Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Without a doubt, aging is a complex process. It's a journey that each cell in the body undertakes.



Along the way, aging can lead to the development of serious health conditions in humans such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-cellular-aging">The mystery of cellular aging</h2>



Could there be a way to delay the onset of age-related ailments by looking at them from a different perspective? There might be more to the story than meets the eye.



As we age, our cells age too. This means that decoding the mystery of cellular aging could be the ultimate secret to unlocking a longer human lifespan. 



The journey of a scientific team from <a href="https://weill.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weill Cornell Medicine</a> takes us through the complex world of cell aging, specifically focusing on a dense part of the cell nucleus called the nucleolus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-the-nucleolus">The role of the nucleolus</h2>



What is the nucleolus and why is it important?



The nucleolus is a dense, spherical region found in a cell's nucleus. It houses the ribosomal DNA (rDNA), which is a segment of DNA that codes for the core parts of ribosomes. 



Ribosomes are tiny organelles, found inside cells, that help to make proteins. Ribosomal DNA is one of the most vulnerable parts of the genome due to its repetitive composition, which makes it complicated to maintain or repair when damaged.



In the course of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-transfer-longevity-gene-hoping-to-extend-human-lifespan/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lifespan</a>, organisms ranging from yeast to humans undergo an expansion in the size of their nucleoli.



One fascinating observation is that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-anti-aging-drug-interleukin-11-boosts-lifespan-prevents-cancer-gray-hair/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anti-aging</a> strategies, such as consuming fewer calories, result in the presence of smaller nucleoli in cells.



This begs the question - could keeping the nucleolus small be the key to delaying aging?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resetting-the-aging-clock">Resetting the aging clock</h2>



Dr. J. Ignacio Gutierrez and Dr. Jessica Tyler, the study's lead investigators, suggested that deliberately keeping nucleoli small might help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-cells-could-be-used-to-slow-down-or-even-reverse-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">slow down aging</a>.



The experts tested this idea by engineering a method to attach the rDNA to the membrane of yeast cell nuclei. This innovative system gave them the ability to control the size of the nucleolus.



The result? Keeping the nucleolus compact appeared to delay aging to a similar extent as the calorie restriction strategy. 



This discovery hints at the possibility that the nucleolus could indeed play a significant role in manipulating the aging process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-counting-down-the-cellular-lifespan">Counting down: The cellular lifespan</h2>



Another intriguing observation was that nucleoli did not expand at a uniform rate throughout a cell's lifespan. 



Instead, the nucleoli remained small for most of the cell's life until they suddenly began growing rapidly at a specific size threshold. Cells only persisted for an average of about five more divisions after crossing this threshold.



Deterioration and damage to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-bakers-yeast-have-similar-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> occur as part of the aging process. In testing, the research team discovered that the larger nucleoli had less stable rDNA than the smaller ones.



Furthermore, when the nucleolus grew, it started allowing in proteins and other factors that could potentially harm the fragile rDNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aging-insights-from-yeast-to-humans">Aging insights from yeast to humans</h2>



The next step for the researchers is to investigate these fascinating nucleolar effects on aging in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-stem-cells-grown-in-the-lab-for-first-time-ever-leukemia-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human stem cells</a>. 



Unlike most other cells, stem cells hold the unique potential to replace other cell types as they perish. The findings from this project could be key to achieving the goal of prolonging their longevity.



The connection of the nucleolus structure with the DNA repair process in a way that is conserved in all organisms, from yeast to humans, is indeed a breakthrough.



Our cellular clock may tick a bit slower in the future, thanks to this monumental stride in understanding the intricate process of aging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-nucleolus-exploring-aging-pathways">Beyond the nucleolus: Exploring aging pathways</h2>



While the nucleolus presents a compelling target for understanding and potentially slowing aging, it is just one piece of a complex puzzle. 



Aging is influenced by a network of cellular processes, including mitochondrial function, telomere shortening, and epigenetic changes. These processes interact in intricate ways, shaping how cells age and respond to damage over time.



One area of interest lies in the interplay between nucleolar dynamics and other cellular aging pathways. 



For example, recent studies suggest that changes in nucleolar size could influence protein synthesis, energy metabolism, and stress responses - all of which are key factors that affect an organism's lifespan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-aging-process">Understanding the aging process </h2>



By integrating these findings with insights into mitochondrial health and DNA repair mechanisms, scientists aim to develop a more holistic understanding of the aging process.



The researchers from Weill Cornell Medicine are hopeful that combining knowledge of nucleolar manipulation with these broader pathways could unlock new therapeutic strategies. 



These approaches might not only delay the onset of age-related diseases but could also improve overall health and resilience as we grow older.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-024-00754-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a>.



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Cellular "mortality timer" discovered that dictates aging

Without a doubt, aging is a complex process. It's a...

Highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza A virus (HPAI H5N1) remains a low risk to the general public. U.S. public health experts believe available treatments and vaccines, along with those in development, can prevent severe disease. 



Despite this reassurance, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) continues to monitor the virus closely, evaluating potential changes.



In a commentary published in the&nbsp;New England Journal of Medicine, Dr. Jeanne M. Marrazzo and Dr. Michael G. Ison from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) emphasize the importance of balancing vigilance with normalcy regarding HPAI H5N1. 



"People should find a balance between enhanced vigilance and ‘business as usual’ with respect to HPAI H5N1," the experts stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-spread-of-bird-flu-virus">Global spread of bird flu virus</h2>



Since 1996, HPAI H5N1 has circulated across at least 23 countries. By late 2021, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-mutations-found-in-first-severe-u-s-human-case/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">virus</a> spread from Europe to North America, infecting wild birds and poultry farms. 



In 2022, it devastated birds and marine mammals in South America. Alarmingly, in March 2024, U.S. Department of Agriculture (<a href="https://www.usda.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USDA</a>) scientists detected HPAI H5N1 in dairy cows, spreading to herds across 16 states. Over the past 30 days, the virus has been identified in dairy herds in three U.S. states.



Human infections remain rare but concerning. In 2024, 66 confirmed and 7 probable cases were reported in the U.S., along with one case in Canada. 



These cases were linked to two types of the virus - one circulating in birds (D1.1) and another in dairy cows (B3.13).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keys-to-controlling-bird-flu-virus-outbreak">Keys to controlling bird flu virus outbreak</h2>



Drs. <a href="https://www.niaid.nih.gov/about/director" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marrazzo</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=tcA1nDcAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ison</a> outline four essential strategies to manage the current HPAI H5N1 outbreak:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-promote-collaboration-across-disciplines">Promote collaboration across disciplines</h3>



Effective control requires timely collaboration among experts in human and veterinary medicine, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/efforts-to-control-bird-flu-are-not-working-are-humans-next/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">public health</a>, health care, and occupational safety. 



Building trust with communities and ensuring individuals seek care for symptoms, such as conjunctivitis, are equally critical. Fortunately, most U.S. cases have been mild, resolving without treatment.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhance-disease-surveillance">Enhance disease surveillance</h3>



The Canadian HPAI H5N1 patient who developed respiratory failure highlights the urgency of vigilant disease surveillance. Genetic mutations in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-outbreak-in-domestic-cats-raises-new-concerns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">virus</a> found in this patient highlight the need for complete genomic sequencing of viral samples. 



Dr. Marrazzo and Dr. Ison emphasize that this data should be shared quickly to identify and track viral changes, which might signal an increased risk of human-to-human transmission.



"Without information pertaining to where and when isolates were collected, the data cannot be linked phylogenetically to other reported sequences," the authors noted. This early detection helps pinpoint mutations that may enhance the virus’s ability to infect human respiratory systems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advance-medical-countermeasures">Advance medical countermeasures</h3>



Developing and testing vaccines and therapies remain vital. Fortunately, current vaccine candidates effectively neutralize circulating virus strains, and antivirals have shown promise in mitigating transmission and illness severity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-minimizing-bird-flu-virus-exposure">Minimizing bird flu virus exposure</h3>



Reducing contact with the bird flu virus is essential to limit its spread and protect individuals, especially those at higher risk of exposure. 



Workers who handle poultry or cows, such as farmers or animal handlers, are particularly vulnerable because the virus can spread through infected animals or their environments.



To stay safe, these workers should follow guidelines from the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CDC</a> (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) and USDA. This includes wearing personal protective equipment (PPE), such as gloves, masks, and protective clothing, to create a barrier against the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seal-colony-lost-95-of-its-pups-to-bird-flu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">virus</a>.



Additionally, understanding occupational risks is vital. Workers should learn how the virus spreads, recognize potential symptoms of infection, and follow safe handling practices. 



These precautions not only protect individual workers but also help prevent the virus from spreading further, potentially affecting others or reaching broader populations. By taking these steps, the risk of infection can be significantly reduced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-challenges-of-bird-flu">Ongoing challenges of bird flu</h2>



The four strategies outlined by Dr. Marrazzo and Dr. Ison aim to enhance our understanding of the H5N1 virus's spread, evolution, and impact.



By integrating robust collaborations, effective surveillance, medical advancements, and preventive practices, public health experts hope to control the virus and answer key questions about its behavior.



While HPAI H5N1 presents ongoing challenges, the collective effort of scientists, health officials, and communities ensures we remain prepared for any future developments.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMe2416323" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New England Journal of Medicine</a>.



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Bird flu virus: Preparing for tomorrow despite minimal risk today

Highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza A virus (HPAI H5N1) remains...

Ever wondered if what you eat could be the secret to a sharper memory and better cognitive performance? A recent study from Tulane University School of Medicine has given us food for thought. The researchers propose that the brain-boosting benefits of the Mediterranean diet may be linked to changes in our gut's bacterial balance.



The study, published in the journal Gut Microbes Reports, reveals a striking connection between dietary choices, gut bacteria, and brain function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-the-mediterranean-diet">What is the Mediterranean diet?</h2>



The Mediterranean diet draws inspiration from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-may-be-a-fountain-of-youth-for-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traditional cuisines</a> of Mediterranean countries like Greece, Italy, and Spain. It focuses on whole, nutrient-rich foods and prioritizes healthy fats, with olive oil serving as the main source.



The diet includes abundant vegetables, fruits, whole grains, nuts, and seeds, along with lean proteins like fish and seafood, and moderate amounts of poultry, eggs, and dairy. 



Red meat and processed foods are consumed sparingly, while meals are rich in fiber from plant-based sources such as legumes and whole grains. Herbs and spices are used to flavor dishes, reducing the reliance on salt. 



This balanced and varied approach to eating has been linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-a-delicious-way-to-manage-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">numerous health benefits</a>, including improved heart and brain health, reduced inflammation, and a lower risk of chronic diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-diet-influences-the-brain">How diet influences the brain</h2>



The study, led by Dr. Rebecca Solch-Ottaiano, found that the Mediterranean diet alters gut bacteria patterns in ways that boost memory and cognitive skills.



“We’ve known that what we eat affects brain function, but this study explores how that could be happening,” Dr. Solch-Ottaiano explained. “Our findings suggest that dietary choices can influence cognitive performance by reshaping the gut microbiome.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mediterranean-diet-shifts-gut-bacteria">Mediterranean diet shifts gut bacteria</h2>



Using young rats as subjects, the researchers compared the effects of a Mediterranean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-diet-keeps-the-brain-sharp-even-in-old-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diet</a> to a typical Western diet over 14 weeks. 



The Mediterranean diet, rich in olive oil, fish, and fiber, led to significant shifts in gut bacteria. Four types of beneficial bacteria increased, while five types linked to poorer memory declined. 



These shifts in gut bacteria correlated with key cognitive and health improvements in the Mediterranean diet group:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Better memory and learning: The rats performed better on tests designed to measure memory and problem-solving abilities.</li>



<li>Improved cognitive flexibility: They adapted more easily to new information or changes in their environment.</li>



<li>Enhanced working memory: Their ability to retain and use short-term information was stronger.</li>



<li>Lower bad cholesterol: They exhibited reduced levels of LDL cholesterol, which is often linked to poor health outcomes.</li>
</ul>



The study pinpointed specific bacteria - such as higher levels of Candidatus Saccharimonas - that correlated with better cognitive outcomes. Conversely, higher levels of Bifidobacterium were linked to poorer memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-young-brains">Implications for young brains</h2>



This research is the first to examine the Mediterranean diet’s impact on gut microbiota and cognitive function relative to the Western diet in a rodent model. 



By using young rats, equivalent to 18-year-old humans, the study highlights how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ditch-the-diet-trends-for-a-healthier-relationship-with-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dietary choices</a> during critical developmental periods can influence long-term brain health.



“Our findings suggest that the Mediterranean diet or its biological effects could be harnessed to improve scholastic performance in adolescents, or work performance in young adults,” said Dr. Demetrius M. Maraganore. 



“While these findings are based on animal models, they echo human studies linking the Mediterranean diet to improved memory and reduced dementia risk.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-mediterranean-diet">Building a Mediterranean diet</h2>



Adopting a Mediterranean eating pattern involves simple yet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-you-eat-can-literally-change-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impactful changes</a>:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Use olive oil as the primary fat source.</li>



<li>Eat plenty of vegetables, fruits, and whole grains.</li>



<li>Include fish and lean proteins in your meals.</li>



<li>Limit red meat and saturated fats.</li>



<li>Increase fiber intake with diverse plant-based foods.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mediterranean-diet-for-brain-and-gut-health">Mediterranean diet for brain and gut health</h2>



Though these findings are promising, the researchers emphasize the need for larger human studies to confirm the effects. 



Understanding the intricate links between diet, gut bacteria, and brain function could unlock new strategies for enhancing cognitive health.



For now, incorporating Mediterranean diet principles into your meals might be a simple step toward better brain and gut health. As science delves deeper, the promise of harnessing dietary power for cognitive benefits continues to grow.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/29933935.2024.2439490" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gut Microbes Reports</a>.



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Mediterranean diet boosts brain power by altering the gut

Ever wondered if what you eat could be the secret...

Researchers at the Francis Crick Institute have made breakthrough discoveries about human migration patterns across Europe during the first millennium AD.&nbsp;



Using advanced DNA analysis techniques, they traced the movement of populations across the continent, offering new insights into how ancient groups interacted and reshaped the genetic landscape of Europe.&nbsp;



The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08275-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>, highlight a dynamic era of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-first-arrived-in-europe-1-3-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a> and cultural evolution that shaped the foundation of modern European societies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-lens-for-genetic-analysis">A new lens for genetic analysis</h2>



At the heart of the research is Twigstats, a new analytical method that allows scientists to identify subtle genetic differences between populations that are otherwise very similar.&nbsp;



Traditional tools have been effective in studying major population shifts, such as those between hunter-gatherers and early farmers, but they often miss finer-scale changes. 



Twigstats overcomes this limitation, offering a sharper lens to examine the genetic complexities of historical migrations.



Leo Speidel, the study’s first author, emphasized the significance of this innovation. “Twigstats allows us to see what we couldn’t before, in this case migrations all across Europe originating in the north of Europe in the Iron Age, and then back into Scandinavia before the Viking Age.”



By applying this tool to over 1,500 genomes from individuals who lived between the years 1 and 1000 AD, the researchers reconstructed migration patterns spanning key historical periods, including the Iron Age, the fall of the Roman Empire, the early medieval Migration Period, and the Viking Age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-migrations-into-southern-europe-nbsp">Human migrations into Southern Europe&nbsp;</h2>



Historical records from the Roman Empire mention conflicts with Germanic groups beyond its borders. 



The genetic evidence uncovered by Twigstats supports these accounts, revealing waves of migration from Northern Germany and Scandinavia into Southern Europe during the early first millennium.



This migration left its mark on the genetic makeup of regions such as southern Germany, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, and southern Britain.&nbsp;



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/early-human-migration_through-europe_3-waves_credit-Francis-Crick-Institute_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/early-human-migration_through-europe_3-waves_credit-Francis-Crick-Institute_1s.webp" alt="Three waves of migrations across Europe were identified in the paper. Credit: Leo Speidel, The Francis Crick Institute" class="wp-image-1955656"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Three waves of migrations across Europe were identified in the paper. Credit: Leo Speidel, The Francis Crick Institute</figcaption></figure>



In some cases, individuals carried exclusively Scandinavian-like ancestry, indicating significant movement of people from the north.&nbsp;



These findings align with the linguistic evolution of Germanic languages, with one branch remaining in Scandinavia, another becoming extinct, and the third forming the basis of modern German and English.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scandinavian-influence-in-pre-viking-britain">Scandinavian influence in pre-Viking Britain</h2>



An unexpected discovery was the presence of Scandinavian ancestry in Britain centuries before the Viking Age.&nbsp;



The researchers identified a second-to-fourth-century individual from York who exhibited 25% early Iron Age Scandinavian ancestry.&nbsp;



This predates the Anglo-Saxon and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vikings-landed-in-the-americas-500-years-before-columbus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Viking</a> migrations traditionally associated with Scandinavian influence in Britain. The finding highlights the long-standing connections between Scandinavia and the British Isles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-migrations-into-scandinavia">Human migrations into Scandinavia</h2>



The study also uncovered a later migration wave into Scandinavia between 300 and 800 AD, preceding the Viking Age. 



Genetic evidence shows that many individuals from this period carried ancestry from Central Europe. This influx likely reflects sustained population movements rather than isolated events.



On the Swedish island of Öland, individuals with Central European ancestry were found to have grown up locally, based on biomolecular analysis of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-teeth-discovery-highlight-the-evolution-of-the-human-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">teeth</a>. This suggests a lasting integration of migrants into Scandinavian communities.&nbsp;



Archaeological evidence points to periods of conflict in Scandinavia during this time, which may have influenced these movements, though more research is needed to understand the underlying causes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-viking-age-and-genetic-mixing">The Viking Age and genetic mixing</h2>



The Viking Age, known for its raiding and settlement activities, left a significant genetic footprint across Europe. The research confirmed that many individuals in Viking-controlled territories carried mixed local and Scandinavian ancestries.&nbsp;



For example, Viking remains in present-day Ukraine and Russia were linked to Sweden, while those in Britain traced ancestry to Denmark.



Mass graves in Britain containing Viking warriors who died violently further support historical accounts of raiding parties and battles. These findings illustrate the profound impact of Viking expansion on the genetic and cultural landscape of Europe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-richer-understanding-of-human-migrations">A richer understanding of human migrations </h2>



These discoveries add depth to historical narratives of human migration patterns during the first millennium AD.&nbsp;



Peter Heather, co-author and professor of Medieval History at <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">King’s College London</a>, emphasized the significance of Twigstats.&nbsp;



“Historical sources indicate that migration played some role in the massive restructuring of the human landscape of western Eurasia. Twigstats opens up the exciting possibility of finally resolving these crucial questions,” said Professor Heather. 



The study not only validates historical accounts but also offers new perspectives on the scale and trajectories of these migrations.&nbsp;



By integrating genetic data with archaeological and historical records, researchers can build a more comprehensive understanding of how human populations evolved during this transformative period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-research">Implications for future research</h2>



The success of Twigstats marks a turning point in the study of ancient migrations.&nbsp;



“The goal was a data analysis method that would provide a sharper lens for fine-scale genetic history,” said senior author Pontus Skoglund, group leader of the Ancient Genomics Laboratory at the <a href="https://www.crick.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Francis Crick Institute</a>.



The team plans to expand the record of ancient genomes to apply Twigstats to other regions and populations worldwide. This could reveal previously unknown migration patterns and deepen our understanding of how human societies have interacted and adapted over millennia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-intersection-of-genetics-and-history">The intersection of genetics and history</h2>



As researchers continue to refine genetic analysis techniques, studies like this offer valuable insights into the complex interplay of migration, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-sets-human-culture-apart-from-other-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">culture</a>, and genetics.&nbsp;



By tracing the movements of ancient populations, scientists not only uncover the roots of modern societies but also provide a framework for understanding the enduring impact of human mobility on the world today.&nbsp;



The discoveries made possible by Twigstats represent a significant step forward in unraveling the mysteries of human history.



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Ancient DNA reveals human migration patterns in the first millennium AD

Researchers at the Francis Crick Institute have made breakthrough discoveries...

Fast radio bursts (FRBs) are extraordinary, fleeting explosions of radio waves. These signals, often originating from neutron stars or black holes, last for just a millisecond but carry immense energy, briefly surpassing the brightness of entire galaxies. 



Since their first detection in 2007, astronomers have identified thousands of these bursts, originating from distances as vast as 8 billion light-years away. However, their exact sources have remained an enigma.



A breakthrough study by MIT researchers, published in the journal Nature, sheds new light on this cosmic puzzle. 



By examining FRB 20221022A, a signal detected 200 million light-years away, the team pinpointed its origin near a highly magnetized neutron star.



The findings provide the first concrete evidence that some FRBs emerge from the magnetosphere - the chaotic, magnetic region surrounding such stars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-neutron-stars-the-basics">Understanding neutron stars -- the basics</h2>



When a massive star runs out of fuel and goes supernova, the core that’s left behind can collapse into a super-dense ball called a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neutron-star-collisions-push-the-limits-of-extreme-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron star</a>. 



These stars are so dense that a teaspoon of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-jets-cannibals-neutron-stars-explosions-contain-life-elements/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron star</a> material could weigh about as much as Mount Everest. 



What makes them even more fascinating is that they're mostly made up of neutrons - subatomic particles that normally hang out inside the nucleus of atoms. 



The incredible pressure from the collapsing star pushes electrons and protons together to form these neutrons, making the star ridiculously dense and compact.



Neutron stars can spin incredibly fast, sometimes up to several hundred times per second. And they have intense magnetic fields, which can generate beams of radiation that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/garden-sprinkler-s-shaped-jet-found-distant-neutron-star-circinus-x1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shoot out from their poles</a>. 



If one of these beams happens to point toward Earth, we get a glimpse of a phenomenon called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-guitar-nebula-a-pulsars-dazzling-performance-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a pulsar</a>. This makes the neutron star appear to "pulse" as it spins, like a cosmic lighthouse. 



Despite being small in size, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-sun-like-stars-with-secret-companions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron stars</a> pack a punch with their gravitational pull, and they can even warp space-time around them, causing weird effects like time dilation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-twinkle-of-fast-radio-bursts">Decoding the twinkle of fast radio bursts</h2>



To trace the origins of FRB 20221022A, the researchers employed a technique called scintillation. This phenomenon, which is akin to the twinkling of stars, occurs when light from a small, bright source passes through gas, causing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-space-radio-signal-reaches-earth-after-8-billion-years-frb-20220610a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variations in brightness</a>.



The team analyzed the FRB’s brightness fluctuations and discovered that the burst originated from an extremely compact region, no more than 10,000 kilometers wide.



“This means that the FRB is probably within hundreds of thousands of kilometers from the source,” explained study lead author Kenzie Nimmo.



“That’s very close. For comparison, we would expect the signal to be tens of millions of kilometers away if it originated from a shockwave.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-released-from-magnetic-fields">Energy released from magnetic fields</h2>



The team’s analysis revealed that FRB 20221022A likely exploded from a region just 10,000 kilometers away from a neutron star - a distance comparable to the span between New York and Singapore. This proximity strongly suggests that the burst emerged from the neutron star’s magnetosphere.



“In these environments of neutron stars, the magnetic fields are really at the limits of what the universe can produce,” said Nimmo. “There’s been a lot of debate about whether this bright <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farthest-known-fast-radio-burst-traced-to-rare-cluster-of-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radio emission</a> could even escape from that extreme plasma.”



“The exciting thing here is, we find that the energy stored in those magnetic fields, close to the source, is twisting and reconfiguring such that it can be released as radio waves that we can see halfway across the universe,” noted Kiyoshi Masui, an <a href="https://www.mit.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> associate professor of physics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elusive-origins-of-fast-radio-bursts">Elusive origins of fast radio bursts</h2>



The Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment (<a href="https://chime-experiment.ca/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CHIME</a>) has significantly advanced our understanding of FRBs. Since 2020, this unique radio telescope array has detected thousands of bursts. 



However, the origins of these bursts have remained elusive due to competing theories. Some suggest FRBs arise from the turbulent magnetosphere near compact objects, while others propose they originate from far-out shockwaves.



The scintillation analysis by the MIT team rules out the latter possibility for FRB 20221022A. Instead, their findings confirm the burst’s origin within a magnetically chaotic environment, reinforcing the role of neutron stars as central players in producing FRBs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polarization-another-key-insight">Polarization: Another key insight</h2>



In a companion study, researchers from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> observed a highly polarized signal from FRB 20221022A.



This polarization traced a smooth S-shaped curve, reminiscent of signals from pulsars, which are magnetized, rotating neutron stars.



“To see a similar polarization in fast radio bursts was a first,” the McGill team reported. This evidence supported the MIT team’s scintillation-based conclusion that the burst’s origin was in the immediate vicinity of the neutron star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-milestone-in-understanding-fast-radio-bursts">Milestone in understanding fast radio bursts</h2>



The precision of this study is staggering. The team successfully traced the FRB’s origin to a region just 10,000 kilometers wide - a feat akin to measuring the width of a DNA helix from the moon.



“There’s an amazing range of scales involved,” said Masui.



These findings mark a milestone in understanding FRBs. By combining scintillation techniques with CHIME’s vast dataset, scientists can now pinpoint the origins of other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-energy-flash-brighter-than-a-galaxy-traveled-8-billion-light-years-to-reach-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bursts</a> with unprecedented accuracy.



“These bursts are always happening, and CHIME detects several a day,” noted Masui. “There may be a lot of diversity in how and where they occur, and this scintillation technique will be really useful in helping to disentangle the various physics that drive these bursts.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-physics-and-magnetic-fields">Extreme physics and magnetic fields</h2>



The research was made possible by support from numerous institutions, including the <a href="https://www.innovation.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canada Foundation for Innovation</a>, the <a href="https://www.dunlap.utoronto.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dunlap Institute</a> for Astronomy and Astrophysics, and the <a href="https://tsi.mcgill.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trottier Space Institute</a>.



The study’s MIT co-authors, along with collaborators from multiple institutions, have paved the way for deeper insights into the enigmatic world of fast radio bursts.



As scientists continue to unravel these cosmic phenomena, the universe's most brilliant radio <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-radio-burst-traveled-through-space-for-8-billion-years-to-reach-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flares</a> may hold the key to understanding extreme physics and magnetic fields at the edge of what the cosmos can produce.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08297-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Deep space radio waves originated from a surprising source

Fast radio bursts (FRBs) are extraordinary, fleeting explosions of radio...

Our brain is the organ that most distinguishes us from other primates. Its large size, complexity and capabilities exceed those of any other species on our planet. 



However, we share up to 95% of our genome with chimpanzees, our closest living relatives. So how can such closely related species - at the genomic level - exhibit such stark differences in brain function?&nbsp;



It turns out, certain brain cell types may hold the key, according to a study led by Professor Soojin Yi at the <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Santa Barbara</a>. The research was conducted with collaborators at the <a href="https://www.imim.cat/en_index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute in Barcelona</a>.



The findings show that while humans and chimpanzees share many of the same genes, alterations in gene activity may account for distinctive features of the human brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-the-focus-to-gene-expression">Shifting the focus to gene expression</h2>



Researchers have long known that genes serve as a blueprint for an organism, but actual biological processes hinge on how, when, and to what extent these genes are turned on or off.&nbsp;



Scientists quantify this by measuring messenger RNA (mRNA), the molecule that relays a gene’s instructions to cellular machinery.&nbsp;



As they compared the human genome to that of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-feel-the-pressure-to-perform-with-an-audience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a>, scholars once believed the differences resided in the genes themselves.&nbsp;



However, with well over 90% genetic similarity, that explanation alone appeared insufficient. Instead, gene expression - the amount of mRNA produced - seems to be the crucial factor in explaining why the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-human-brain-processes-visual-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human brain</a> diverges so markedly from primate relatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-expression-and-brain-evolution">Gene expression and brain evolution</h2>



There is growing evidence that even tiny alterations in how genes are regulated can lead to significant changes in anatomy and behavior. “Differential gene expression is really how human brains evolved,” Yi said.



The researchers set out to identify precisely which genes in specific types of brain cells might exhibit notable differences in expression among humans, chimpanzees, and other primates.



Until recently, scientists typically studied gene expression by taking tissue samples that contained mixtures of cell types. This approach made it difficult to pinpoint the unique activity patterns within different classes of brain cells.&nbsp;



In the new study, the team tackled this challenge by using modern techniques capable of analyzing single-cell nuclei. By isolating and sequencing the genetic content of individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cells-develop-faster-in-space-than-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain cells</a>, the researchers could categorize them according to cell type before measuring gene expression levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varying-cell-types-among-primates-nbsp">Varying cell types among primates&nbsp;</h2>



This focus on specific cell populations yielded a wealth of detail about how gene activity in individual regions and cell types varies among primates.&nbsp;



Data from humans, chimpanzees, and macaques revealed that many genes exhibit shared expression patterns, but humans often display enhanced expression.&nbsp;



Certain cell types, such as those linked to vital cognitive processes, show particularly strong upregulation in humans when compared to other primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glial-cells-and-brain-expansion">Glial cells and brain expansion</h2>



Neurons attract much of the attention in discussions of the human brain’s capabilities. But the study highlights that glial cells - non-neuronal cells that provide structural support, insulation, and other vital functions - may also play a critical part in distinguishing the human brain from its primate cousins.&nbsp;



Human brains generally have a higher ratio of glial cells to neurons than chimpanzee brains, hinting at how these support cells could contribute to advanced cognitive abilities.



One especially noteworthy subset of glia, known as oligodendrocytes, appears to demonstrate significant differences in gene expression. These cells form myelin sheaths that protect neurons and speed up the transmission of signals.&nbsp;



The researchers discovered that humans maintain a higher proportion of precursor oligodendrocytes than chimpanzees do, a difference that may underlie extended development times and heightened plasticity in the human brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Though the study examined only certain brain regions, its insights suggest that gene expression in additional areas of the brain might also differ substantially among primates.&nbsp;



Yi and her collaborators plan to investigate these questions and delve into the molecular mechanisms that power these evolutionary shifts.&nbsp;



The experts also intend to explore more distantly related species to reconstruct the broader evolutionary history and to assess how archaic humans, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-neanderthals-may-belong-to-the-same-species/">Neanderthals</a> and Denisovans, fit into the narrative.



In the larger context, gene expression research holds promise for explaining how relatively minor genomic differences yield large functional disparities. It shows that evolution can occur via subtle adjustments in the regulation of existing genes rather than the wholesale creation of new genes.&nbsp;



By refining our understanding of these regulatory networks in the brain, scientists are one step closer to explaining how humans achieved their exceptional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/video-games-do-not-harm-childrens-cognitive-abilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive abilities</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2411918121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>,



Image Credit: Matt Perko



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From genes to genius: What makes the human brain unique?

Our brain is the organ that most distinguishes us from...

Hula hooping, often considered a playful pastime, raises intriguing scientific questions. What keeps a hula hoop up against gravity? Are some body types better for hula hooping than others?”



A team of mathematicians from New York University (NYU) sought answers to these questions, and uncovered findings that extend beyond hula hooping to potential engineering applications.



The study, published in the&nbsp;Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, is the first to investigate the physics and mathematics of hula hooping.



Study senior author Leif Ristroph is an associate professor at NYU’s Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences.



“We were specifically interested in what kinds of body motions and shapes could successfully hold the hoop up and what physical requirements and restrictions are involved,” explained Ristroph.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-physics-of-hula-hooping">Testing the physics of hula hooping</h2>



To investigate, the researchers created miniature robotic hula hoopers at <a href="https://math.nyu.edu/aml/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NYU’s Applied Mathematics Laboratory</a>. 



Using 3D-printed shapes representing human forms - such as cylinders, cones, and hourglass shapes - the team tested gyrating motions that were powered by motors.



These shapes were scaled to one-tenth human size, and hoops of about six inches in diameter were set into motion. High-speed video captured the dynamics of the hoop movements.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="OCk5PM2663-4185363-12187" type="single"]</div>



The experiments revealed surprising results. The specific gyration motion or the body’s cross-sectional shape (e.g., circular or elliptical) didn’t significantly impact the hoop’s ability to twirl. 



“In all cases, good twirling motions of the hoop <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-can-bend-way-more-than-your-brain-lets-you-believe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">around the body</a> could be set up without any special effort,” Ristroph explained.



However, maintaining the hula hoop’s elevation against gravity required specific body features. A sloping surface, akin to hips, helped push the hoop upward, while a curvy waist provided stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-some-excel-at-hula-hooping">Why some excel at hula hooping</h2>



The findings shed light on why some individuals naturally excel at hula hooping while others struggle. 



“People come in many different body types - some who have these slope and curvature traits in their hips and waist and some who don’t,” noted Ristroph. “Our results might explain why some people are natural hoopers and others seem to have to work extra hard.”



This insight ties body mechanics to hula hooping ability, and offers a mathematical explanation for what many have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-perception-we-see-the-world-based-on-what-we-expect-to-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">observed anecdotally</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-applications-of-the-research">Practical applications of the research</h2>



The study went beyond analyzing the mechanics of hula hooping by creating mathematical models that captured the dynamics of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-in-a-pill-is-now-closer-to-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>. 



These models provided formulas to explain how motion, body shape, and forces interact to keep the hoop in motion. While they were developed to understand hula hooping, these equations have practical applications in other fields, particularly in engineering and industrial design.



“We were surprised that an activity as popular, fun, and healthy as hula hooping wasn’t understood even at a basic physics level,” said Ristroph. 



“As we made progress on the research, we realized that the math and physics involved are very subtle, and the knowledge gained could be useful in inspiring engineering innovations, harvesting energy from vibrations, and improving in robotic positioners and movers used in industrial processing and manufacturing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-hula-hoops-to-high-tech">From hula hoops to high-tech</h2>



The study initially aimed to explore the seemingly straightforward mechanics of hula hooping. However, it uncovered principles that have significant applications beyond the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sitting-too-much-can-cause-premature-aging-even-if-you-exercise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a> itself. 



By analyzing how energy transfers and movements keep the hoop in motion, researchers identified ways to harness similar energy from vibrations. These insights could optimize energy usage in various devices.



Moreover, the findings offer potential improvements in robotic designs, particularly in enhancing the precision and efficiency of robotic movers and positioners used in manufacturing and industrial processes. This means that understanding hula hooping could help develop more effective machines and systems.



In essence, the research shows how studying a playful activity like hula hooping can lead to advances in science and technology. It demonstrates how fundamental physics can drive innovative solutions in unexpected areas, and bridge the gap between recreation and engineering progress.



The research was a collaborative effort by Ristroph, NYU doctoral student Olivia Pomerenk, and former undergraduate student Xintong Zhu.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2411588121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Video Credit: NYU’s Applied Mathematics Lab



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How hula hooping inspires robotics and energy efficiency

Hula hooping, often considered a playful pastime, raises intriguing scientific...

The COVID-19 pandemic drastically altered the world. Masks, lockdowns, travel bans, and public health mandates became the norm in 2020, as virus cases surged.



The World Health Organization estimates that over three million lives were lost to the virus in its first year alone, marking a profound impact on health systems and economies worldwide.



Now, half a decade later, researchers continue to explore how we can better prepare for future respiratory diseases. 



A study from the <a href="https://www.surrey.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Surrey</a>, led by Dr. Richard Sear, sheds light on the effectiveness of combined public health measures in mitigating airborne viral transmission.



These findings offer valuable insights for managing not just future pandemics but also seasonal illnesses like flu and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-viruses-the-basics">Understanding viruses -- the basics</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-use-gps-to-move-precisely-within-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Viruses are tiny invaders</a> that can wreak havoc on all living organisms. They’re not alive in the traditional sense because they can't function on their own. 



Instead, they hijack the machinery of living cells to make copies of themselves. Think of them as little hackers. 



Once they break into a cell, they insert their genetic material, tricking the cell into making more viruses. This process can damage the host, sometimes causing illness or disease in the process.



What’s wild is how viruses evolve. They’re masters of survival, constantly mutating to adapt and outsmart our immune systems. 



Some viruses, like the common cold or the flu, come and go with seasons, while others, like HIV or COVID-19, have made a much longer-lasting impact. 



Despite all their troublemaking, viruses can also play a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-on-arctic-ice-may-help-fight-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crucial role in ecosystems</a>, sometimes even helping in processes like gene transfer or controlling the population of other microorganisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fighting-viral-transmission">Fighting viral transmission</h2>



Dr. Sear, an associate professor at Surrey’s School of Mathematics and Physics, examined how COVID-19 spreads through airborne transmission.



His work combined data modeling with information from the UK’s NHS COVID-19 app to evaluate the effectiveness of strategies like mask-wearing and improved ventilation.



“I’ve tried to measure how effective strategies, such as mask-wearing, are for the transmission of airborne viruses. This is both for any future pandemic, and for seasonal flu,“ said Dr. Sear.



“I combined modeling with data from the UK’s NHS COVID-19 app. While these estimates are highly approximate, they provide guidance on the value of measures such as face masks, social distancing and improved indoor air quality, which could be tested in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-quality-face-masks">High quality face masks</h2>



Among the protective measures studied, high-quality face masks stood out as particularly effective. Masks like N95/FFP2 reduced the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/virus-lifespan-and-transmission-boosted-by-high-co2-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19 transmission</a> rate by approximately ninefold when worn universally. 



Even when used individually, these masks cut transmission risk by threefold, regardless of the contact duration. However, surgical and cloth masks were found to be much less effective by comparison.



The study highlights the importance of prioritizing high-quality masks in future public health strategies, not just for pandemics but also for managing seasonal respiratory illnesses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-indoor-ventilation-a-key-strategy">Improving indoor ventilation: A key strategy</h2>



Beyond high-quality masks, ventilation plays a crucial role in reducing virus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-use-gps-to-move-precisely-within-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transmission</a>. Viral particles tend to accumulate in poorly ventilated spaces, especially during close-contact interactions, speaking, or coughing. 



Dr. Sear’s study found that doubling indoor air turnover rates - whether through open windows, increased airflow from air conditioning systems, or improved mechanical ventilation - can lower transmission risk by as much as 30%.



Coupling better ventilation with physical distancing further enhances protection, creating a multi-layered approach to airborne transmission prevention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-and-behavioral-factors">Environmental and behavioral factors</h2>



The variability in COVID-19 transmission rates can be influenced by multiple factors, including viral load, individual susceptibility, and environmental conditions. 



Some contacts pose a significantly higher risk than others, emphasizing the need for public health strategies that address both environmental and behavioral aspects.



“The COVID-19 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-covid-19-virus-travels-deep-inside-our-lungs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pandemic</a> was terrible for many of us, which is why it’s important that we learn from our experiences. It also demonstrated how quickly we can develop and roll out vaccines when faced with a global health crisis,“ noted Dr. Sear.



“Moving forward, both we as individuals and our leaders have an opportunity to apply these lessons to better control respiratory diseases - not only to head off any future pandemics, but to also manage seasonal diseases such as flu and RSV.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-to-reduce-viral-transmission">Strategies to reduce viral transmission </h2>



The lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic highlight the value of preventive measures in controlling airborne diseases. 



Investing in high-quality masks, improving indoor air quality, and promoting behavioral changes like distancing and masking during outbreaks can significantly reduce viral transmission risks. 



These strategies will not only help in preventing future pandemics but also improve management of seasonal respiratory illnesses.



By understanding and applying these findings, society can better protect itself from the health and economic impacts of airborne <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-infection-equips-the-body-to-fight-off-the-flu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diseases</a>. 



As Dr. Sear’s study demonstrates, simple yet effective measures like wearing N95 masks and enhancing ventilation can make a substantial difference in reducing virus transmission and saving lives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/pre/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevE.110.064302" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review E</a>.



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Preparing for the next pandemic: What scientists are doing to keep us safe

The COVID-19 pandemic drastically altered the world. Masks, lockdowns, travel...

Researchers at the University of Iowa have called for a universal practice of surveying patients about their physical activity levels. The proposal is based on findings that highlight a powerful relationship between regular exercise and a lower risk of chronic diseases. 



The study, led by Lucas Carr, an associate professor in the Department of Health and Human Physiology, focused on more than 7,000 patients at the <a href="https://uihc.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Iowa Health Care Medical Center</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-activity-and-chronic-disease">Physical activity and chronic disease</h2>



The research team compared self-reported <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/any-type-of-physical-activity-can-help-protect-the-brain/">physical activity</a> data with medical records. They found a significant connection between higher levels of physical activity and better health outcomes.&nbsp;



Moderate to vigorous exercise for at least 150 minutes a week was linked to a reduced risk of developing 19 chronic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fasting-helps-the-body-fight-inflammation-and-chronic-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">illnesses</a>. These included cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease, diabetes, and various forms of cancer.



Those who reported doing little or no exercise were more prone to develop these chronic diseases, emphasizing the pressing need to address inactivity among patients. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-activity-surveys-and-exercise-prescriptions-nbsp">Physical activity surveys and exercise prescriptions&nbsp;</h2>



Drawing on these results, the Iowa researchers suggest that health care systems should incorporate physical activity surveys into patient visits and offer relevant health and wellness services to those at greatest risk.



“In our health care environment, there's no easy pathway for a doctor to be reimbursed for helping patients become more physically active,” said Professor Carr. 



“And so, for these patients, many of whom report insufficient activity, we need options to easily connect them with supportive services like exercise prescriptions and/or community health specialists.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lowering-the-risk-of-chronic-diseases-nbsp">Lowering the risk of chronic diseases&nbsp;</h2>



This study originated from a desire to better understand how physical activity might affect overall health outcomes.&nbsp;



Collaborating with Dr. Britt Marcussen, a family medicine physician at UI Health Care, Professor Carr introduced a physical activity questionnaire for patients visiting for annual wellness exams. 



Between November 2017 and December 2022, individuals answered two simple questions: how many days per week they performed moderate to vigorous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-in-a-pill-is-now-closer-to-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exercise</a>, and how many minutes in total they exercised at that intensity.



Data from more than 7,000 participants showed a significant gap between people who met the recommended thresholds for weekly exercise and those who were mostly sedentary.&nbsp;



The group of patients who exercised 150 minutes or more per week appeared to be at notably lower risk for the range of chronic illnesses examined. Meanwhile, those reporting limited or no exercise had a higher propensity to develop these diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-about-the-study-population">Observations about the study population</h2>



In addition to analyzing participants who took the survey, the research team also considered a group of 33,000 patients who did not receive the questionnaire.&nbsp;



The investigators found that those who responded to the survey tended to be younger and healthier than the non-responders, potentially reflecting a tendency for individuals who attend annual wellness exams to be more engaged in healthy behaviors overall.



Still, the central takeaway remains that reported physical activity levels correlated closely with the presence or absence of various chronic diseases, validating the essential role of regular exercise in promoting long-term health and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-the-critical-role-of-nature-in-human-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">well-being</a>.



“We believe this finding is a result of those patients who take the time to come in for annual wellness exams also are taking more time to engage in healthy behaviors, such as being physically active,” Carr said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-promoting-physical-activity-in-medical-settings">Promoting physical activity in medical settings</h2>



Identifying patients who are largely sedentary is just one step, according to the researchers. They also propose that health care systems implement practical methods to help these individuals become more active, such as referrals to exercise programs, community health resources, or professional exercise prescriptions.&nbsp;



The experts point to a lack of structured pathways for physicians to be reimbursed for providing exercise guidance, which hinders widespread adoption of this type of support.



In a related investigation, published in the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39657641/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Physical Activity and Health</a>, Carr’s team discovered that insurance providers reimbursed almost 95 percent of claims for exercise counseling when health care providers billed for it.&nbsp;



“Our findings suggest the recommended physical activity billing codes are reimbursed at a high rate when providers submit them for reimbursement, which reinforces the idea to make physical activity surveys and counseling services available,” explained Professor Carr.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-toward-a-healthier-future">Moving toward a healthier future</h2>



This series of studies underscores the value of easily administered questionnaires for identifying patients who may be at elevated risk of chronic diseases, as well as the importance of follow-up measures that connect sedentary individuals with services to help them become more active.&nbsp;



The results are consistent with a broader body of evidence linking regular physical activity with reduced risks of many major health conditions.



By advocating for a simple, rapid, two-question survey, the researchers at the University of Iowa demonstrate how such a tool can fit seamlessly into routine medical appointments without overburdening patients or clinicians.&nbsp;



They believe this approach provides not only valuable data on patient health but also a means to intervene and lessen the impact of chronic conditions.



The authors argue that widespread integration of physical activity questions in clinical settings could bring noticeable public health benefits, particularly if paired with robust exercise counseling and resources for those who need it.&nbsp;



With the knowledge that insurance often reimburses exercise counseling, physicians and hospital administrators may find it easier to build these options into patient care, helping fight the epidemic of chronic disease and fostering healthier lifestyles overall.



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Fitness-focused medicine: Physical activity reduces chronic disease risk

Researchers at the University of Iowa have called for a...

A new study led by Pennsylvania State University has found that when deciding when they will get their next meal, different bee species may be attracted to different flower traits.&nbsp;



This finding, based on research with two species of solitary bees, highlights the intriguing ways bees select the flowers they visit.&nbsp;



The study illuminates the importance of floral traits such as number of blooms and nutritional content, expanding our understanding of plant–pollinator interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-species-with-distinct-priorities">Bee species with distinct priorities</h2>



The research focused on two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-threatens-solitary-bees-and-global-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solitary bee species</a>: the horned-face bee - known for pollinating apples and blueberries - and the alfalfa leafcutting bee, which pollinates alfalfa.&nbsp;



The scientists discovered that while the horned-face bee gravitated toward plants displaying a large quantity of flowers, the alfalfa leafcutting bee instead preferred blooms with a higher protein-to-lipid ratio in the pollen.



“Information on the foraging strategies of different bee species give insights for understanding how plant-pollinator interactions evolved,” said lead author Jaya Sravanthi Mokkapati, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>.&nbsp;



“Our study also highlights the need for more research on seasonal foraging habits among various bee species, which can deepen our understanding of their vital role in pollination and plant reproduction.”



This pronounced difference in focus - quantity for one species and nutritional quality for the other - demonstrates that even closely related insects can exhibit divergent foraging behaviors.&nbsp;



These variations matter for both ecological balance and practical considerations, such as when and how to restore pollinator habitats or ensure crop pollination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co-evolution-of-plants-and-pollinators">Co-evolution of plants and pollinators</h2>



Pollinators like bees and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-of-life-created-for-flowering-plants-using-400-million-specimens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flowering plants</a> have co-evolved over thousands of years, forming a symbiotic relationship. As bees gather nectar and pollen for sustenance, they assist in plant reproduction, transferring pollen between flowers.&nbsp;



Crops ranging from fruits to vegetables and nuts depend on this process, which is essential for producing much of the human food supply. However, many pollinator populations are declining, partly due to the loss of the flowering plants they rely on.



“Bees can be attracted to plants based on a number of traits, such as the color, scent, size, number and nutritional content of its flowers,” said&nbsp; co-author Christina Grozinger, a professor of Entomology at Penn State.&nbsp;



“However, because these traits are co-evolved in flowers, it can also be very challenging to pinpoint which traits are the ones attracting which bees.”



By analyzing these evolved plant traits, researchers can better grasp how bees make their foraging decisions and, in turn, how best to support pollinator populations in decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choosing-flowers-for-quality">Choosing flowers for quality</h2>



The research team examined two solitary bee species precisely because of their distinct ecological niches.&nbsp;



The horned-face bee is active during the spring, a season marked by fewer resources and shorter bloom windows. The alfalfa leafcutting bee, on the other hand, emerges in summer, a time abundant in floral options.



“In contrast, the alfalfa leafcutting bee is a summer species that typically has access to more abundant resources,” Mokkapati said. “We hypothesized that these bees can afford to be more selective, choosing flowers based on nutritional quality instead of quantity.”



By observing how these bees visited plants, the scientists were able to pinpoint the different variables each species valued in its foraging. This approach included analyzing pollen content as well as recording the sheer number of flowers on each plant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-bee-conservation">Implications for bee conservation</h2>



According to the researchers, the results of this study have important implications for restoring and managing habitats for pollinators.&nbsp;



Landscapes might need to include plant varieties that offer either numerous flowers for bees that seek quantity or high-quality pollen for species focusing on nutritional benefits.&nbsp;



Ensuring these resources are available throughout the growing season could reinforce bee populations, enhance biodiversity, and bolster pollination services for agriculture.



“By raising awareness of how these gardens can provide essential resources for bees, we can inspire community involvement and commitment to preserving local biodiversity,” Mokkapati said.&nbsp;



“This collective effort not only benefits the bees but also enhances the beauty and ecological health of our surroundings.”



The researchers note that many pollinator populations require immediate interventions and that these strategies could help sustain not only <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honey bees</a> (often the focus of public concern) but also lesser-known solitary bees like the horned-face and alfalfa leafcutting bees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



While the study reveals how these two bee species differ in their foraging strategies, the authors suggest deeper investigation is needed to uncover the reasons behind such variations.&nbsp;



Scientists aim to explore whether differences in sensory perception, genetic factors, or life history strategies inform why one bee species chooses to prioritize floral abundance while another looks for a certain balance of proteins and lipids in pollen.



By diving more deeply into these aspects, future research may shed light on how bees adapt to various environmental conditions. It could also identify potential vulnerabilities if, for example, climate change alters the availability or quality of their preferred flowers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ensuring-bee-health-and-biodiversity">Ensuring bee health and biodiversity</h2>



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> remain fundamental to global food security and ecosystem functioning, understanding these nuanced foraging preferences is critical.&nbsp;



The study emphasizes that it is not solely honey bees that matter - solitary bees and other pollinators have their own crucial roles.&nbsp;



Encouraging and facilitating plant diversity, offering both abundant blooms and nutrient-rich pollen sources, may prove key to preserving these vital insects for the benefit of ecosystems and agricultural communities alike.



In the broader context, this work illustrates how the interplay between plant traits and bee behaviors can shape pollinator communities.&nbsp;



By harnessing this understanding for conservation practices, we can cultivate healthier environments for bees and, in turn, sustain the pollination services that underpin so much of our food supply and natural heritage.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae443" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Some bees value quality over quantity in flower selection

A new study led by Pennsylvania State University has found...

A new type of parasitic crustacean has been reported in Taiwanese waters. It has a curious method of survival and prefers to live on black coral, pointing to how nature sometimes stuns us with hidden relationships beneath the ocean’s surface. The animal, named <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31579171/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Synagoga arabesque sp. nov.</a>, was found on black coral in the waters near Green Island, Taiwan. Scientists spotted twelve specimens from shallow spots that were reachable with scuba gear. 



It is the fourth known species in the Synagoga group and the second species identified in the western Pacific, illustrating how much we still have to learn about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-parasites-are-vulnerable-to-warming-oceans/">parasitic life in the sea</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-corals-and-parasites">Black corals and parasites</h2>



Mentioning that this newcomer is parasitic on black coral might raise a few eyebrows, especially when most folks think of black coral as a slow-growing and <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/ecosystems/coral-reefs/black-corals-deep" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hardy invertebrate</a> famous for its dark skeleton.



The co-authors behind this discovery say the use of modern imaging technology, known as scanning electron microscopy, gave them a closer look at this species than ever before. 



According to ZooKeys, the study marks the second time this specialized imaging technique has been used to analyze these crustaceans, an approach that allowed for clearer images of the outer structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-traits-and-unusual-hosts">Rare traits and unusual hosts</h2>



This new species interacts with its black coral host as an external parasite, a rarity within this genus. Many members of this group are known to float among other plankton, with few clinging directly to a host.&nbsp;



The presence of an ectoparasitic crustacean on black coral broadens our views of parasitic strategies in the sea, and suggests that unusual connections between creatures may be more common than once believed.



<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gregory-Kolbasov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Gregory A. Kolbasov</a>, marine biologist at <a href="https://msu.ru/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moscow State University</a>, credits this find as an important piece of a broader puzzle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insight-from-microscopic-details">Insight from microscopic details</h2>



Morphological analysis played a huge part in distinguishing S. arabesque from related species. By zeroing in on aspects such as body shape and appendage arrangement, researchers noted characteristics shared with <a href="https://colab.ws/articles/10.1007%2Fs12526-018-0892-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">S. grygieri </a>from the Atlantic.&nbsp;



The similarity could point to a shared common ancestor from when an ancient waterway connected the Atlantic and the Indo-Pacific. 



This notion draws attention to how ocean geography influences species distribution over millions of years.



The new species fills a gap in the catalog of ascothoracidan crustaceans, and gives insight into how these animals adapt to life on corals. 



Researchers collected both male and female forms, adding to knowledge on how sexes differ in appearance and behavior.



“Identifying new species like Synagoga arabesque underscores the rich and largely unexplored diversity of marine life in the Indo-Pacific region,” stated <a href="https://ir.sinica.edu.tw/cris/rp/rp01340" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Benny K. K. Chan</a>, researcher at <a href="https://www.sinica.edu.tw/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Academia Sinica</a> in Taiwan.



His perspective hints at the possibility of encountering more fascinating creatures hiding among corals, rocks, and underwater terrains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-coral-s-mystique">Black coral’s mystique</h2>



Black coral (<a href="https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&amp;id=290434" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Myriopathes cf. japonica</a>) is a notable host for these crustaceans. Known for its flexible skeleton that’s dark in appearance, black coral occurs in many oceans, often in deeper zones. 



Its surfaces support a variety of organisms, from fishes to invertebrates, with each attaching or seeking shelter in different ways. 



Spotting S. arabesque on these corals draws attention to the quieter side of marine life, where slow movements and long growth cycles shape delicate ecological relationships.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-and-geography">Evolution and geography</h2>



Looking at S. arabesque reveals a possible link to a broader family tree that traces back to an era known as the Tethys period. 



In prehistoric times, the Tethys Sea served as a major marine corridor, between the Atlantic and the Indo-Pacific, that allowed species to spread far and wide. 



Modern-day examples, like S. arabesque, may be remnants of that ancient route. This ties together geology and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-ocean-dna-study-uncovers-mysteries-of-marine-life/">marine biology</a>, and reminds us that Earth’s physical layout shapes how life evolves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



With only a few species in the Synagoga group on record, researchers see each new finding as a jigsaw piece that helps us grasp how parasitic crustaceans make a living. 



The freshly documented S. arabesque raises questions about how many more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/highly-unusual-bacteria-discovered-in-deep-sea-corals/">undiscovered parasitic species</a> exist in the Indo-Pacific and elsewhere. 



It also prompts a reexamination of black coral biodiversity and the range of microscopic life forms that cling to the surfaces of these corals. 



Continued exploration, especially using advanced imaging techniques, is likely to bring additional revelations about the hidden wonders in our seas.



The research study was published in the journal <a href="https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/35443/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ZooKeys</a>.



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Scientists discover rare marine parasite that inhabits black corals

A new type of parasitic crustacean has been reported in...

Invasive species pose a significant challenge to ecosystems and agriculture, often spreading unnoticed until they have caused considerable damage. Conservationists and growers now have an unusual new ally in the fight against the invasive spotted lanternfly - trained dogs.



A recent study published in the journal Ecosphere highlights how these detection dogs outperform humans in identifying lanternfly egg masses in challenging environments, offering a novel strategy to curb the pest’s spread.



"Preventing the introduction of invasive species is championed as the most cost-effective and efficient strategy for avoiding negative impacts on systems," noted the researchers.



"However, once a species has been introduced, the next best option is to detect the population and eliminate it before it becomes established and spreads more widely across the landscape."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spotted-lanternfly-infestations">Spotted lanternfly infestations </h2>



First detected in Pennsylvania in 2014, the spotted lanternfly has now infested 19 states, including New York. This invasive insect feeds on woody plants like grapes, apples, hops, and various trees, causing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">widespread destruction</a>.



“A spotted lanternfly infestation in a vineyard can cause 80% to 100% mortality of the vines in one growing season,” said study co-author Angela Fuller, a professor in Cornell’s Department of <a href="https://cals.cornell.edu/natural-resources-environment" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural Resources and the Environment</a>.



Fuller also noted the financial burden of infestations. “Infestations also increase the amount of insecticide that growers need to use, which can increase costs by up to 170% in a growing season.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-training-dogs-for-invasive-species-detection">Training dogs for invasive species detection</h2>



In collaboration with the <a href="https://www.nynjtc.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York-New Jersey Trail Conference</a> and <a href="https://wd4c.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Working Dogs for Conservation</a>, researchers trained a Labrador retriever and a Belgian malinois to sniff out the lanternfly’s egg masses.



These organizations have previously trained dogs to detect invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-have-become-one-of-the-worlds-most-invasive-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> and pathogens, making them well-equipped for this task.



The study compared the efficiency of human and canine detection in 20 vineyards across Pennsylvania and New Jersey. 



The researchers mapped transects in vineyard rows and adjacent forests, where egg masses are likely to overwinter. Humans and dogs surveyed the areas on separate days to prevent cross-contamination of scents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-outperform-humans-in-forests">Dogs outperform humans in forests</h2>



While humans excelled in detecting invasive egg masses in vineyards, dogs proved superior in forested areas. In vineyards, humans detected 1.8 times more egg masses than dogs, finding 31 egg masses per hour compared to the dogs’ 24. 



Fuller attributed this to humans’ ability to systematically search vines and poles, whereas dogs relied on scent and conducted more random searches. In forests, however, dogs excelled, finding 3.4 times more egg masses than humans. 



“The dogs find egg masses by smell,” Fuller explained. “In a very <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unseen-crisis-37000-alien-species-have-been-introduced-by-human-activities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex environment</a>, it’s easier for a dog to smell something than it is for a human to see something that is small and cryptic.” 



Dogs located 7.6 egg masses per hour in forests compared to humans’ 6.7 per hour.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-invasive-species-detection">Importance of invasive species detection</h2>



The study emphasizes the importance of early detection in managing the lanternfly’s spread. Dogs performed exceptionally well in areas with low egg mass densities, making them invaluable for rapid response efforts. 



Fuller noted that while dogs take more time to search than humans, the added time is worth it. 



“The extra time that dogs take to find them is not as important as it is to find them in the first place, because you need to detect the egg masses in order to eradicate them,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-lanternfly-behavior">Insights into lanternfly behavior</h2>



Using computer modeling, the researchers identified patterns in lanternfly egg mass distribution. They found higher occupancy rates in vineyards than forests, particularly on metal poles. 



Vineyards near forests had higher lanternfly populations, likely because the insects don’t disperse far and often migrate from nearby trees.



“If you’re searching in a vineyard close to the forest, that’s more likely where they’re going to be,” Fuller said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-combating-invasive-species-with-dogs">Combating invasive species with dogs </h2>



This innovative approach offers hope for combating invasive species like the spotted lanternfly. 



By combining human surveys with trained detection dogs, growers and conservationists can strengthen their defense against this destructive pest.



The integration of canine detection into pest management strategies represents a significant step forward in protecting vital ecosystems and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/non-native-species-are-spreading-at-an-exponential-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agricultural resources</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecs2.70113" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecosphere</a>.



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Trained dogs can sniff out invasive pests in forests

Invasive species pose a significant challenge to ecosystems and agriculture,...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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