled about 250 thousand years ago, coinciding with a period of increased Southern Ocean productivity, sea surface temperature and a potential expansion of suitable habitat," study co-author Dr. Kirsten Thompson.

According to the genetic analysis, the current population appears to have high levels of genetic diversity and no patterns of genetic similarity in geographical areas. This indicates that the whales leave their birth groups and move widely throughout their range across the Southern Hemisphere.

Based on their high levels of genetic diversity, a flexible social system, and the rich habitats of the Southern Hemisphere, the experts believe that Gray's beaked whales could be resilient to changing ecosystem conditions.

"Human activity is causing rapid ecological change in every habitat on Earth, including the deep oceans," said Dr Thompson. "We need to understand how different species might respond to these changes, but we lack detailed knowledge on many animals, particularly deep-sea whales like Gray's beaked whales."

The experts used mitochondrial DNA to investigate the history of the population and partial nuclear genomes to estimate population structure.

"Our findings suggest the numbers of Gray's beaked whales have been relatively stable for the last 1.1 million years," said Dr.  Thompson.

"The Southern Hemisphere's oceans could potentially support a surprisingly large number of Gray's beaked whales. Good news for one species at least."

"We show how genomic tools can help to reveal past history, current status and potential near-future changes in animal populations that are enigmatic, rarely observed and beyond the reach of traditional boat surveys."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos">Royal Society Open Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gray's beaked whales have been stable for over a million years

A study from the University of Exeter is shedding new...

Apple flies are a fascinating example of speciation, the beginning of a new species, and have captivated scientists for many decades. When settlers in North America introduced apple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/legume-trees-play-a-key-role-in-forest-recovery/">trees</a> to the region, some hawthorn flies shifted to this new host plant and split off to form a new species. 

An international team of experts led by the <a href="https://www.ncbs.res.in/">National Centre for Biological Sciences</a> has continued an investigation into the origins of the apple fly that was first initiated 160 years ago by Charles Darwin and his Cambridge classmate Benjamin Walsh.

The researchers examined the neurological processes that underlie important behavioral changes in the apple fly, including their mate choice and preference toward a new host plant. Such changes contributed to the rapid evolution of apple flies.

Hawthorn flies and apple flies feed only on one particular fruit, either hawthorn berries or ripe apples. They also mate on the fruit and lay their eggs in it. 

Each generation of these two groups of flies emerges with a specific preference for the scent of either apples or hawthorns, and a strong aversion to the other. 

The experts set out to understand what distinguishes the two types of flies. The team discovered that both apple and hawthorn flies use the same brain regions to process odors, but switch the locations of processing. 

The scientists were able to locate the specific point where this difference emerges at the very first synapse in the olfactory system, called the antennal lobe. 

"The most surprising part to me was actually seeing olfactory processing be so clearly different between the apple and hawthorn infesting host races," said study first author Cheyenne Tait. "We knew these flies have divergent odour preference behaviors and patterns of genetic differentiation. Now, from this work we know their sensory neurophysiology differs as well."

According to the researchers, a simple shift in the processing of important sensory information could possibly be a major contributor to the diverse species we see. 

"We are seeing the stuff of speciation. The origin of new species is one of the great questions that has piqued the intellectual curiosity of humankind," said study co-author Jeffrey L. Feder. 

"Resolving the question of speciation is of great scientific importance and the ongoing evolution of apple and hawthorn host races of Rhagoletis is connected to life itself, or the origin of new life forms."

The simple change in the neurological processing of the fruit odor triggered a change at a species scale. 

"What is most remarkable to me is the simplicity of the switch - these flies simply changed their minds along with their species. Such a subtle shift in the processing of important sensory information in the brain could be contributing to the change in behavior that helps drive their evolution into new species," explained study co-author Shannon Olsson.

"This discovery has important implications for how animals such as insects can quickly adapt and change their behaviour to new environments, such as with invasive species, or respond to human-influenced changes in climate or land use."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsociety.org/journals/">The Royal Society Publishing</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Apple flies emerged from a simple change in the brain

Apple flies are a fascinating example of speciation, the beginning...

Warm river habitats are more important than expected for the survival of cold-water <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-show-they-have-compassion-through-prosocial-behavior/">fish</a>, such as salmon and trout, according to a new study from <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a>. This discovery has important implications for fish conservation strategies. 

As the climate gets warmer, experts are working to identify habitats that remain suitable for cold-water fish during the summer. Yet this implicitly devalues areas that are seasonally warm, even if they are suitable for fish most of the year, explained study lead author Professor Jonny Armstrong. He said that this is a potentially severe blind spot for climate change adaptation.

"Coldwater fish like trout and salmon are the polar bears of river ecosystems - iconic species that are among the most vulnerable to climate change," said Professor Armstrong. 

"A huge challenge for conservation is to figure out how to help these fish survive a warmer future. The conclusion is that we should not waste money on warm habitats and instead focus on saving the coldest places, such as high mountain streams, which are already the most pristine parts of basins. Most people agree we should give up on places that are warm in summer, but forget that these places are actually optimal for much of the year."

The researchers found that warm river habitats are suitable for cold-water fish during the spring and fall, when the rivers are not at peak summer temperatures. 

These warm habitats can provide fish with the energy they require to travel to cooler parts of the river during the summer and to reproduce.

"The synergy between cold water and warm water is really important," said Professor Armstrong. "We're not saying cold water is not important. We're saying that warm portions of basins are also important because they grow fish during the shoulder seasons. Conserving this habitat is critical for unlocking the full potential of rivers to support fisheries."

"In a warmer future, many fish will need fish to take a summer vacation and move to cold places to survive the hottest months of the year. Their ability to do that could often depend on how much energy they can get in the spring and how well they can feed in the fall to bounce back. The places that are stressfully warm in summer are just right in spring and fall, and there is growing evidence that they can fuel fisheries."

The study was focused on data from previous research that used remote sensing technology to obtain river water temperature data across 14 river basins throughout the year.

The OSU team incorporated these temperatures into a "bioenergetics model," which predicts fish growth potential based on equations derived from lab studies. The analysis revealed new clues about how growth opportunities shift across river basins throughout the year. In particular, the results showed the potential for a large fraction of total fish growth to accumulate during the spring and fall in places that are too hot during summer.

Next, the experts created a simulation model to investigate how these warm river habitats could contribute to fisheries. Simulations based on the behaviors of rainbow trout over the course of a year demonstrated that the majority of fish moved into cooler waters in the summer,  where they experienced insufficient growth rates. 

However, in the months before and after summer, the fish mainly resided in seasonally warm downstream habitats that fueled their growth.

"In conservation, we often judge streams by their summer conditions; this is when we traditionally do field work, and this is the season we focus on when planning for climate change," said Armstrong. 

"We place value on places that hold fish during summer and devalue those that don't. Our simulations showed why this can be a problem - the portions of rivers that contribute most to growth may not be the places where fish are found during summer, so they get written off."

According to Professor Armstrong, the simulations reveal the synergy between seasonally warm and perennially cool habitats and that fish that lived in these two types of habitats grew much more than fish that were restricted to either habitat alone.

"We think of things in this binary way - it's either warm-water habitat or its cold-water habitat. And we have definitions for fish - it's either a warm-water fish or a cold-water fish. But the places we think of as warm are, in fact, cold way more than they are warm."

Professor Armstrong pointed to the Willamette, a tributary of the Columbia River that runs nearly 200 miles from Eugene to Portland, Oregon.

"When it's warm enough for humans to swim, it's bad for cold-water fish. But there's only like six weeks of the year where it is comfortable to go swimming in Oregon."

"That speaks to the fact that we write off places because they get too hot through the lens of August. They're actually pretty nice for most of the year if you're a cold-water fish. And fish don't necessarily have to live there in August, just like you don't have to go swimming in the Willamette in December."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Warm river habitats are important for cold-water fish

Warm river habitats are more important than expected for the...

Bald eagles have been dying from a neurodegenerative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-forest-cover-linked-to-disease-outbreaks/">disease</a> in the southern United States, but the cause of the disease has eluded scientists for more than 25 years. In a new study led by the <a href="https://www.uni-halle.de/?lang=en">Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg</a> (MLU) in Germany, experts have now identified the source of the mysterious ailment.

The researchers have linked the unexplained deaths of bald eagles to a toxin produced by cyanobacteria that grow on invasive aquatic plants. The experts report that the problem is potentially worsened by the herbicides used to control the plants. 

The brain disease was first detected in 1994, when more than two dozen bald eagles died in Arkansas. The animals last control over their bodies and developed holes in their brains. The neurodegenerative disease was named vacuolar myelinopathy (VM), but its origin was unknown.

Researchers later found that the herbivorous prey of bald eagles were also affected by the disease. The invasive aquatic plant, Hydrilla verticillata, grows in freshwater lakes. However, there were some lakes that contained the aquatic plant where the disease was not detected. 

In 2005, Professor Susan B. Wilde of the University of Georgia identified a previously unknown cyanobacterium on the leaves of Hydrilla verticillata, which appeared to be the cause of the disease. This led to the discovery that vacuolar myelinopathy only occurs in places where the cyanobacteria had colonized the invasive plants. Professor Wilde called the bacterium Aetokthonos hydrillicola, or "eagle killer that grows on Hydrilla."

"I stumbled across a press release issued by the university in Georgia and was fascinated by these findings, because I've worked with cyanobacteria for years," said MLU Professor Timo Niedermeyer. He obtained samples of colonized plant leaves, cultivated the bacteria in the lab, and then sent them back to the U.S. for further testing. However, the tests came back negative, which meant the bacteria from the lab did not induce the disease. 

"It's not just the birds that were going crazy, we were too. We wanted to figure this out." Professor Niedermeyer once again colonized the leaves that were sent to him. Steffen Breinlinger, a doctoral student in his research group, used a new imaging mass spectrometer to investigate the molecular composition on the surface of the plant's leaf. 

The analysis revealed a new substance that only occurs on the plant leaves where the cyanobacteria grow, but is not produced in the cultivated bacteria.

Breinlinger's investigation into the chemical structure of the isolated molecule showed that it contains five bromine atoms. The properties are unusual for a molecule formed by bacteria.

The chemical structure of the isolated molecule also explains who the toxin did not form under laboratory conditions - standard culture media in which cyanobacteria grow do not contain bromide. 

"We then added bromide to our lab cultures, and - the bacteria started producing the toxin," said Breinlinger. 

Further research is needed to determine why the cyanobacteria form the toxin on the aquatic plants in the first place. One of the herbicides used to combat the invasive aquatic plant contains bromide and may stimulate the production of the toxin that is killing bald eagles and other wildlife.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Disease that kills bald eagles linked to invasive plant

Bald eagles have been dying from a neurodegenerative disease in...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, researchers report that ocean mammals have reached a crucial crossroads where some are at risk of extinction while others are showing signs of recovery.

The experts analyzed the status of the world's 126 marine mammal species, including whales, dolphins, seals, sea otters and polar bears. The researchers determined that the biggest threats to the survival of these ocean animals are pollution, climate change, and accidental capture by fisheries.

The study shows that 25 percent of ocean mammal species are now classified as being vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered on the IUCN Red List. The North Atlantic right whale and the near-extinct vaquita porpoise are among those in the greatest danger.

Populations of other ocean mammals, such as the northern elephant seal, humpback whale, and the Guadalupe fur seal, have managed to recover as a result of conservation efforts.

The international research team, which included scientists from more than 30 institutions in 13 countries, has pointed out conservation measures and research techniques that could protect marine mammals into the future.

"We have reached a critical point in terms of marine mammal conservation," said lead author Dr. Sarah Nelms. "Very few marine mammal species have been driven to extinction in modern times, but human activities are putting many of them under increasing pressure."

"Our paper examines a range of conservation measures - including Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), bycatch reduction methods and community engagement - as well as highlighting some of the species that are in urgent need of focus."

According to the researchers, 21 percent of marine mammal species are listed as "data deficient" on the IUCN Red List. This means that there is not enough evidence available to assess their conservation status. The lack of knowledge makes it difficult to identify which species are in need of protection.

"To continue conservation successes and reverse the downward trend in at-risk species, we need to understand the threats they face and the conservation measures that could help," said Professor Brendan Godley, who leads the Exeter Marine research group.

"Technology such as drone and satellite imaging, electronic tags and molecular techniques are among the tools that will help us do this."

"Additionally, sharing best practice will empower us - and this is why we are so proud to be part of such a large and international group for this project."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.int-res.com/journals/esr/esr-home/">Endangered Species Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Some ocean mammals are recovering, others are not

In a new study from the University of Exeter, researchers...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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