Headshot,Of,Ant,Orange,In,The,Argentine,Jungle.,(linepithema,Humile)

Ants march across sidewalks and kitchen counters as if they own the place. They cross oceans inside cargo ships, set up vast super-colonies, and push out native species on six continents. 



Once a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nest of ants</a> settles in, homeowners and farmers often reach for poison baits, yet the insects lose interest before enough of them carry the toxic treat back home. 



A new study suggests that a tiny splash of caffeine could keep the party going - and give pest managers an edge.



The research shows that moderate doses of caffeine sharpen an ant’s memory for the bait’s location. Ants that sipped a caffeinated sugar drop found it again more quickly on later trips, leaving a stronger scent trail for nest-mates. 



The discovery points to a low-cost tweak that might finally turn the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-perform-life-saving-amputation-surgeries-on-injured-nest-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invader’s own teamwork</a> against it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-ant-huge-impact">Tiny ant, huge impact</h2>



The Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) is only about one-tenth of an inch long, yet its cooperative spirit builds super-colonies stretching thousands of miles along the Mediterranean coast and the U.S. West Coast. 



Those armies displace local insects, rob hummingbird feeders, and even short-circuit electrical gear. 



Recent economic analyses peg the global cost of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-shifting-to-new-habitats-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive ants</a> - including crop losses and control bills - at billions of dollars each year. No wonder pest crews keep searching for smarter tactics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giving-caffeine-to-ants">Giving caffeine to ants</h2>



To find out, researchers set up a miniature arena: a Lego drawbridge led each ant onto a letter-size acrylic platform where a single sugar drop waited. 



Some drops carried no additive, while others contained 25 parts per million (ppm), 250 ppm, or 2 000 ppm of caffeine. One hundred forty-two ants took part, and each explorer tackled the course four times.



“The idea with this project was to find some cognitive way of getting the ants to consume more of the poisonous baits we put in the field,” says the study’s first author Henrique Galante, a computational biologist at the <a href="https://www.uni-regensburg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Regensburg</a>. 



Automated cameras tracked every step, logging travel time and the straightness of each path. Without caffeine, the insects wandered, needing the same span to reach the treat on every attempt. Add a modest stimulant, and the story changed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caffeine-gives-ant-focus-not-speed">Caffeine gives ant focus, not speed</h2>



“We found that intermediate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caffeine-evolution-in-plants-the-surprising-story-of-yerba-mate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">doses of caffeine</a> actually boost learning - when you give them a bit of caffeine, it pushes them into having straighter paths and being able to reach the reward faster," Galante explained.



In fact, ants that tasted 25 ppm caffeine shaved 28 percent off their foraging time on every return. Those on 250 ppm cut the clock by 38 percent. 



Picture an individual that spent 300 seconds during its first outing - it would need just 113 seconds after three more trips on the lower dose and 54 seconds on the medium dose.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caffeine-consumption-may-lower-the-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The stimulant</a> did not act like an energy drink. There was no uptick in raw speed. “What we see is that they're not moving faster, they're just being more focused on where they're going,” Galante noted. 



“This suggests that they know where they want to go, therefore, they have learned the locations of the reward.” 



Only path geometry tightened; pace stayed the same. At the heaviest 2 000 ppm dose - the level that kills half of honeybees in tests - the learning advantage disappeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharper-trails-deadlier-bait">Sharper trails, deadlier bait</h2>



Argentine ants rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-now-using-cars-to-travel-spread-to-new-locations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pheromone highways</a>. A worker that discovers food drags its stinger along the ground, laying a chemical breadcrumb trail that guides the next shift. Faster relearning multiplies that effect. 



“We're trying to make them better at finding these baits, because the faster they go and come back to them, the more pheromone trails they lay, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more ants will come</a>, and, therefore, the faster they will spread the poison in the colony before they realize it's poison,” Galante continued.



Adding caffeine could also slash the waste that now limits bait stations. In neighborhoods and orchards, technicians often replenish gels every few days because the first wave of foragers gives up. 



A caffeinated lure might stay attractive long enough for queens and larvae to receive a lethal serving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next</h2>



The team is already field-testing the recipe at infested sites in Spain. They also plan to check whether caffeine interacts with common active ingredients such as hydramethylnon or spinosad. 



“The lowest dose we used is what you find in natural plants, the intermediate dose is similar to what you would find in some energy drinks, and the highest amount is set to be the LD50 of bees - where half the bees fed this dose die - so it's likely to be quite toxic for them,” Galante notes. 



Selecting a concentration that boosts memory without harming pollinators will be crucial.



Caffeine’s appeal extends beyond Argentine ants. Other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dirt-ants-were-once-masters-of-disguise-in-the-caribbean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a> - including fire ants and big-headed ants - share the same food-sharing habits that make baiting tricky. 



If the stimulant nudges their neural circuits in a similar way, managers could deploy a single additive across multiple pest fronts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-we-learned-about-ants-and-caffeine">What we learned about ants and caffeine</h2>



To sum it all up, caffeine improves ants' overall focus and learning without increasing speed, allowing them to navigate straighter paths and lay stronger pheromone trails. 



This effect boosts the effectiveness of bait traps, leading more ants to the poison and increasing the chances of it spreading through the colony. 



However, the benefit peaks at moderate doses - very high levels eliminate the learning advantage and can be toxic. So, overall, caffeine makes ants better at foraging and sharing, which ironically makes them more vulnerable to well-designed pest control strategies.



For now, the message is simple: a dash of coffee in the buffet may turn an army’s fabled navigation skills against itself. When the ants get better at remembering dessert, the colony’s days could finally be numbered.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(24)01157-X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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When you give caffeine to ants, many interesting things happen

Ants march across sidewalks and kitchen counters as if they own the place. They cross oceans inside cargo ships, set up vast super-colonies, and push out native species on six continents. Once a nest of ants settles in, homeowners and farmers often reach for poison baits, yet the insects lose interest before enough of them carry the toxic treat back home. A new study suggests that a tiny splash of caffeine could keep the party going - and give pest managers an edge. The research shows that...

A chicken named Cluck, a turkey called Tom, or a pig introduced as Penny – the simple act of giving a name and pointing out individual qualities may significantly change young children's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/family-dogs-boost-physical-activity-levels-among-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attitudes towards animals</a>. 



This intriguing concept was demonstrated by researchers from <a href="https://english.swps.pl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SWPS University</a> who suggest that assigning distinct identities to animals actually makes children perceive them as more similar to humans. 



Rather than seeing them as a source of their next meal, children might instead prefer to foster friendships with these named creatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-naming-animals">Science behind naming animals</h2>



To lend substance to these findings, we turn to Dr. Aleksandra Rabinovitch, an expert in the Faculty of Psychology at SWPS University. 



Dr. Rabinovitch sheds light on our relationship with animals, particularly edible ones, and its deep-rooted connection with our dietary choices.



Dive into the world of children's shows and stories, and you'll find animals with unique names, distinct characteristics, and individual preferences playing prominent roles. 



An example that springs to mind is the widely cherished animated series, "Peppa Pig." But, does this approach to characterizing animals encourage children to see them as relatable beings and discourage them from associating them with meat?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cognitive-dissonance-dilemma">The cognitive dissonance dilemma</h2>



The dilemma lies in the recognition that consuming meat causes harm to animals, something humans, generally compassionate towards animals, wrestle with. 



Dr. Rabinovitch explains that to soothe this cognitive dissonance, people often resort to certain defense strategies without altering their existing dietary practices.



The strategies may include denying that edible animals possess human-like mental attributes, such as the capacity to experience suffering. The result? The more meat products people <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-children-healthy-diets-can-be-very-challenging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consume</a>, the less empathy they tend to show towards these animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eating-meat-a-lesson-for-little-ones">Eating meat: A lesson for little ones</h2>



Surprisingly, children, before understanding the origin of meat, form a unique relationship with animals. 



They are drawn towards animals that appear "nice" and relate to them on an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-spaces-near-homes-reduce-emotional-problems-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotional level</a>, much like they would with fellow humans. However, children certainly do not associate these friendly creatures with their dinner plate.



According to foreign research, while an impressive number of American children aged 4–7 years considered pigs (73.3%) and chickens (65.9%) as "not OK to eat," approximately 30% had difficulty accurately determining the origin of animal-based products.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-animals-with-names">Impact of animals with names</h2>



Despite these trends, there has been no focused attempt to investigate how personalizing animals by ascribing human characteristics to them could influence a decrease in the acceptance of meat consumption.



Thankfully, that's where the team of researchers from the Social Behavior Research Center at SWPS University stepped in, dissecting this issue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-children-s-perception-of-named-animals">Children's perception of named animals</h2>



A total of 208 preschool children aged 5–6 years were part of two studies involving interactions with pictures of pigs and chickens. The studies were carefully designed to unveil how children perceive animals before and after assigning them individual identities.



For instance, in one scenario, some children were shown a photo of a pig named Lelka, given personal habits and preferences. 



The children were then asked about their willingness to foster a relationship with the pig or consume its meat. A similar procedure was conducted with chickens in a separate study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-findings">Surprising findings</h2>



The findings were quite telling. A significant number of children (79% in the case of pigs and over 84% for chickens) found an animal unique when it was given a name and individual characteristics. 



These children expressed a stronger desire to befriend such an animal and a diminished appetite for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soy-foods-boost-cognitive-abilities-and-attention-span-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dishes</a> made with its meat.



Dr. Rabinovitch comments on the results, stating that identifying each edible animal by name and emphasizing its uniqueness through personal characteristics can significantly alter children's attitudes towards it. These findings hold steady regardless of whether the animal is a pig or a chicken.



What does this all mean for parents and educators? Perhaps it's time to reconsider <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-are-less-likely-to-see-farm-animals-as-just-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how we introduce animals</a> to children, especially if we strive to foster a future where empathy for all creatures reigns supreme. 



Ultimately, the power to shape children's perceptions and attitudes towards animals lies in our hands, or rather, our words.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195666324003088?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Appetite</a>.



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Kids who identify farm animals by name are less likely to eat them

A chicken named Cluck, a turkey called Tom, or a...

Do you ever stop to think about the hardworking ladybugs in our gardens? These tiny little beetles, with their colorful bodies, perform a vital role in our ecosystems.



This might come as a surprise, but our gardens are thriving because of these diligent, shell-backed beasts. While ladybugs "decorate" our greens with their striking colors, they also safeguard our foliage from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cockroaches-became-global-pests-cleverly-hitching-rides-with-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pest</a> destruction. Looking at these petite creatures, you wouldn't guess they're such a powerhouse.



A recent study led by Heidi Liere, an assistant professor of biology at <a href="https://www.lclark.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lewis &amp; Clark College</a>, explores the interactions between native and non-native ladybug species.



"For decades, researchers in my field have been looking at the diversity of these beneficial insects," said Liere. "We often get the question, 'Are non-native species as beneficial as native species?'"



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecosystem-pest-control-services">Ecosystem pest control services </h2>



The team also investigated how local vegetation and garden characteristics affect other important predators, including ground-dwelling beetles, spiders, and opilionids.



"Like other urban green spaces, urban community gardens can act as biodiversity refugees, especially for small organisms like arthropods. In turn, arthropods can provide important ecosystem pest control services to these agroecosystems," wrote the researchers.



They noted that an often-asked question among urban gardeners is how to improve gardens and surrounding areas for natural enemies and associated pest control services.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mighty-ladybugs-in-our-gardens">Mighty ladybugs in our gardens</h2>



Dating back to the Middle Ages, ladybugs were called the "Beetles of Our Lady," symbolizing the Virgin Mary to whom farmers prayed for bountiful crops.



The lady beetles are, indeed, the superheroes of the farming realm. Chomping down pests, they're the best allies a farmer or gardener could ask for.



Helping maintain the biodiversity of our ecosystems, they are nature's pest controllers. These beetle superheroes keep herbivore populations in check, preventing the ecosystems from facing imbalance due to disruptive pests. 



Their sensitivity to environmental changes also makes ladybugs an insightful bioindicator of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-of-ladybugs-in-our-gardens">Survival of ladybugs in our gardens</h2>



Liere and her team are digging into the competition for resources amongst the ladybugs. 



"There is lots of evidence that the presence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-assist-farmers-by-consuming-harmful-pests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">non-native species</a> affects the native species," noted Liere. "We're taking a closer look at how these interactions will be impacted by climate change. Will the effects of non-native species on native species be dampened or exacerbated by climate change?"



Through the John S. Rogers Science Research Program, students Jackson Gamby and Mairin Thorne joined Liere's team, gaining hands-on experience.



The researchers collected non-native lady beetle species and aphids from local urban farms and gardens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-the-petite-predators">Observing the petite predators</h2>



Back in the lab, the collected specimens are put under a microscope and their behaviors are captured using a video camera. Observing beetles in their unadulterated form lets the researchers understand the dynamics of the tiny creatures.



"I'm not totally sure what I want to do after Lewis &amp; Clark, but this is definitely helping me narrow it down," said Gamby, sharing her research experience.



With the experiments conducted so far at room temperature, the plan is to conduct them under hotter conditions, representing the scorching Portland summer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-citizen-science-in-ladybug-research">Citizen science in ladybug research</h2>



Citizen science initiatives play a crucial role in ladybug research, engaging the public in data collection. By reporting sightings and collecting specimens, everyday individuals contribute valuable information to scientists. 



This collaboration not only enhances research efforts but also fosters a greater awareness of biodiversity and ecosystem health in local communities.



By working together, scientists and citizens strengthen the bond between community awareness and ecological preservation. Engaging everyone helps protect our ecosystems effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-perspective">Broader perspective</h2>



Before Liere joined Lewis &amp; Clark, she was involved in research in Seattle, studying the ecological interplay in community gardens. The findings led to the insight that different groups of natural enemies are associated with different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apple-trees-surrounded-flowers-protected-from-pests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental variables</a>.



Liere also co-directs the Urban Garden Ecology project at the <a href="https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California</a>. The project is a deep dive into understanding the ecology of urban green spaces.



"As a growing percentage of the global landscape continues to urbanize, it becomes more and more important to understand the ecology of urban green spaces and their ecosystems," noted Liere.



A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gardening-significantly-improves-sleep-quality-in-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gardener's best friend</a>, a researcher's favorite subject, and a vital cog in our ecosystem's wheel, the ladybugs are truly extraordinary creatures. 



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecs2.4816" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecosphere</a>.



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Ladybugs are essential for keeping gardens healthy

Do you ever stop to think about the hardworking ladybugs...

Imagine coming across a fish, one that looks uniquely out of place with its eyes sitting atop its head, breathing not underwater, but in air. Guess what? You don't need to take a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-are-quickly-losing-ability-to-support-fish-due-to-plankton-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dive into the ocean</a> to catch a glimpse of such a creature; the mudskipper already walks and roams our land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mudskippers-among-the-mangroves">Mudskippers among the mangroves</h2>



Nestled in the lush backdrop of Okinawa's mangrove forests, where crabs scuttle and kingfishers swoop, resides a peculiar resident: Minami-Tobihaze, famously known as the barred mudskipper.



"They are fish, but they can walk and live partly on land," explains Dr. Fabienne Ziadi-Künzli, part of the <a href="https://www.oist.jp/research/research-units/nnp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nonlinear and Non-equilibrium Physics Unit</a>, who led the recent mudskipper study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-fish-walking-on-land">Unique fish walking on land</h2>



Periophthalmusargentilineatus, the barred mudskipper, certainly is an oddball in the world of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-use-collective-behavior-to-reduce-energy-costs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aquatic life</a>. With the ability to absorb oxygen through their moist skin or their mouth, mudskippers don't rely on lungs like terrestrial creatures do. 



They sometimes take in a big mouthful of air and hold it there to ensure their eggs receive ample oxygen.



However, their fascinating adaptability doesn't end there. They walk - yes, walk. Without limbs or digits, these amphibious fish have developed a way to use their fins, specifically their pectoral fins, for both swimming and walking.



Mudskippers' movement, known as "crutching," is as captivating as it is unexpected. "Instead of moving their pectoral fins alternately... the mudskippers swing their pectoral fins forward simultaneously," says Dr. Ziadi-Künzli. 



It's much like how we would advance our crutches together when easing an injured leg.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-within-the-fins">Mystery within the fins</h2>



Following a project on the stability offered by the human foot's shape, Professor Mahesh Bandi and colleagues brought their curiosity to the unique locomotion of the amphibious mudskipper.



The last comprehensive anatomical investigation of mudskipper fins dates back to the 1960s. With the scarce information on the adaptation of the mudskipper's muscles and other soft tissues to terrestrial life, Dr. Ziadi-Künzli decided to take the plunge herself.



Thanks to the micro-computed tomography (µCT) at the <a href="https://www.oist.jp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OIST</a> Core Facilities, she and her team took a closer look at these adaptations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-mudskipper-s-ability-to-walk">Studying mudskipper's ability to walk </h2>



The µCT uses x-ray sourcing and microscopic detection to study soft tissue with better contrast - thanks to iodine. The team studied various fish, starting with the mudskipper and its close <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiktaalik-fossil-discovery-sheds-light-on-how-fish-walked-onto-land/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary relatives</a> and the zebrafish for comparison.



Analyzing thousands of images from the µCT was no small feat. "We had to manually sort through all those images to identify each tissue," recounts Dr. Ziadi-Künzli. However, their painstaking work bore fruit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-images-reveal">The images reveal...</h2>



The 3D images eventually unveiled several adaptations. For one, the pectoral fin muscles and the shoulder girdle they attach to were significantly larger in the mudskippers.



Additionally, some tendons connecting the bones in the mudskipper's pectoral fins - their 'walking' fins - were replaced by fascia tissue. "We think this is an adaptation that helps the mudskippers to push themselves forward during walking," explains Dr. Ziadi-Künzli.



The gravity on land also led to another modification in the mudskipper's bodies. "There is a connection between the shoulder and the pelvic fin through a kind of joint that we don't see in any other fish we scanned," notes Dr. Ziadi-Künzli.



Changes were also noticed in their bones. "Usually pectoral fin rays are crescent-shaped if you look at a cross-section but, in the mudskipper, they were round near the fin ray base and then changed to crescent shape towards the tip of the fin ray," says Dr. Ziadi-Künzli.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-walking-fish">Significance of the walking fish</h2>



The revelations from this study have further sparked the researchers' interest in deepening their understanding of mudskipper evolution. They are particularly intrigued about the rapid body and fin anatomy shift that takes place during the transition from larvae to adult stage.



In a collaboration for future research, Dr. Ziadi-Künzli and Dr. Ken Maeda from the Marine Eco-Evo-Devo Unit aim to study this intriguing metamorphosis.



"Using these virtual dissection tools gives us a whole new perspective on the anatomy of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dietary-shift-to-forage-fish-could-prevent-millions-of-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>. After all, how shall we understand an organism and its evolutionary adaptations if we don't know how they are built?" concludes Dr. Ziadi-Künzli.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/joa.14071" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Anatomy</a>.



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Bizarre fish can walk and thrive on land

Imagine coming across a fish, one that looks uniquely out...

Some primates have bigger personalities than others, and surprisingly, it has nothing to do with size or strength. According to a recent study at <a href="https://www.ntu.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nottingham Trent University</a>, expressive faces in primates lead to stronger social connections, impacting their social structures.



The study was led by Dr. Jamie Whitehouse, a research fellow at NTU's School of Social Sciences, along with Professor Bridget Waller, a seasoned expert in Evolution and Social Behaviour at NTU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-expressive-primates">Analyzing expressive primates</h2>



The team ventured out to study nine social groups of rhesus macaques, each comprising one adult male, multiple adult females, and offspring. 



To analyze the facial expressions of the dominant male in each group, the researchers used a specially designed coding system called MaqFACS. This clever system tracks 17 different facial muscle movements, revealing the spectrum of expressivity.



To tie these measurements to social connections, the team observed the lives of 66 monkeys across the groups. They measured how often each pair spent time together, the intensity of their friendly grooming interactions, and the social status each primate held within their group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-connections-of-expressive-primates">Social connections of expressive primates</h2>



The results were fascinating. The males who showcased more diverse facial expressions were discovered to be more socially connected within their groups. They also had stronger social bonds and sat at more central positions in their social networks. 



And their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/goats-can-recognize-human-emotions-in-the-sound-of-a-voice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">expressivity</a> didn't just benefit them - it led to a more balanced social structure within their group, suggesting a more tolerant leadership style.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-dynamics-of-primate-social-behavior">Environmental dynamics of primate social behavior </h2>



The impact of environmental factors on primate social behavior cannot be overlooked. Different habitats present various challenges and opportunities that shape the way primates interact with one another.



In environments with abundant resources, social bonds may become less competitive, leading to increased collaboration and supportive behaviours among individuals. 



Conversely, in resource-scarce settings, competition can intensify, potentially leading to strained relationships. 



Understanding how these environmental dynamics interplay with facial expressivity opens new avenues for exploring the ecological contexts in which social structures evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation-efforts">Implications for conservation efforts</h2>



The findings from this study hold significant implications for primate conservation efforts. As humans continue to encroach on natural habitats, understanding the social dynamics of primate species becomes increasingly crucial. 



Conservation strategies that consider social structures and communication methods may be more effective in promoting the survival of endangered species. 



By fostering environments that encourage expressive behaviors and social cohesion, conservationists could aid in the development of resilient primate populations that can adapt to changing conditions.



Ultimately, these insights underscore the importance of maintaining biodiversity and protecting the rich tapestry of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-use-nearly-300-facial-expressions-to-communicate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social interactions</a> within primate communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insight-into-human-behavior">New insight into human behavior</h2>



The broader implications of this research extend to us, humans. Just as monkeys form social structures based on expressive communication, we too may lean on our facial expressions to build and maintain social relationships. Does this mean that our most expressive friends are the de facto leaders of our social circles?



"This research demonstrates how individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-emotions-evoke-different-responses-in-dogs-and-pigs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variation in expressivity</a> can shape social dynamics for primates, including humans—suggesting that a broader range of expressions might be more effective for navigating complex social relationships than a limited repertoire," noted Dr. Whitehouse.



On a larger scale, these expressive individuals might have the upper hand in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-with-many-facial-expressions-seem-more-social-and-likeable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forming strong social connections</a>, leading to more resources, greater mating opportunities, and even protection from threats. Doesn't this somehow remind you of your office environment?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-the-dots-past-present-and-future">Connecting the dots: Past, present, and future</h2>



And what about the course of evolution? "Humans have evolved incredibly expressive faces with highly complex facial musculature, and these findings help us understand what advantage this has provided over evolutionary time," said Professor Waller.



So, the next time you're feeling a little withdrawn, remember that a smile or a grimace might just be your ticket to a better social connection.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.0984" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



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Primates who are facially expressive make the best leaders

Some primates have bigger personalities than others, and surprisingly, it...

Every year, thousands of people worldwide succumb to the lethal amounts of cobra venom injected into their bodies through bites. 



These victims, often living in rural or impoverished regions with limited access to medical care, face not only the immediate threat of death but also the harrowing aftermath of envenomation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-cobra-venom">Impacts of cobra venom</h2>



Insidiously, the venom causes necrosis, the death of body tissue and cells, which often leads to severe complications, including the necessity for amputation of the affected limbs. 



This devastating process not only inflicts excruciating pain but also results in long-term disability and a significant reduction in quality of life.



Current treatments - mostly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universal-antivenom-to-heal-all-snakebites-is-closer-to-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antivenoms</a> - barely tackle the necrotic effects of the venom and come with a heavy price tag, making them inaccessible to many who need them the most.



The financial burden and limited effectiveness of these treatments highlight the urgent need for more affordable and efficient solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-groundbreaking-cobra-venom-treatment">Groundbreaking cobra venom treatment</h2>



Scientists based out of Australia, Canada, Costa Rica, and the UK have made a game-changing breakthrough that could drastically reduce the life-threatening and devastating effects of cobra venom.



"Snakebites kill an estimated 138,000 people each year, with another 400,000 people experiencing long-term morbidity," noted the study authors.



"Most of these envenomings occur in sub-Saharan Africa and South or Southeast Asia and disproportionately affect young adults and children."



At the heart of their discovery is a widely available and affordable blood thinner known as heparin.



“Our discovery could drastically reduce the terrible injuries from necrosis caused by cobra bites – and it might also slow the venom, which could improve survival rates," noted study co-author Professor Greg Neely from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-heparin-to-combat-cobra-venom">Using heparin to combat cobra venom</h2>



The researchers utilized CRISPR gene-editing technology to identify ways to block cobra venom. They successfully 'repurposed' heparin and related drugs, demonstrating their effectiveness in stopping the necrosis caused by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venomous-snake-bites-are-more-likely-to-occur-in-warmer-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cobra bite</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venomous-snake-bites-are-more-likely-to-occur-in-warmer-weather/">s</a>.



“Heparin is inexpensive, ubiquitous, and a World Health Organization-listed Essential Medicine," said study lead author Tian Du, a PhD student at the University of Sydney.



"After successful human trials, it could be rolled out relatively quickly to become a cheap, safe, and effective drug for treating cobra bites.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-the-discovery">The science behind the discovery</h2>



The researchers used CRISPR to identify the human genes that cobra <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-developed-an-immunity-to-cobra-venom/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">venom</a> needs to initiate necrosis, killing the flesh around the bite.



One of venom's targets are enzymes necessary for producing molecules heparan and heparin, which many human and animal cells produce. 



The venom can bind to both molecules due to their similar structure, and the scientists used this information to create an antidote capable of stopping necrosis in human cells and mice.



The newly discovered heparinoid drugs function differently from traditional antivenoms. They act as a "decoy," flooding the bite site with heparin sulfate or related heparinoid molecules.



The decoy molecules bind to and neutralize the venom toxins responsible for tissue damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-implications-of-the-discovery">Global implications of the discovery</h2>



Professor Nicholas Casewell, head of the Centre for Snakebite Research &amp; Interventions at Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, emphasized that snakebites disproportionately impact people in poor, rural communities. 



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snakebites-caused-over-63000-deaths-in-2019/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Snakebites</a> remain the deadliest of the neglected tropical diseases, with its burden landing overwhelmingly on rural communities in low- and middle-income countries."



Cobra bites, which inject lethal amounts of cobra venom, are one of the leading causes of snakebite incidents in some regions of India and Africa.



The World Health Organization has categorized snakebite as a priority in its program for tackling neglected tropical diseases, aiming to halve the global burden of snakebite by 2030. This new discovery can be instrumental in achieving that goal.



“That target is just five years away now. We hope that the new cobra antidote we found can assist in the global fight to reduce death and injury from snakebite in some of the world’s poorest communities," said Professor Neely.



This research is just one more example of how scientists worldwide are striving to use modern scientific techniques to combat age-old global health challenges.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.adk4802" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Translational Medicine</a>.



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Cobra venom just became less deadly, thanks to a common drug

Every year, thousands of people worldwide succumb to the lethal...

Have you ever wondered about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-whale-perucetus-colossus-smaller-than-blue-whale/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures that lurk beneath the surface</a> of the vast oceans, mysteries cloaked in the blue abyss? There's one in particular that plays a game of "hide-and-seek" with scientists so well, they have never seen it alive. We're talking about the rare elusive spade-toothed whale. 



Its rare remains recently made a surprise appearance on a New Zealand beach, and the scientific community is buzzing with excitement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-whale-of-a-mystery">Rare whale of a mystery</h2>



Scientists from New Zealand's <a href="https://www.doc.govt.nz" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Conservation</a> and the national museum Te Papa stumbled upon an intriguing find this past 4th of July. 



It was a creature from the depths, washed ashore near a river mouth in southern Otago province. The 16.4-foot long specimen was no ordinary sea dweller. These experts believe it to be a male spade-toothed whale, a species so rare, it has been dubbed the "Ghost of the Ocean."



Gabe Davies, the coastal Otago operations manager of the conservation department, is very enthusiastic about the find. "Spade-toothed whales are one of the most poorly known large mammalian species of modern times."



According to Davies, only six samples have existed since the 1800s, and five of those were from New Zealand. "From a scientific and conservation point of view, this is huge," said Davies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-rare-whale-s-secrets">Unraveling the rare whale's secrets</h2>



To ensure the classification is correct, a DNA investigation is currently ongoing. The body was fresh enough, providing a unique opportunity for scientists to dissect a spade-toothed whale. 



The Department of Conservation said that the species is "so rare, next to nothing is known about them."



The body has been placed in cold storage and genetic samples have been shipped off to the University of Auckland, curators of the New Zealand Cetacean Tissue Archive. It may take weeks, even months, for the DNA to be processed and a final confirmation to be made.



The significance of the whale's rarity, according to the Department of Conservation, expands the conversation about what to do next beyond national borders. It becomes a topic of "international importance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation-efforts">Implications for conservation efforts</h2>



The unexpected discovery of the spade-toothed whale on a New Zealand beach has broader implications for conservation efforts.



Because these whales are so rarely seen, their population status remains largely unknown, making it difficult to implement effective conservation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-20-minute-conversation-with-a-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategies</a>.



The new specimen gives us a chance to highlight the species. It also helps bring attention to marine biodiversity.



Moreover, the data collected from this whale could contribute to international conservation policies aimed at protecting not just spade-toothed whales but also other elusive and endangered marine species. 



Researchers hope this event will spur further investment in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-whales-continue-their-battle-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine research and conservation initiatives</a> worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enigma-of-the-spade-toothed-whale">Enigma of the spade-toothed whale</h2>



The first description of the species came in 1874 based on merely a lower jaw and two teeth discovered in the Chatham Islands off the east coast of New Zealand.&nbsp;



Coupling that with skeletal remains found in New Zealand and Chile, scientists were able to confirm a new species. The missing pieces are hard to come by, however.



The first intact specimen was a mother and calf that stranded in the Bay of Plenty in 2010. A further stranding in 2017 in Gisborne added one more specimen to the mix.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



Marine scientist Vanessa Pirotta emphasized the potential of the recent sample to offer new insights. Experts intend to study the stomach contents and genetics of the whale and compare this sample with previous ones.



This might shine a light on the behavior of these whales, their population, and reasons behind their rarity. "It's like hitting the jackpot," said Pirotta.



With no live sightings and so few specimens found, the spade-toothed whale is classified as "data deficient" under New Zealand's Threat Classification System. Let's hope that this jackpot discovery can help fill in some of the blanks in our understanding of this ocean ghost.



The story of the spade-toothed whale continues to captivate the scientific community, offering a rare glimpse into the mysterious life of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-benefits-of-whale-remains-and-their-proper-disposal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elusive marine mammal</a>, and igniting hope for new discoveries.



Remember, the ocean is wide and its secrets are deep. Who knows what mysteries it will unveil next?



Image Credit: Department of Conservation via AP



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World's rarest whale found on New Zealand beach

Have you ever wondered about the creatures that lurk beneath...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-shifting-to-new-habitats-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ants</a> are well-known for their complex social behaviors and mutualistic relationships with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-plants-partnership/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>, particularly in the tropics. These interactions often involve ants inhabiting hollow swellings in trees and defending them against predators in exchange for food. 



While these mutualisms have been observed for centuries, their origins remain a mystery. Recent research led by <a href="https://www.utah.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Utah</a> field biologist Rodolfo Probst has shed new light on this intriguing phenomenon, specifically focusing on the ant genus Myrmelachista.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellow-ants-and-understory-trees-nbsp">Yellow ants and understory trees&nbsp;</h2>



Probst's study, published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.1214" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>, has investigated Myrmelachista species that typically nest in dead or live stems of plants without specialized mutualistic associations. 



However, one group of these species in Central America nests exclusively in live stems of specific understory trees, forming a specialized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/symbiotic-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symbiosis</a> similar to other ant-plant mutualisms. 



These tiny yellow ants hollow out the stems without harming the host plants, a behavior commonly observed throughout Central America.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-convergent-evolution-nbsp">Convergent evolution&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers noted that obligatory ant–plant symbioses often appear to be single evolutionary shifts within particular ant lineages; however, convergence can be revealed once natural history observations are complemented with molecular phylogenetics.&nbsp;



“Here, we describe a remarkable example of convergent evolution in an ant-plant symbiotic system,” the study authors wrote.



The research revealed that this symbiosis requires complex behaviors and morphological adaptations, thought to occur infrequently in the evolutionary history of life.&nbsp;



The nine species exhibiting these traits were initially believed to share a single common ancestor that evolved this mutualism over a long period of time. However, Probst discovered through DNA sequence data that these species formed two distinct clusters in different parts of the evolutionary tree.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-species-develop-similar-traits-nbsp">Different species develop similar traits&nbsp;</h2>



“Using ultraconserved element phylogenomics and ancestral state reconstructions, we show that shifts from opportunistic to obligately symbiotic evolved independently in South and Middle America,” the authors explained.&nbsp;



This suggests that the complex relationship evolved twice independently from non-specialist ancestors around three million years ago - a fascinating case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-there-cases-of-convergent-evolution-between-reptiles-and-amphibians/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">convergent evolution</a>.



“I wish I could just take a time machine and see it,” Probst said. “Maybe it was the ecology or plant availability that helped those friendships evolve in the first place.”&nbsp;



Probst describes this phenomenon as “evolutionary déjà vu,” where different species develop similar traits due to occupying similar ecological niches.&nbsp;



“The coolest part of our paper is that we’re showing that these types of ant-plant friendships evolve multiple times independently. It’s like if it happens, it might happen again if you’re given the appropriate ecological conditions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-relationships-of-ants-and-trees">Complex relationships of ants and trees</h2>



Probst's co-authors include Jack Longino, a renowned entomologist known as “The Astonishing Ant Man,” and former University of Utah School of Biological Sciences postdoctoral researcher Michael Branstetter, now with the <a href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/pacific-west-area/logan-ut/pollinating-insect-biology-management-systematics-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Agriculture's Pollinating Insect Research Unit</a>. Longino highlights the significance of Probst's findings. 



“Rodolfo’s work revealed two independent evolutions of a complex relationship with plants. It suggests that the developmental building blocks for very distinctive or complex features are readily at hand, and can quickly evolve among different sets of species when the conditions arise.”



Probst, a postdoctoral researcher in the School of Biological Sciences and the university’s Science Research Initiative (SRI), has also involved undergraduates in his research, during fieldwork in Costa Rica funded by the University of Utah’s Wilkes Center for Climate Science &amp; Policy.&nbsp;



The group conducted research at the San Gerardo Station in the Bosque Eterno de los Niños (Children’s Eternal Rainforest) nature reserve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-research-efforts">Ongoing research efforts</h2>



With ongoing assistance from SRI undergraduates, Probst currently aims to conduct whole genomic sequencing to identify the genes involved in ant-plant associations, delving deeper into a phenomenon that has fascinated naturalists for centuries.



This research not only enhances our understanding of ant-plant mutualisms but also underscores the role of convergent evolution in the development of complex ecological relationships.&nbsp;



By studying these intricate interactions between different species, scientists can gain new insights into the adaptive mechanisms that drive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> and the intricate web of life in tropical ecosystems. 



Probst's findings highlight the importance of continued research and conservation efforts to protect these remarkable mutualistic relationships and the complex ecosystems they support.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



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<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h--0">-----</h3>

Evolutionary déjà vu: The symbiotic relationships of trees and ants

Ants are well-known for their complex social behaviors and mutualistic...

New insights from marine scientists are shedding light on an unexpected <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/clear-lake-turns-green-with-algal-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">underwater phenomenon</a>. It involves <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crown-of-thorns-starfish-gene-expression-may-help-protect-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral-destroying</a> crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS), their larvae, and their unexpected diet of "sea sawdust."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underwater-feast-sea-sawdust">Underwater feast: Sea sawdust</h2>



The story starts with Dr. Benjamin Mos, a renowned researcher in the School of Environment at <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Queensland</a>.



Dr. Mos found himself working alongside a team of experts from <a href="https://www.scu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Cross University</a>. The scientists made an unexpected discovery, observing how this notorious reef pest feeds on a peculiar item.



Scientifically known as Trichodesmium, sea sawdust is a type of blue-green <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-algae-play-an-unexpected-role-in-cooling-the-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> bacteria. It often forms large slicks, floating on the ocean's surface, hardly touched due to its toxicity and poor nutritional value. So how does this come into play with the crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS)?



"Until now, not much has been known about sea sawdust as a food source," said Dr. Mos. "So we were certainly surprised to say the least." It turns out, COTS larvae thrive on a diet exclusively made up of this bacteria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-sawdust-and-coral-predation">Sea sawdust and coral predation</h2>



Sea sawdust, which is named after the way it floats in large rafts on the water's surface, is a critical player within marine ecosystems. Besides its newfound status as a meal for starfish larvae, it also makes nitrogen from the atmosphere available to other sea life.



"Our findings suggest this could help explain the increase in COTS populations, which have devastated our coral reefs for decades,” explained Dr. Mos. 



The nitrogen in sea sawdust moves into the tissues of COTS larvae, acting as a sustenance source. With the recent rise in sea sawdust blooms, this could fuel the growth of COTS populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-human-activities">The role of human activities </h2>



Investigations into this underwater diet unravel further implications. Previous research has linked human activities to the proliferation of blue-green algae blooms, which create sea sawdust. 



Fertilizer usage, sewage treatment, and stormwater runoff have been implicated in the surge of these blooms.



There's a ripple effect here that we cannot ignore. "It’s important we understand the flow-on effect of how human impacts in one ecosystem might flow on to other seemingly unrelated ecosystems," noted Dr. Mos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-curbing-the-spread-of-cots">Curbing the spread of COTS</h2>



Addressing the growing issue of COTS populations and their destructive impact on coral reefs requires a multifaceted approach. 



Scientists and environmentalists suggest that mitigating human-induced causes of sea sawdust blooms, such as reducing agricultural runoff and improving sewage treatment processes, could be a key step. 



Additionally, initiatives like manual removal of COTS, breeding natural predators like the giant triton snail, and implementing marine protected areas are being considered to combat the coral crisis. 



Dr. Mos and his team are hopeful that with increased awareness and coordinated efforts, it might be possible to curb the spread of COTS and safeguard the delicate balance of our marine ecosystems for future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-next-steps-a-puzzle-to-crack">The next steps: A puzzle to crack</h2>



Are sea sawdust blooms leading to more adult crown-of-thorns starfish on coral reefs? For now, the matter remains unresolved. 



Professor Symon Dworjanyn from Southern Cross University's National Marine Science Centre acknowledges the need for more research. “Our findings could be an important part of cracking that puzzle,” he added.



The goal now is to identify how to tone down the impact of COTS. After all, any measure that gives coral reefs a little more time is worth exploring. 



The relationship of COTS larvae and sea sawdust has become an intriguing piece of the bigger puzzle that is our complex marine ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sea-of-possibilities">A sea of possibilities</h2>



When crown-of-thorns starfish larvae feast on sea sawdust, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killing-crown-of-thorns-starfish-cots-could-save-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">they’re doing much more</a> than grabbing a quick snack. They are tapping into a food source with deep implications for the future of our oceans and esteemed marine life.



As marine scientists continue to unravel these unexpected mysteries of the deep, their finds remind us all of the interconnectedness of life on our planet. From the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-emerged-zygnema-star-algae-conquer-earths-landmass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smallest algae</a> to the most massive coral reef, every little piece matters.



This study is published in&nbsp;the journal Science Advances.



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Sea sawdust: Unexpected diet of crown-of-thorns starfish

New insights from marine scientists are shedding light on an...

Recent research from the <a href="https://www.unl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nebraska–Lincoln</a> has provided significant insights into mammalian ecosystems and species diversity in North America by examining the fossil record from 66 million years ago. 



The study, led by Alex Shupinski and co-authored by Kate Lyons, was published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.0778" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammalian-species-diversity-nbsp">Mammalian species diversity&nbsp;</h2>



The research delves into how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-geographic-isolation-shaped-global-species-habitat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammalian species</a> diversity has evolved over the first 65 million years of the Cenozoic era, up until the arrival of humans, and investigates how climate and environmental changes have influenced animal life on the continent.



“Beginning 66 million years ago, we go from a completely sub-tropical environment across North America to grasslands to a frozen savanna, and finally, reaching the Ice Age,” said Shupinski.&nbsp;



“It's showing how species changed through time, through many ecological, environmental and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-change-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climatic changes</a> and it allows us to compare across those events and at different spatial scales.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-functional-diversity-of-mammals-nbsp">Functional diversity of mammals&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers divided the fossil record into million-year increments and used three indices of functional diversity to examine mammalian communities on local and continental scales. Functional diversity quantifies changes in community structures using mammalian traits.&nbsp;



The study revealed that, for most of the Cenozoic era, local and continental measures of functional diversity differed. However, during the first 10 million years of the era, immediately following the extinction of non-avian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-going-strong-when-the-deadly-asteroid-struck/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>, all measures of functional diversity, both locally and across the continent, increased.



“That was fascinating to see, that for most of the Cenozoic, functional diversity was uncoupled across time and spatial scales, except this one time,” said Shupinski.&nbsp;



“For 10 million years, all the measures are changing in the same way. Then, around 56 million years ago, we get this massive immigration of mammals into North America from other continents, and at that point, we see a divergence of functional diversity.”



“Communities are changing at different times, at different rates and in different directions. We might see locally, the diversity of roles increasing, but continentally, they’re decreasing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-among-mammalian-species">Changes among mammalian species</h2>



Lyons pointed out that some changes among mammalian species can be attributed to environmental changes, such as cooling and warming periods or the transition from forested areas to grasslands. However, these changes were not as disruptive as the mass extinction of dinosaurs.&nbsp;



“That is why this could potentially be a way to pinpoint areas of the globe or communities that are under particular stress.”



Lyons further noted that we may be entering a sixth mass extinction event, and if so, we might expect to see communities that are on the vanguard of that extinction respond in a similar way, based on the patterns we see after the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-for-mammal-conservation-nbsp">Insights for mammal conservation&nbsp;</h2>



The study offers a thorough analysis of the age of mammals, which is valuable for the field of conservation paleobiology.&nbsp;



Tracking past changes in ecosystems over long periods helps scientists and the public better understand the current <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity crisis</a>. 



“If we are looking at the modern (crises) and we see a similar response in the functional diversity of modern community structures, it may be a conservation tool as we can highlight some of these communities that are experiencing the most disturbance and that are at highest risk of change and disturbance in their ecological services and function,” Shupinski said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resilience-of-mammalian-communities-nbsp">Resilience of mammalian communities&nbsp;</h2>



The research highlights the resilience and adaptability of mammalian communities in the face of environmental challenges and mass extinction events.&nbsp;



By examining the fossil record and understanding how species diversity has evolved, scientists can gain insights into how current and future biodiversity crises might unfold and develop strategies to mitigate their impacts.



The study's findings underscore the importance of understanding historical biodiversity patterns to better address present and future ecological challenges.&nbsp;



By investigating the fossil record and analyzing changes in species diversity, researchers can provide valuable information that informs conservation efforts today.&nbsp;



The work of Shupinski, Lyons, and their colleagues serves as a reminder of the dynamic nature of ecosystems and the ongoing need to study and preserve the diversity of life on Earth.



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How mammals have evolved over 66 million years

Recent research from the University of Nebraska–Lincoln has provided significant...

Ever found yourself certain of a memory that later turned out to be a tad off the mark? While we're known as species capable of 'distorted' recall, it turns out we're not alone in the animal kingdom. A surprising entrant in this league of "detours from accuracy" in memory is the humble cuttlefish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-of-cuttlefish">Memory of cuttlefish</h2>



We start by throwing the spotlight on the star of our story -- the cuttlefish. More specifically, the research by Dr. Christelle Jozet-Alves and her team from the <a href="https://www.unicaen.fr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Caen in Normandy</a>, France. 



Their astounding discovery? Cuttlefish, like us, can form false memories.



“Forming false memories is different from making memory errors,” Jozet-Alves clarifies.&nbsp;



Indeed, their findings imply that cuttlefish do not record events like a reel of film, but rather reconstruct incidents in their minds, associating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-songbirds-are-masters-of-memory-and-adaptation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diverse elements</a> present at the time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-memory-masters">Unexpected memory masters</h2>



Cuttlefish were already recognized for having <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-camouflage-is-much-more-complex-and-mind-boggling-than-initially-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">episodic-like memory</a>, a trait only found in higher order animals. 



They can recall what happened to them in the past. But the fascinating part is how they recall these memories.



Is it a replay or a reconstruction? The answer would determine their susceptibility to memory distortions. With this question in mind, Jozet-Alves and her team embarked on their investigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cuttlefish-memory-manipulation">Cuttlefish memory manipulation </h2>



The researchers designed a series of events that shared many common features to induce false memories in the cuttlefish. 



The plan was to convince these creatures they'd seen their favorite snack - shrimp - in a specific tube when they hadn't.



Here's how they went about it. They started off by showing the cuttlefish three different tubes - one with the coveted shrimp, one with a less-preferred crab, and an empty one. 



Each tube had a unique visual pattern. Next, they exposed the cuttlefish to a 'misleading event' where they made the contents of the shrimp and the empty tube invisible. The visual patterns and odors, however, overlapped.



Now the real test. Would the cuttlefish falsely remember the presence of shrimp in the otherwise empty tube due to its second appearance along with the shrimp tube?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revealing-results">Revealing results</h2>



The scientists then put this question to the test. They allowed the cuttlefish to choose between the crab tube and the supposedly-empty tube, both with their content hidden. 



The consensus? The cuttlefish often chose the empty tube over the crab-filled one.



 This choice indicated that the misleading information had indeed altered their memories, making them believe the empty tube contained shrimp.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cuttlefish-variation-in-memory">Cuttlefish variation in memory</h2>



“What was surprising was that the susceptibility to form false memories seems different between individuals,” Jozet-Alves said.&nbsp;



“Some appeared unaffected when exposed to a misleading event while other did form false memories. This phenomenon is commonly found in our own species in which this susceptibility varies among individuals and within <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forgetting-things-is-a-natural-part-of-the-memory-process/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">individuals</a>.”



While there is need for more research, the evidence suggests that cuttlefish can store fragments of memory and reconstruct them, potentially optimizing memory storage. 



However, some cuttlefish did not seem to form false memories, indicating a level of resistance. 



Further research will delve into why all individuals are not sensitive to the formation of false memory and whether it could change within an individual.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-memory-research">Implications for human memory research</h2>



The discovery of false memories in cuttlefish provides a valuable perspective on the study of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bigger-animals-do-not-always-have-bigger-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory in humans</a>. By understanding how these cephalopods process and potentially distort their memories, researchers can draw parallels and contrasts with human memory mechanisms. 



This could provide insights into why certain individuals are more susceptible to false memories and how such memories can be manipulated or controlled. 



The implications extend to various fields such as psychology, neurology, and even artificial intelligence, where understanding memory formation and retrieval is critical.



Furthermore, by studying memory errors in cuttlefish, new strategies could emerge to address memory-related disorders in humans, offering hope for enhanced cognitive therapies and interventions.



So, next time you're second-guessing a memory, pause for a moment and think of our new friends, the cuttlefish. It seems that a "recollective detour" isn't a flaw exclusive to us but a fascinating feature present in even our underwater counterparts.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(24)01547-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Cuttlefish form false memories of events similar to humans

Ever found yourself certain of a memory that later turned...

A new study led by Sarah Kienle, a biologist at <a href="https://www.baylor.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Baylor University</a>, has analyzed the first paired observations of sexual behavior and vocalizations in wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-reveal-new-features-of-the-elusive-leopard-seal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leopard seals</a>. 



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00300-024-03275-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Polar Biology</a>, this research represents a significant advancement in understanding the behavior of one of the planet's most elusive apex predators. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-courtship-rituals-of-leopard-seals">Complex courtship rituals of leopard seals</h2>



Supported by a grant from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a>, Kienle and her team have now completed their third published study on leopard seals, shedding light on the complex courtship rituals of these solitary animals.



Kienle's team observed a two-hour <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-peacocks-courtship-display/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">courtship</a> interaction between a male and female leopard seal in Laguna San Rafael, Chile. They documented a variety of behaviors and vocalizations, which highlighted the intricate nature of leopard seal courtship. 



During this period, the male produced 65 underwater calls, mainly low- and high-double trills directed at the female, who in turn made seven in-air calls, including thump pulses, nose blasts, and growls.&nbsp;



These observations indicate a sophisticated courtship process involving both in-air and underwater communication.



The female remained primarily on the ice, producing in-air calls, while the male engaged in underwater vocalizations seemingly directed toward her.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproductive-biology-of-leopard-seals">Reproductive biology of leopard seals</h2>



The findings offer new insights into the reproductive biology of leopard seals, previously understood mainly through sparse observations and studies of captive animals.



“This study marks a significant step forward in our understanding of leopard seal behavior in the wild,” said Kienle, who leads the Comparative Ecophysiology of Animals Lab (CEAL) at Baylor.



“The detailed observations of courtship behaviors and vocal interactions offer a unique glimpse into the reproductive strategies of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-solitary-animals-like-cats-live-in-groups/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solitary animals</a>,” 



Kienle's lab focuses on understanding how different animals function within their often-changing environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



This groundbreaking research not only enhances our understanding of leopard seal biology but also emphasizes the importance of continued study and conservation efforts for these remarkable marine predators.&nbsp;



“Leopard seals are important Southern Ocean predators; understanding their reliance on sea ice and the drivers of reproductive success within and between populations is crucial for predicting how this species is - and will - respond to rapidly changing conditions across the southern hemisphere,” explained Kienle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leopard-seal-breeding-territory">Leopard seal breeding territory</h2>



According to the experts, leopard seals are breeding in South America, particularly in Laguna San Rafael.&nbsp;



“More broadly, these observations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-pheromone-enhances-sexual-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sexual behavior</a> and leopard seal pups in South America correspond with a recent review of sightings of leopard seal births and pups, which showed most sightings of newborns and pups occurred outside Antarctica,” the researchers noted. 



“These data provide additional evidence that leopard seals can - and are - breeding outside of Antarctic pack ice.”



Future research aims to expand upon these findings by collecting paired in-air and underwater acoustic and video data of known sex individuals to better understand competition, territoriality, and female choice in leopard seal mating behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resilience-to-extreme-climate-disturbances">Resilience to extreme climate disturbances</h2>



Kienle and her colleagues published their first study on leopard seals in 2022 in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2022.976019/full?&amp;utm_source=Email_to_authors_&amp;utm_medium=Email&amp;utm_content=T1_11.5e1_author&amp;utm_campaign=Email_publication&amp;field=&amp;journalName=Frontiers_in_Marine_Science&amp;id=976019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>. 



The study revealed that leopard seals have flexible movement patterns and dive behaviors, potentially offering the resilience needed to survive extreme climate and environmental disturbances around Antarctica and beyond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-physiology-of-leopard-seals">Stress physiology of leopard seals</h2>



In 2023, the team published a second study in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2023.1179236/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>, focusing on the stress physiology of leopard seals. 



Led by Emily S. Sperou, a Baylor Ph.D. student in biology, this research examined how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cortisol-indicate-stressed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cortisol</a> - an important stress hormone - varies among leopard seals. They discovered that leopard seals have the highest cortisol concentrations of any pinniped, which includes seals, sea lions, and walruses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-leopard-seals-nbsp">Understanding leopard seals&nbsp;</h2>



This series of studies significantly advances our understanding of leopard seal behavior, physiology, and ecology.&nbsp;



The detailed observations and findings provide a foundation for future research and conservation efforts, highlighting the importance of studying these elusive marine predators in their natural habitats.&nbsp;



By continuing to investigate the behavior and biology of leopard seals, researchers hope to uncover more about their role in the Southern Ocean ecosystem and how they may adapt to a rapidly changing environment.



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Fascinating mating behavior of leopard seals revealed

A new study led by Sarah Kienle, a biologist at...

A recent study suggests that pet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-can-learn-the-names-of-their-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats</a> could serve as excellent models for researching the origins and treatment of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-is-the-epidemic-crisis-of-our-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a> in humans. This is due to similarities in gut microbiome changes related to diet observed in both species. 



The research involved analyzing fecal samples from obese cats as they underwent dietary changes, including strict calorie reduction.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-related-alterations-in-the-gut">Food-related alterations in the gut</h2>



The findings revealed that food-related alterations in the cats' gut microbiome were remarkably similar to those seen in humans.



“The gut microbiota comprises a dynamic community of microbes within the intestinal tract that influences their host in states of health and disease through production of microbial-derived metabolites,” wrote the study authors.



“In people, deviations from the normal microbiota and alteration of microbial-derived metabolites, including short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), are well-demonstrated in the context of obesity and are influenced by diet.”



The experts noted that recent research aims to pinpoint specific drivers of these interactions with meta-analysis revealing significantly greater amounts of the SCFAs acetate, butyrate, and propionate in feces from obese people compared to non-obese controls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-obesity-and-gut-microbiota-nbsp">Obesity and gut microbiota&nbsp;</h2>



According to the scientists, investigating the relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-gut-microbiome-is-shaped-by-what-we-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut microbiota</a> and obesity in cats could shed more light on how such interactions occur in humans. 



“Animals share our beds. They share our ice cream. There are all these things that people do with their pets that highlight they are a naturally occurring disease model with similar environmental exposures as humans,” said lead author Jenessa Winston, an assistant professor of veterinary clinical sciences at the <a href="https://www.osu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ohio State University</a>. 



This makes cats a promising model for studying microbiome-directed therapeutics for obesity in humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-obesity-in-cats-and-humans">Obesity in cats and humans</h2>



The study found that 60% of cats are obese or overweight in developed countries. Similarly, over 40% of adults in the United States are obese.&nbsp;



Winston's lab focuses on harnessing the therapeutic power of microbes to combat obesity. She oversees clinical trials exploring the potential for fecal transplants from lean to overweight pets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The study involved feeding seven obese cats a four-phase diet over 16 weeks, with phases including free-feeding commercial cat food, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-loss-low-carb-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weight-loss</a> diet, calorie-restricted feeding to achieve weekly weight reduction, and a return to the original diet. 



The researchers analyzed fecal samples to track changes in short-chain fatty acids, metabolites produced by gut bacteria during digestion.&nbsp;



These acids are significant because they mediate communication between gut microbes and other body tissues, influencing inflammation and insulin resistance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dietary-change-and-gut-bacteria">Dietary change and gut bacteria</h2>



A key finding was the increase in propionic acid, a short-chain fatty acid linked to appetite regulation, fat reduction, and protection against obesity and diabetes.&nbsp;



The rise in propionic acid during the calorie-restricted diet correlated with increased presence of the bacterium Prevotella 9 copri. This bacterium has also been associated with weight loss and better blood sugar control in humans.



“When the cats are on the special diet formulated for weight loss, propionic acid goes up and stays high, and then goes back down when they’re put back on the maintenance diet. So it really is a dietary change,” Winston explained.&nbsp;



This indicates that calorie restriction in obese cats alters their microbial ecosystem, potentially correlating with metabolic outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cats-as-models-to-study-obesity">Cats as models to study obesity</h2>



The study underscores the potential of using cats as models for understanding obesity in humans.&nbsp;



The parallels observed in microbiome changes between cats and humans highlight the promise of developing microbiome-based therapies for obesity.&nbsp;



While the precise role of the gut microbiome in obesity remains unclear, decades of evidence suggest these organisms and their metabolites are part of the complex disease mechanism.



These findings could pave the way for new treatments for obesity, benefiting both human and feline health.&nbsp;



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-62243-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Scientific Reports</a>, demonstrates the value of pet cats in obesity research, given their similar environmental exposures and the ability to observe significant microbial and metabolic changes in response to diet.



“In summary, caloric restriction-induced weight loss in cats alters the gut microbial community structure to a state that promotes the microbially-derived metabolite propionic acid,” said the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-the-gut-microbiome-in-weight-loss">The role of the gut microbiome in weight loss</h2>



The experts noted that the change in microbial community occurred as a direct result of diet as well as likely changes in host-related mechanisms that shift during weight loss and remain to be further identified and studied.&nbsp;



The bacterial species Prevotella 9 copri was found to significantly positively correlate with increased fecal propionic acid, a microbial metabolite characterized in other mammalian species within the context of obesity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/intermittent-fasting-can-reverse-type-2-diabetes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">type 2 diabetes</a>, the researchers added. 



“This cross-species conservation of findings highlights the potential application of obese cats as a translational model to further investigate the role of the gut microbiome and microbial-derived metabolites in the context of obesity and type 2 diabetes aimed at improving feline and human health.”



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Fat cats on a diet shed light on human obesity

A recent study suggests that pet cats could serve as...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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