Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A new dawn, a fresh perspective, and a revolution in scientific research. That’s what a team of dedicated experts at Newcastle University are bringing to the world of marine biology and coral conservation. 



The researchers have made an exhilarating breakthrough in selective breeding to combat the devastating effects of climate change on coral reefs. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breeding-corals-for-survival">Breeding corals for survival</h2>



The experts have achieved the world's first successful selective breeding of adult corals for enhanced heat tolerance.



The team adjusted the thermostat on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-corals-can-survive-high-ocean-heat-which-could-save-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corals</a>' survival, proving that our marine buddies can acclimatize better to harsh heatwaves, albeit in modest amounts.



However, the researchers emphasize that this victory isn't a one-size-fits-all solution to wiping out the impacts of future marine heatwaves under climate change.



It's a startling wake-up call that we need to slam the brakes on global greenhouse gas emissions. As this research confirms, these harmful emissions are the real villains putting corals on thin ice - or rather, in hot water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maximizing-breeding-outcomes">Maximizing breeding outcomes</h2>



The research is the culmination of a five-year collaboration between the <a href="https://www.uvic.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Victoria</a>, Horniman Museum and Gardens, Palau International Coral Reef Center, <a href="https://www.derby.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Derby</a>, and the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>.



With funding from the European Research Council, the study was led by Dr. James Guest, an expert in coral reef ecology at Newcastle University’s School of Natural and Environmental Sciences.



“This work shows that selective breeding is feasible but not a silver bullet solution and that more research is needed to maximize breeding outcomes," said study lead author, Liam Lachs, a postdoctoral research associate at <a href="https://www.ncl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Newcastle University</a>.



“In parallel, rapid reductions of global greenhouse gas emissions are an absolute requirement to mitigate warming and give corals an opportunity to adapt."



Dr. Guest emphasized the challenges that lie ahead - from balancing the needs of wild populations to avoiding dilution of selected traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-breeding-trials">Coral breeding trials</h2>



Going back in time, we find that selective breeding was a strategy adopted by humans thousands of years ago to coax desired characteristics out of animals and plants. Today, it’s playing a pivotal role in saving our precious coral reefs from the wrath of climate change and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-corals-can-help-them-recover-from-heat-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine heatwaves</a>.



The team carried out breeding trials targeting two distinct traits. One focused on tolerance to short, intense heat exposure while the other dealt with a less intense but long-term heatwave exposure.



Both trials showed promise as parent colonies selected for high heat tolerance passed this trait to their offspring, thus offering a glimmer of hope for future generations of corals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



Despite the promising results, the journey is not yet complete. The team discovered no evidence that breeding for short-stress tolerance boosted the offspring's ability to survive long-term heat stress exposure.



This conundrum, coupled with the lack of a genetic correlation, implies that each trait might be independently controlled genetically - a puzzle piece that needs more exploration.



Study lead author Dr. Adriana Humanes highlighted the road ahead, stating that we still have a long way to go before selective breeding can be successfully implemented.



"Considerable work remains before selective breeding can be successfully implemented. A deeper understanding is needed to determine which traits to prioritize and how these traits are genetically correlated,” said Dr. Humanes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selective-coral-breeding-is-achievable">Selective coral breeding is achievable </h2>



So, where does this leave us? Undoubtedly, the excitement behind breeding of coral reefs is justifiable. This study takes us one step closer towards securing a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/60-percent-global-coral-reefs-face-bleaching-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">future for coral reefs</a>. 



The work confirms that selective breeding for adult heatwave survival is achievable. However, the researchers are quick to point out there's still a long journey ahead. 



The experts are rallying the troops, asking the global community to invest more in research and development to understand how to effectively implement breeding interventions.



The mission is clear - we must limit levels of global warming, which is achievable through urgent climate action.



After all, in the fight against climate change, every contribution counts - every study, every intervention, and every degree of heat that we manage to prevent.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-52895-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Can we save coral reefs with selective breeding?

A new dawn, a fresh perspective, and a revolution in...

For as long as we can remember, a coin toss has been the go-to method for settling disputes, making decisions, or even determining the winner of sports events. 



It's considered a classic example of randomness -- a true 50/50 outcome where heads or tails each have an equal shot. 



But according to a recent study, it might be time to reconsider how random that toss actually is. It turns out, the side facing up before the toss might have a slight advantage.



The study, led by František Bartoš, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Amsterdam</a>, challenges our traditional view of coin tosses as pure chance. 



According to his team's findings, there's a small but measurable "same-side bias." 



Essentially, the coin is slightly more likely to land on the same side that was facing up before the toss. So, if you start with heads, there's a slightly better chance you'll end up with heads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-same-side-bias-explained">"Same-side bias" explained</h2>



For years, we've accepted the idea that a coin toss represents <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-circuit-strength-predicts-math-learning-ability-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">true randomness</a>. But Bartoš and his team set out to test that assumption. 



Their research, which builds on a physics model proposed in 2007 by Persi Diaconis, Susan Holmes, and Richard Montgomery, shows that the side facing up before the toss can influence the result. 



The researchers call this phenomenon the "same-side bias."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-physics-influences-coin-tossing">How physics influences coin tossing</h2>



The research team analyzed the mechanics of coin tossing and found that the way we flip a coin isn't as random as it seems. 



Their model showed that when people toss a coin naturally, the force and spin they apply tend to favor the coin landing on the same side that started face up.



The 2007 model, now known as the D-H-M model, explained that the bias stems from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/manipulating-quantum-dance-of-spinning-electrons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">angular momentum</a> of the coin during the flip. 



Essentially, the coin's spin makes it more likely to return to its starting position. The chance of this happening was estimated at about 51% -- a number eerily close to the 50.8% result found by Bartoš's team in their recent study.



That's not a huge difference, but it's enough to challenge the idea of a coin toss being a purely random event.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-over-350-000-coin-flips">Over 350,000 coin flips</h2>



To test their hypothesis, Bartoš and his team conducted a massive experiment. They gathered a group of 48 people (almost all of whom were co-authors of the study) and asked them to flip coins from 46 different currencies a total of 350,757 times. 



The sheer volume of flips allowed the researchers to observe subtle patterns that would be invisible in smaller experiments.



Their findings were clear: the "same-side bias" holds up across different coin types and human tossers. While the bias is small -- just 0.8% over the expected 50% -- it was consistent enough to suggest that coin tosses aren't as random as we've believed.



Interestingly, the study also revealed that people vary in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quick-decisions-are-often-biased-and-misleading/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how much bias</a> they introduce when flipping coins. Some individuals showed a stronger same-side bias than others, suggesting that personal flipping style might also play a role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-this-mean-for-gambling">What does this mean for gambling?</h2>



This discovery has some interesting implications, particularly for gambling, where even a slight advantage can make a big difference. 



In a series of social media posts, Bartoš pointed out that if you knew the starting position of a coin in 1,000 tosses, betting $1 per toss, you could potentially earn $19 -- more than the casino advantage in six-deck blackjack against an optimal player, which is about $5.



While the bias is small, it's still enough to matter in games of chance. In fact, the study shows that knowing the starting side of a coin can give you an edge that’s greater than most players have in blackjack or even some types of roulette.



However, it’s important to note that this bias won’t drastically change the outcome of casual coin tosses. The difference is small enough that it’s unlikely to affect day-to-day decisions made by flipping a coin --whether you're picking teams or choosing who pays for dinner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coin-tossing-still-a-useful-tool">Coin tossing: Still a useful tool?</h2>



So, should we stop using coin tosses for decisions? Not necessarily. 



While the bias exists, it’s minimal. In practical terms, for the average person, a coin toss remains a fair and simple way to settle disputes. The 50.8% bias is unlikely to significantly sway outcomes in most everyday scenarios.



Still, this research provides a fascinating insight into the mechanics of what we’ve always considered a random process. It shows how even the simplest actions, like flipping a coin, can be influenced by physics. 



And while the bias is small, it serves as a reminder that even when things seem random, there’s often a deeper explanation behind them.



In the end, while your coin toss might not be as random as you thought, it’s still close enough that you can trust it for most decisions. But if you're ever at a casino, you might want to pay attention to which side of the coin is facing up.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2310.04153" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal arXiv</a>.



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'Flipping a coin' is not a 50/50 random toss up as most people think

For as long as we can remember, a coin toss...

Let's dig into the past, where around two decades ago, a giant fossil skull of an extinct elephant was discovered in the pristine terrains of the northern Indian Kashmir Valley. 



This remarkable finding would soon send shockwaves through scientific communities. It would not just tell us more about this extinct elephant, but would also shine a light on a dimly lit chapter in elephant evolutionary history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-the-elephant-skull">Discovering the elephant skull</h2>



Dr. Ghulam Bhat from the <a href="https://www.jammuuniversity.ac.in" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Jammu</a> led a team of experts in excavating the elephant skull. It was found lying in unison with 87 stone tools, possibly used by prehistoric humans, providing an eerie testimony to human-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megafauna-extinction-dwarf-elephants-and-hippos-cyprus-directly-linked-to-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant</a> interactions of the bygone era.



Recently, scientists from around the globe embarked on a quest to unravel the secrets locked in the Kashmir skull. 



The team included experts from the Florida Museum of Natural History, the British Museum, the University of York, and the Natural History Museum. 



Dr. Steven Zhang, a paleontologist in the Department of Geosciences and Geography at the University of Helsinki, also participated in the study.



"From the general shape of the skull, it's quite apparent that the elephant belonged to Palaeoloxodon, or straight-tusked elephants, among the largest land mammals that ever lived," said Dr. Zhang. "Full-grown adults easily stood around 4m tall at the shoulder and weighed 9-10 tons."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-of-elephant-evolution">Tree of elephant evolution </h2>



However, the skull's lack of a thickened, forward-projecting crest, a feature typical of other Palaeoloxodon skulls found in India, left the scientists intrigued.



In recent times, the extent of this crest's development among different Palaeoloxodon species and their relative position on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-elephants-got-their-incredible-iconic-trunks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant evolution</a> tree has sparked controversy. 



However, some findings hint at the crest becoming more pronounced with developmental and sexual maturity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-majestic-elephant-skull">Majestic elephant skull</h2>



"From the size, the wisdom teeth and a few other telltale features of the skull, it is evident that the animal was a majestic bull elephant in the prime of its life, but the lack of a well-developed skull crest, particularly in comparison with other mature male skulls from Europe and from India, tells us we have a different species on our hands here," noted Dr. Zhang.



The research team, unperturbed by the lack of the prominent skull crest, turned their attention to an obscure skull discovered in Turkmenistan during the 1950s, which was thought to represent a distinct species, Palaeoloxodon turkmenicus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-species-with-a-broad-distribution">Distinct species with a broad distribution </h2>



"What's always been puzzling about the Turkmen skull is that, besides the lack of a prominent crest at the skull roof, its other features are highly similar to the already well-known European species, P. antiquus," said Dr. Zhang. 



"And this led a number of experts to suggest that the Turkmen specimen is simply an aberrant individual of the European species."



However, when the Kashmir skull was uncovered, the theory of a distinct species with a broad distribution became more plausible.



"But with the Kashmir skull added to the mix, it becomes clear now that the two specimens can be theorized to represent a distinct species that we previously knew very little about, with a broad distribution from Central Asia to the northern Indian Subcontinent," noted Dr. Advait Jukar, the study's lead author who is currently based at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dating-the-elephant-skull">Dating the elephant skull</h2>



Using advanced techniques to measure protein decomposition in the tooth enamel of the Kashmir Palaeoloxodon skull, the experts dated the skull to the Middle Pleistocene period, around 300,000–400,000 years ago.



An analysis of the stone tools found alongside the elephant remains further bolstered their conclusion. This age estimate matched that of the Turkmen skull, further strengthening the theory that these two skulls represent a unique species distinct from the other Eurasian Palaeoloxodon.



Deeper investigations revealed that Palaeoloxodon first evolved in Africa about a million years ago, presenting a narrow, convex forehead and slight underdevelopment of the skull crest. 



The later Palaeoloxodon, best known from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gigoutella-mauretanica-best-preserved-trilobite-fossils-ever-found/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a> discovered in Europe and India, sported a very wide, flattened forehead often associated with a thick crest that jutted forward from the roof of the skull.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-link-in-elephant-evolution">Missing link in elephant evolution </h2>



The researchers concluded that with a wide, flat forehead and only a faint trace of a skull crest, the P. turkmenicus species might represent a missing link in our understanding of how these enormous prehistoric megaherbivores evolved.



So, there you have it - a thrilling saga of scientific sleuthing and discovery. The story of the mysterious extinct elephant skull unfolds, promising to unlock further secrets and deepen our understanding of the epic journey of elephant evolution.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2024.2396821" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>. 



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Elephant skull found in India adds a piece to the evolutionary puzzle

Let's dig into the past, where around two decades ago,...

The black widow is one of the most feared spider species, and is widely associated with danger. This eight-legged marvel has earned its terrifying reputation through a venom that's a potent cocktail of seven distinct toxins. 



Each toxin found in black widow venom targets the nervous system in a unique way. Among these substances, α-latrotoxin stands out. It is known to paralyze insects and crustaceans, and is poisonous to humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-widow-s-potent-potion">Black widow's potent potion</h2>



The α-latrotoxin operates by latching onto specific receptors dotted across the synapses. These are the contact points between nerve cells or between nerve cells and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/muscles-defy-aging-with-remarkable-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscles</a>.



Once attached, it triggers the uncontrollable flow of calcium ions into the presynaptic membranes of the signaling cells. This sets off the release of neurotransmitters and ushers in strong muscle contractions and spasms.



Despite this seemingly straightforward process, what lies beneath is a highly complex mechanism. A team of scientists at the <a href="https://www.uni-muenster.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Münster</a> has now deciphered the structure of α-latrotoxin before and after membrane insertion at near atomic resolution



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-insightful-discovery">An insightful discovery</h2>



The scientific endeavor was led by experts at the Center for Soft Nanoscience, including Professor Christos Gatsogiannis in the Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics and Professor Andreas Heuer in the Institute of Physical Chemistry.



To investigate the the mechanism of calcium influx into the presynaptic membrane, the experts used a combination of high-performance cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and molecular dynamics (MD) <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simulation-hypothesis-are-we-living-in-a-computer-simulation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">computer simulations</a>.



And their finding? The α-latrotoxin, in a fascinating display of transformation, forms a stalk - penetrating the cell membrane akin to a syringe - upon binding to the receptor.



This stalk carves out a small pore that functions as a calcium channel in the membrane. But there's more. MD simulations revealed that calcium ions flow into the cell through a selective gate located right above the pore.



This new understanding of the hidden mechanisms of α-latrotoxin provides profound insights. 



"The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/umbrella-toxin-discovery-may-help-human-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toxin</a> mimics the function of the calcium channels of the presynaptic membrane in a highly complex manner, differing completely from all previously known toxins," said Professor Gatsogiannis. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-applications">Practical applications </h2>



Such breakthroughs bring more than just knowledge; they open the door to a host of practical applications. 



Latrotoxins possess considerable biotechnological potential that could support the creation of enhanced antidotes, therapies for paralysis, and novel biopesticides.



The research group led by Professor Gatsogiannis previously cracked the code on the structure of insect-specific latrotoxins in the venom of the black widow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-closer-to-unlocking-the-secrets-of-spider-silk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spider</a> before their insertion into the membrane. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harnessing-black-widow-venom">Harnessing black widow venom </h2>



While the venom of the black widow may seem like something to be avoided, its unique properties have captured the interest of scientists looking to harness its power for medical and biotechnological advancements. 



"Taken together, these data give insight into a unique mechanism for membrane insertion and channel formation, characteristic of the LTX family, and provide the necessary framework for advancing novel therapeutics and biotechnological applications," wrote the researchers.



Understanding α-latrotoxin’s structure and function opens doors to different applications that could turn this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-venom-has-hidden-biochemical-value/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">venom</a> from a deadly threat into a potential lifesaver.



One area of potential lies in the development of more efficient antivenoms. Current treatment for black widow bites involves pain relief and supportive care. While antivenoms are available, they are not always effective.



With the knowledge on how α-latrotoxin interacts with human nerve cells, researchers can design targeted antivenoms that neutralize the toxin before it causes damage to the nervous system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-therapeutic-use-of-venom">Potential therapeutic use of venom</h2>



The venom’s ability to selectively bind to certain receptors also suggests potential therapeutic uses. For instance, researchers are exploring how modified versions of α-latrotoxin could treat conditions involving muscle spasms or paralysis by targeting specific neural pathways. 



Additionally, the venom’s pore-forming mechanism could inspire new designs for biopesticides, selectively targeting pests without harming other species.



Research into black widow venom continues to demonstrate that even the most fearsome elements of nature can offer unexpected benefits, transforming something feared into a source of healing and innovation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-52635-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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How black widow venom attacks the nervous system

The black widow is one of the most feared spider...

In the face of relentless environmental shifts, seven of the most prevalent forest trees in Europe have proven their tenacity. They've managed to keep their genetic diversity intact, even as their ranges shrunk and tree numbers plummeted during the ice age cycles. 



This resilience was highlighted in a recent study conducted by a multidisciplinary European consortium. Pascal Milesi is an associate professor of plant ecology and evolution at <a href="https://www.uu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Uppsala University</a> and the study's lead author.



"“From a biodiversity perspective, this is very positive because these trees are keystone species on which many other species depend,” said Professor Milesi. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-diversity-of-trees">Genetic diversity of trees</h2>



The research team set out to explore the impact of fierce ice age cycles on the genetic diversity of tree species. Throughout the ages, trees have endured alternating warm and cold periods. 



During the last ice age, around 10,000 years ago, the tree populations were significantly constrained, leading scientists to predict a loss of genetic diversity. 



Yet, surprising as it may be, these species demonstrated immense genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diversity-darkspots-need-urgent-attention/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a>, indicating a resilient response to their rapidly evolving habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-their-secret">What's their secret?</h2>



"We believe the reason for this high genetic diversity is related to the way these tree species survived through the ice ages and to fact that tree pollen can travel thousands of kilometres, bringing together trees that grow far apart," said Professor Milesi. 



"This is a welcome sign. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-in-dry-landscapes-have-surprising-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary processes</a> that were at play in the past may also be useful to cope with today’s rapid climate change."



Joining forces with researchers from 22 other European institutions, Professor Milesi examined seven species of forest trees ubiquitous in Europe. 



The team gathered needles and leaves from approximately 3,500 trees from 164 different populations scattered across Europe and proceeded to extract and analyze the DNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ice-age-cycles-and-tree-diversity">Ice age cycles and tree diversity</h2>



“Contrary to what was long thought, the ice age cycles had little impact on the genetic diversity of these seven key species. This is mainly explained by a combination of unique characteristics, namely long generation time and the ability of their pollen to spread thousands of kilometers,” said Milesi.



This trait enables <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-shaped-plant-biodiversity-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> separated by vast distances to exchange genetic material, ensuring a broader and more diverse gene pool. As a result, these species can better adapt to changing environmental conditions, maintaining their resilience over centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spotlight-on-sweden">Spotlight on Sweden</h2>



Turning the spotlight on Sweden, the researchers zeroed in on the Norway spruce, Scots pine, and silver birch. Together, these species make up the majority of the Swedish forest, serving as a lifeline for other species. 



They are also a significant contributor to the Swedish economy and society, accounting for the vast majority of timber used in Swedish forestry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-celebrating-the-diversity-of-trees">Celebrating the diversity of trees</h2>



“Due to the sixth mass extinction event and the ongoing biodiversity crisis, people can easily get the feeling that it is too late and be ready to give up," said Professor Milesi. 



"This study sends a positive signal about our forest and provides important information to help manage forest biodiversity in the face of climate change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-future-trends">Predicting future trends</h2>



The future of European forests amid the climate crisis shows promise due to the resilience of key tree species. 



Research highlights that strong genetic diversity can help these trees cope with environmental challenges, but rapid adaptation to changing climates is vital. 



Ongoing monitoring and conservation efforts to preserve genetic diversity are essential for maintaining forest health and supporting both ecosystems and human communities that rely on them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mighty-seven-tree-species">Mighty seven tree species </h2>



The species under study were the European beech (Fagus sylvatica), Maritime pine (Pinus pinaster), Sessile oak (Quercus petraea), Silver birch (Betula pendula), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), Norway spruce (Picea abies), and Black poplar (Populus nigra).



As we reflect on these findings, we are reminded of the remarkable resilience of nature and the urgent need to respect and protect it. The future of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a> hinges on how well we respond to the ongoing challenges.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-52612-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Can trees protect their genetic diversity for millions of years?

In the face of relentless environmental shifts, seven of the...

Have you ever wondered why the smell of freshly baked bread or sizzling bacon can pull you out of bed instantly before dawn? Or how we can distinguish between thousands of different odors and smells? The simple answer lies in the incredible and underappreciated power of our olfactory system. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sense-of-smell-and-odor-detection">Sense of smell and odor detection</h2>



Commonly, we think of our sense of smell, or olfaction, as a slow sense. This notion stems from the process through which we perceive odors. 



When we breathe in, airborne chemicals (that gives a substance its distinctive smell) enter our noses, and are subsequently expelled when we exhale. 



A single breath, lasting 3-5 seconds, seems to limit how quickly we can detect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-nose-is-a-clever-smell-prediction-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smells</a>. Any chemical changes that happen within a single breath end up being perceived as a single odor.



However, a groundbreaking study led by Dr. ZHOU Wen from the Institute of Psychology of the <a href="https://english.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> is presenting us with a whole new perspective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blink-speed-olfactory-sense">Blink-speed olfactory sense</h2>



Published in the renowned publication Nature Human Behaviour, the study proved that our olfactory perception could pick up subtle chemical changes within the duration of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-human-nose-perceives-the-scent-that-lingers-after-rain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">single sniff</a>, challenging the earlier understanding of our sense of smell.



To prove this, Dr. Zhou's team ingeniously developed a sniff-triggered device (imagine a high-tech version of the "smell-o-vision"). 



This device controls the delivery of odors with a remarkable precision of 18 milliseconds -- the length of a frame on a standard LCD screen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smelling-and-odor-compounds">Smelling and odor compounds</h2>



The team conducted five experiments involving 229 participants. Using their device, they introduced the participants to a sequence of two odors, with meticulously calculated delays. 



The participants' objective? To see if they could distinguish between the two different smells.



The results were astounding. Participants could tell the difference between two odor compounds, even when the delay between each odor was a mere 60 milliseconds. That's just a third of the time it takes for your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blinking-plays-crucial-role-vision-human-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eyes to blink</a>!



What's even more interesting is that the participants' ability to distinguish odors was not influenced by odor intensity, pleasantness, pungency, or the total amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odorant</a> molecules in a single sniff. It purely depended on the temporal separation of the two odors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-odor-identity">Decoding the odor identity</h2>



What does all of this mean? Well, these findings hint at the existence of a temporal code for odor identity. 



"A sniff of odors is not a long exposure shot of the chemical environment that averages out temporal variations. Rather, it incorporates&nbsp;a temporal sensitivity on par with that for color perception," Dr. Zhou states.



This research paves the way to study further temporal aspects of olfactory perception and develop advanced olfactory displays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smell-and-odor-perception">Smell and odor perception</h2>



The implications of this research extend far beyond the confines of laboratory settings and provide intriguing insights into how scent influences human behavior and interaction. 



Recognizing the olfactory system's capacity to distinguish subtle chemical differences rapidly could revolutionize industries reliant on scent, such as food and beverage, perfumes, and even healthcare. 



By leveraging a deeper understanding of temporal odor perception, professionals could refine flavor development, enhance the design of fragrances, and improve the realm of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/odors-prompt-brain-cells-to-make-decisions-before-you-know-whats-happening/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scent-based</a> therapies. 



Furthermore, this study invites additional interdisciplinary collaboration to explore how scents play a role in forming memories and emotional states, encouraging further integration between neuroscience, psychology, and the arts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-olfactory-research">Future olfactory research</h2>



While the findings present a captivating shift in our comprehension of olfactory capabilities, they also sow seeds for future research. 



What underlying neural mechanisms enable such swift odor discrimination? How do these processes vary among individuals or across different species? 



These questions beckon a fresh wave of scientific inquiries aimed at unraveling the complexities of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-sense-of-smell-can-change-the-colors-we-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scent perception</a>.



As technology continues to advance, researchers may develop even more precise tools for examining the temporal dynamics of olfaction. 



By diving deeper into this sensory dimension, scientists aspire to unlock novel applications and technologies, potentially transforming how we interact with and perceive our aromatic environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysteries-beyond-smell-and-odor">Mysteries beyond smell and odor</h2>



While we now know more about the speed of our sense of smell, this only scratches the surface of our olfactory system's capabilities. 



It opens up a whole new world of questions -- could our alertness to smells give us evolutionary advantages? How does the brain process these smells so rapidly?



Next time you take a deep breath, remember, it's not just air you're sniffing in. It's a concoction of fine, nuanced odors, processed and perceived in the blink of an eye. 



-----



This research was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of China, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the National Natural Science Foundation of China, and the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-024-01984-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Human Behaviour</a>.



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Our sense of smell detects odors in less time than it takes to blink

Have you ever wondered why the smell of freshly baked...

Beneath the sun's heat, which feels stronger each year, our world is altering in ways we cannot ignore. The United Nations recently warned that the stability of Earth's water cycle is in jeopardy due to climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parched-planet">Parched planet</h2>



Streams ran unusually low in 2023, hitting a thirty-year record for aridity. At the same time, glaciers recorded their worst half-century loss, surrendering gigantic ice-continent amounts. 



While one end of the spectrum experienced extreme drought, the other end saw a significant surplus of water, with floods washing across countries.



President of the World Meteorological Organization (<a href="https://wmo.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WMO</a>), Celeste Saulo, conveyed her concern about these stark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-drought-has-caused-crisis-levels-of-food-and-water-scarcity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warning signs</a>. 



"Water is the canary in the coalmine of climate change," said Saulo. The potentiating panic emphasizes how human lives, ecosystems, and economies sit precariously on the edge of a climate-induced disaster.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-balance-vs-climate-change">Water balance vs. climate change</h2>



The Earth's feverish condition, the result of a rapidly warming atmosphere, is making our water cycle skittish and difficult to predict. With the previous year holding the dubious distinction of the hottest on record, many regions of the globe experienced enduring droughts.



Concurrently, other parts of the world struggled with engorged rivers, leading to severe flooding. These weather events were partly fueled by natural climatic shifts such as the La Nina and El Nino phenomena, but human-induced climate change exacerbated them.



"A warmer atmosphere holds more moisture, which is conducive to heavy rainfall. More rapid evaporation and drying of soils worsen drought conditions," said Saulo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-woes-due-to-climate-change">Water woes due to climate change</h2>



The ironic balance of water abundance and deficiency is plunging numerous countries into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-temperatures-may-rise-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">escalating water crises</a>. In 2023, it was Africa that bore the brunt of these calamities, with a staggering number of human casualties.



In Libya, a major flood in September led to the horrifying collapse of two dams, resulting in the loss of over 11,000 lives and disrupting 22% of the nation's population. On the flip side, more than half the world's river catchments have been drier than usual over the past three years.



The United Nations records indicate that approximately 3.6 billion individuals lack access to fresh water for at least one month each year. Worryingly, this figure is predicted to increase to over 5 billion by 2050.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monstrous-magnitude">Monstrous magnitude</h2>



As our planet continues to heat up, our glaciers are paying a steep price. They've been melting at unprecedented rates, with a whopping 600 billion tons of water lost in their worst 50-year performance, according to data from September 2022 to August 2023.



WMO's president warns that these losses threaten long-term water security for countless communities across the globe. With all this in the backdrop, Saulo urges for robust actions to address this looming crisis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disparities-in-water-accessibility">Disparities in water accessibility </h2>



The gap between water-rich and water-poor regions is widening admits climate change, necessitating innovative solutions to bridge this critical divide. Technological advancements such as desalination and rainwater harvesting offer promising avenues for redistributing water effectively. 



Desalination, albeit energy-intensive, could potentially convert seawater into drinking water, providing relief for arid regions.



Rainwater harvesting systems, tailored to local climates, can mitigate the impacts of rainfall scarcity by storing excess water during wet spells.



Moreover, international cooperation is paramount, with nations needing to share resources and knowledge to adapt to water scarcity challenges holistically. 



In essence, addressing disparities in water accessibility requires a concerted global effort emphasizing sustainable practices and equitable distribution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-swift-action-is-needed">Swift action is needed</h2>



Global leaders face pressure to turn their rhetoric on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-water-security-relies-on-the-origins-of-rainfall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water crisis</a> into actionable strategies. 



Key actions include investing in climate resilience, integrating traditional knowledge with modern science, and prioritizing education to promote water conservation.



Swift action is essential to mitigate the impending water scarcity crisis and secure a sustainable future for future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-earth-s-water-cycle">Monitoring Earth's water cycle </h2>



In order to manage our fresh water resources efficiently, WMO strongly advocates for enhanced monitoring systems. These would act as early warning systems, mitigating disaster for both humans and the ecosystem.



Better management of water resources can only be achieved if we understand our usage and the changes in availability. "We cannot manage what we do not measure," Saulo stressed.



Stefan Uhlenbrook, director of the WMO's hydrology, water and cryosphere department, emphasized the urgency of investing in infrastructure to conserve water and protect people against water-related disasters. 



Changes are particularly needed in agriculture, which guzzles up 70% of the world's fresh water consumption.



As the world drips towards a future where normal water cycles may become a distant memory, the climatic stabilization challenge seems daunting. While we may not be able to turn back the clock, we can certainly strive to understand, adapt, and combat these changes to buy our future generations more time.



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Distress signals: Earth’s water cycle is becoming more erratic

Beneath the sun's heat, which feels stronger each year, our...

A recent study sheds light on the potential destabilizing effects of climate change on mutualistic relationships between insects and plants. Mutualism, the cooperative interaction where both species benefit, is fundamental to healthy ecosystems. 



The research suggests that increasing urbanization and rising temperatures could be disrupting these relationships, with potential consequences for global biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-ant-plant-mutualism">Investigating ant-plant mutualism</h2>



Led by <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a>, the study focused on the mutualistic relationship between specific ant species and the tropical shrub Cordia nodosa, which provides ants with shelter in exchange for protection from herbivores. 



The researchers compared how these relationships function in five urban sites and five protected forest areas in South America.&nbsp;



A key aim was to determine how the species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> inhabiting the plants in urban environments differed from those in forest areas, particularly in terms of their ability to tolerate heat - a defining feature of cities.



The researchers discovered that urban plants housed mostly opportunistic ants, which did not specialize in protecting Cordia nodosa. These urban ants, while more heat-tolerant, were not effective in defending the plants.&nbsp;



In contrast, specialized mutualistic ants, which form strong protective partnerships with the shrubs, were still commonly found in forest areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-of-ant-protection-in-urban-areas">Decline of ant protection in urban areas</h2>



One of the study’s most striking findings was that urban ants, living in Cordia nodosa plants, generally failed to defend the plants from threats.&nbsp;



The researchers simulated attacks by flicking the plants, only to find that opportunistic urban ants did little to respond, living up to their name. In forest areas, however, the mutualistic ants were 13 times more likely to spring into action to protect the plants.



Surprisingly, despite the lack of defense from urban ants, plants in cities were not as severely affected by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivores</a> as expected. Herbivory, or damage caused by plant-eating insects, was relatively low in these areas. 



“I think that probably the herbivores themselves are not doing great in the city, whether it's because of habitat fragmentation, the temperature or whatever's keeping those specialist ants out may also be keeping the herbivores out,” said Elsa Youngsteadt, an associate professor of applied ecology at NC State.&nbsp;



Professor Youngsteadt also noted the possibility that urban plants have developed alternative defenses to compensate for the lack of ant protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urbanization-and-ant-plant-relationships">Urbanization and ant-plant relationships</h2>



In contrast to urban environments, forest plants without their protective ants showed higher rates of herbivory, which was more in line with the expected outcome.&nbsp;



The research also confirmed a distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/as-urban-heat-continues-to-rise-birds-are-moving-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban heat</a> island effect, with urban areas being approximately 1.6°C warmer than forest areas. 



This increase in temperature correlated with the heat tolerance of the ants, as urban ants were better adapted to warmer conditions than their forest counterparts.



However, the long-term implications of these changes remain uncertain. “While this study provides a small snapshot of what we may be able to expect in the future with global change, there remain many unanswered questions,” said study co-author Professor Sara Prado. 



The research raises concerns about how these changes might affect ecosystems on a larger scale if similar patterns begin to emerge in forest environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-specialized-mutualisms">The future of specialized mutualisms</h2>



The findings from this study highlight the vulnerability of specialized mutualistic relationships in the face of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-social-nature-of-ants-will-them-tolerate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. 



If urban environments can no longer support the mutualistic ants that protect Cordia nodosa and other plants, we may see a shift in the composition of insect-plant relationships.&nbsp;



“If these changes also play out in forests in the future, we may see more examples of specialized mutualistic interactions changing or disappearing altogether,” said Professor Prado.



Furthermore, if urban plants no longer need ants to protect them, researchers are left wondering about the long-term consequences of being colonized by opportunistic ants.&nbsp;



The impact on herbivores is another area of concern. If herbivores are also being kept out by the same factors affecting specialized ants, it suggests a profound shift in how urban ecosystems function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-ecosystems">Implications for global ecosystems</h2>



This study offers a glimpse into how climate change and urbanization might disrupt critical symbiotic relationships that form the foundation of many ecosystems.&nbsp;



The findings emphasize the importance of continued investigation into how these changes affect not only the individual species involved but the broader ecological networks they support.



As the planet continues to warm and urban areas expand, the consequences for specialized insect-plant relationships remain unclear.&nbsp;



However, this research serves as a warning of the potential fracturing of mutualistic interactions that are vital for maintaining biodiversity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-plays-critical-role-ecosystem-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem health</a>. 



The study highlights the need for ongoing monitoring and conservation efforts to protect these relationships in a changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4449" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



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Climate change is destabilizing ant-plant relationships

A recent study sheds light on the potential destabilizing effects...

One of the most dramatic environmental cautionary tales from the 1980s centers on the cloud forests of the Centinela range in coastal Ecuador.&nbsp;



Reports indicated that approximately 90 species of plants, many unknown to science and found nowhere else on Earth, were wiped out when the forests were cleared for agriculture.&nbsp;



This event has since fueled campaigns for rainforest conservation. However, a recent study reveals that the alleged mass extinction may never have occurred.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-challenges-extinction-claims">Research challenges extinction claims</h2>



A team of international botanists has found that the plants once thought extinct in Centinela are, in fact, still thriving in fragments of Ecuador's forests. Dawson White, a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>, explained the surprising findings.&nbsp;



“It’s a miracle. Many of Centinela’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-plants-on-earth-could-be-saved-from-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> are still on the brink of extinction, but fortunately the reports of their demise were exaggerated. There’s still time to save them and turn this story around.”&nbsp;



The researchers found no solid proof of any extinctions but ample evidence that many of the species presumed lost still exist in the remaining patches of the region’s forest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-were-earlier-estimates-wrong">Why were earlier estimates wrong?</h2>



Earlier researchers overestimated the extinction threat due to limited data. They collected numerous new species with little understanding of the global distribution of plant life in the world’s most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diverse forests</a>.&nbsp;



In the decades since those initial collections, more than 50 new species have been identified, and many plants presumed extinct at Centinela have been found elsewhere in South America.&nbsp;



Of the original 90 species thought to have disappeared, only one has not yet been rediscovered.



“Understanding which plants are growing in a given Andean cloud forest is a monumental task because you will undoubtedly find new species,” White explained.&nbsp;



“What our investigation highlights is that it takes decades of work from taxonomic experts to describe new species in such forests.”&nbsp;



“And only once we have names for these species that are then noted in our scientific networks can we begin to understand where else these plants grow and their risk of extinction.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-herbaria-in-conservation">The role of herbaria in conservation</h2>



Ecuador’s extreme biodiversity, including over 20,000 plant species - 4,000 of which are endemic - makes it particularly challenging to monitor and conserve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-ecosystems-at-risk-the-critical-role-of-aquatic-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropical ecosystems</a>. The study emphasizes the critical role of herbaria in identifying and conserving plant species.&nbsp;



Juan Guevara from <a href="https://www.udla.edu.ec/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universidad de Las Américas</a> in Quito commented on their importance: “Herbaria give us the fundamental ‘what’ and ‘where’ of plant biodiversity. They’re the basis of everything we know about which plants are threatened with extinction.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rediscovering-centinela-s-resilient-ecosystem">Rediscovering Centinela’s resilient ecosystem</h2>



In addition to revising the extinction story, the study revealed that Centinela’s forests are more resilient than originally thought.&nbsp;



Tiny fragments of the original forest, previously overlooked, have been found to harbor species believed extinct, including Gasteranthus extinctus, a wildflower rediscovered in 2021.&nbsp;



These fragments are often less than an acre in size but are home to rare and astonishing plant life.



“They’re tiny islands lost in a sea of plantations, but they’re still full of astonishing plants,” said co-author Andrea Fernández, a botanist at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> and the <a href="https://www.chicagobotanic.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chicago Botanic Garden</a>.&nbsp;



The team even discovered eight new species, including a rare canopy tree in the Cotton family, which faces immediate threats from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainforests-replanted-seedlings-after-logging-do-not-recover-well/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">logging</a>. Efforts are underway to preserve this tree by collecting its seeds and growing them in botanic gardens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-centinela-s-future-a-hub-for-conservation-efforts">Centinela’s future: A hub for conservation efforts</h2>



Once seen as a symbol of environmental loss, Centinela is now becoming a center of scientific research and conservation.&nbsp;



Local and international efforts are focused on protecting the remaining forest fragments, collecting seeds for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reforestation</a>, and mapping long-term strategies to safeguard this precious biodiversity.&nbsp;



Globally, Centinela’s story has inspired new conservation initiatives, including the use of satellite imagery by Planet Labs to aid in forest protection.



While this study offers hope for Centinela, the global biodiversity crisis remains critical. According to the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List</a>, over 45,000 species are threatened with extinction, including nearly half of amphibians and a quarter of all mammals.&nbsp;



“Plants in coastal Ecuador and a lot of other hard-hit places in the tropics are finding a way to hang on,” said co-author Nigel Pitman, a scientist at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Field Museum</a>. “We’ve still got time to act before they’re gone forever.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41477-024-01832-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a>.



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Did the Centinela mass extinction really happen?

One of the most dramatic environmental cautionary tales from the...

Ever had an idle moment beneath the starlit sky, utterly mesmerized by the visual delight above? If your answer is yes, do yourself a favor and look UP next week. We're in for a celestial treat as the spectacle of our lunar companion in its supermoon avatar, aptly named the Hunter's Moon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-hunter-s-moon">Understanding the Hunter's Moon</h2>



Each full moon carries its unique tale, and the Hunter's Moon is no exception. In times past, people viewed this moon as a harbinger of the impending chilly winter and a signal to prepare for colder months.



This moon phase has also held notable significance in several cultures, each with its unique interpretations and associations.



The Hunter's Moon got its name from the historical practice of hunters utilizing the bright moonlight to track game and gather food in preparation for winter. 



This full moon rises soon after sunset, extending the period of illumination more than usual.



As it ascends, the Hunter’s Moon appears particularly large and orange, a visual effect produced by its lower position on the horizon and the scattering of light in the atmosphere.



This lunar phase holds cultural significance across various traditions, representing a time for preparation and gathering, underscoring the importance of readiness for the impending colder months.



While contemporary life may not depend on this extra light to hunt or complete outdoor tasks, the Hunter's Moon remains a fascinating reminder of nature's rhythms and the cyclical changes of the seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-hunter-s-supermoon-is-special">Why Hunter's supermoon is special</h2>



So, what makes a supermoon so super? Let's clear up the mystique before the Hunter supermoon appears in the skies on October 17, 2024.



"A supermoon is the result of a full moon occurring when the moon is near its closest point to the Earth in its orbit," said Anna Gammon-Ross, senior planetarium astronomer at the <a href="https://www.rmg.co.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Museums Greenwich</a>.



"This can happen because the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-supermoon-blue-moon-will-outshine-and-outsize-all-other-moons-this-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a> orbits the Earth on an elliptical path rather than a circular one. As a supermoon means that the moon is a little closer to us, it will appear slightly bigger in the sky."



Witnessing a supermoon is a sensory treat. Our constant nocturnal partner metamorphoses into an awe-inspiring sight. It commands attention with increased size and amplified glow that is nothing short of captivating.



The supermoon involves a full moon coinciding with its closest approach to Earth, known as perigee, leading to a larger visual diameter and brightness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-october-month-to-stargaze">October: Month to stargaze</h2>



But October isn't just about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/full-moon-trifecta-september-2024-harvest-moon-supermoon-and-partial-eclipse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermoon</a>. The month serves up a visual feast of celestial bodies, with planets like Venus, Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars making a twinkling appearance. 



Coupled with stars and constellations such as the Summer Triangle, Perseus, Cassiopeia, and Polaris, you have a stellar exhibit right above you. 



So, remember to steal a moment, look upwards, and marvel at the universe's grandeur.



During the supermoon, the moon appears about 14% larger and 30% brighter than your average full moon. This slight difference in distance crafts a visual spectacle that's beyond the ordinary.



The upcoming Hunter's Moon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harvest-moon-2024-will-feature-a-partial-lunar-eclipse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermoon</a> will have varying visibility depending on your location. 



Plan ahead, keep abreast of local weather forecasts, clear your schedules and get ready to witness this notable cosmic event.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-the-most-of-stargazing">Making the most of stargazing</h2>



To truly relish this celestial occurrence, here are some handy tips. Seek out a spot far from city lights to lessen light pollution and enrich your view of the stars, planets, and of course, the supermoon. 



Utilize binoculars or a telescope for a closer look. However, the supermoon is an awe-inspiring spectacle even to the naked eye. 



Dress comfortably for the nighttime temperatures, and consider using a red flashlight to sustain your night vision. 



You could also use smartphone apps that identify celestial bodies and track planetary movements real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-photographing-the-hunter-s-moon">Photographing the Hunter's moon</h2>



Capturing the supermoon in all its splendor can be a rewarding experience. To snap the best shots, use a camera with manual settings to adjust exposure and focus. 



A tripod is essential to keep your camera steady, especially during long exposure shots.



Consider including an interesting foreground, like a silhouette of a tree or building, to give your photos a sense of scale and context. 



If you’re using a smartphone, use a moon photography app to adjust your settings more effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behind-the-celestial-wonders">Behind the celestial wonders</h2>



Grasping the mechanics behind cosmic events like the supermoon uncovers the intricacies of our universe. 



The moon's orbit around Earth, being an ellipse, results in variable distances throughout the lunar cycle.



During perigee, the moon is closest to Earth, its gravitational pull intensifies, making the moon appear larger and brighter. 



This proximity also influences Earth's tides, causing unusually high and low tides, known as "perigean spring tides."



These phenomena depict the dynamic and direct relationships between celestial and terrestrial phenomena.



Thanks to the astronomical community, we've dived into the mystery of the Hunter's Moon and the cosmic treasures that October brings. 



So, on October 17, 2024, step outside, cast your eyes skyward, and let yourself be captivated by the wonders of the universe.



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"Hunter's Supermoon" prepares to light up the October skies this week

Ever had an idle moment beneath the starlit sky, utterly...

In 2023, NASA's OSIRIS-REx mission successfully returned a sample of dust and rocks from the near-Earth asteroid Bennu.&nbsp;



While this sample provides critical insights into the universe, the data collected by the mission may also offer a chance to explore <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-fifth-force-of-nature-subatomic-particles-are-defying-the-laws-of-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new areas</a> of physics. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-fifth-force-of-the-universe-nbsp">Potential fifth force of the universe&nbsp;</h2>



A research team led by Yu-Dai Tsai, an astrophysicist at the <a href="https://www.lanl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a> (LANL), utilized Bennu's tracking data to investigate the potential existence of a fifth fundamental force in the universe.



“Interpreting the data we see from tracking Bennu has the potential to add to our understanding of the theoretical underpinnings of the universe, potentially revamping our understanding of the Standard Model of physics, gravity and dark matter,” explained Tsai.&nbsp;



“The trajectories of objects often feature anomalies that can be useful in discovering new physics.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-near-earth-asteroids-like-bennu">Tracking near-Earth asteroids like Bennu</h2>



Given the potential implications for planetary defense, near-Earth asteroids like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-bennu-holds-secrets-of-the-solar-systems-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bennu</a> are closely monitored.&nbsp;



The team leveraged ground-based tracking data gathered both before and during the OSIRIS-REx mission to investigate extensions of the Standard Model of physics, which currently explains three of the four known fundamental forces of the universe.



Since Bennu's discovery in 1999, optical and radar astrometric data have helped refine its trajectory with precision. The OSIRIS-REx mission added to this with X-band radiometric and optical navigation tracking data.



“The tight constraints we've achieved translate readily to some of the tightest-ever limits on Yukawa-type fifth forces,” said study co-author Sunny Vagnozzi, an assistant professor at the University of Trento. 



“These results highlight the potential for asteroid tracking as a valuable tool in the search for ultralight bosons, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/existence-of-dark-matter-confirmed-by-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter</a> and several well-motivated extensions of the Standard Model.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possibility-of-a-fifth-fundamental-force-nbsp">Possibility of a fifth fundamental force&nbsp;</h2>



The trajectory of a celestial body, like an asteroid, is shaped by gravity and other forces. Understanding these trajectories can uncover mysteries, especially when anomalies appear.&nbsp;



Historically, for example, the existence of Neptune was inferred from irregularities in Uranus's orbit before Neptune was ever directly observed.



By analyzing Bennu's trajectory and developing corresponding models, the team established constraints on the possibility of a fifth fundamental force and the role of a potential mediating particle, such as an ultralight boson, in that force. 



A mediating particle acting upon a fifth force could alter the orbit of an asteroid like Bennu, which is why analyzing this tracking data is significant for physics research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter-and-dark-energy-nbsp">Dark matter and dark energy&nbsp;</h2>



A new particle, such as an ultralight boson, could extend the Standard Model to include dark matter and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-could-explain-the-rapid-expansion-of-the-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a> - two phenomena strongly suggested by cosmological and astrophysical observations but not yet integrated into the current theoretical framework.&nbsp;



While dark matter is believed to make up approximately 85% of the universe's total matter, scientists still lack a concrete understanding of the particles and forces that constitute it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asteroid-tracking-and-fifth-force-physics-nbsp">Asteroid tracking and fifth-force physics&nbsp;</h2>



Tsai and his team first explored the idea of using asteroid tracking to investigate fifth-force physics in a 2023 paper published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1475-7516/2023/04/031" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics</a>.&nbsp;



After their work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/osiris-rex-safely-delivers-rock-samples-from-asteroid-bennu-back-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bennu</a>, they now plan to continue this research with the asteroid Apophis, which will pass within 20,000 miles of Earth in 2029.



NASA's OSIRIS-APEX spacecraft is scheduled to approach Apophis during this close flyby and stir up dust.&nbsp;



Observations of how Earth's gravity affects Apophis as it passes by will provide more data to aid in the search for evidence of fifth-force physics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-probing-fundamental-questions-in-physics-nbsp">Probing fundamental questions in physics&nbsp;</h2>



Looking ahead, the research team is also exploring the use of space quantum technologies and dedicated space missions to improve tracking accuracy or directly search for dark matter.&nbsp;



These innovations could significantly enhance measurement precision and further support efforts to investigate subtle gravitational influences that may reveal the presence of new particles or forces.



Such advancements could pave the way for future breakthroughs as scientists continue to explore the fundamental forces that govern the universe.



This research represents an important step in using asteroid tracking data to probe fundamental questions in physics, offering a new method for investigating the universe’s hidden forces and particles.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42005-024-01779-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications Physics</a>.



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Is there a fifth force of nature? Asteroids provide new clues

In 2023, NASA's OSIRIS-REx mission successfully returned a sample of...

Researchers have long known that a common family of environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hungry-bacteria-will-devour-plastic-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> called Comamonadaceae thrive in urban rivers and wastewater systems where plastic litter is abundant. 



However, what exactly these bacteria are doing with the plastic has remained unclear until now.



A recent study led by <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a> has uncovered how cells of a Comamonas bacteria break down plastic to use as food. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-and-the-issue-of-plastic-waste">Bacteria and the issue of plastic waste</h2>



The researchers found that the bacteria first chew the plastic into small pieces, called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-solution-removes-over-98-percent-of-nanoplastics-from-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nanoplastics</a>. Then, they secrete a specialized enzyme that further breaks down the plastic. Finally, the bacteria feed on the carbon atoms from the plastic, using it as a food source.



This discovery opens up exciting new possibilities for creating bacteria-based solutions to tackle the growing problem of plastic waste, which contaminates <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strict-pfas-limits-will-make-drinking-water-safer-for-100-million-americans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking water</a> and poses serious threats to wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wastewater-bacteria-break-down-plastic-nbsp">Wastewater bacteria break down plastic&nbsp;</h2>



Study lead author Ludmilla Aristilde is an associate professor of environmental engineering at Northwestern.&nbsp;



“We have systematically shown, for the first time, that a wastewater bacterium can take a starting plastic material, deteriorate it, fragment it, break it down, and use it as a source of carbon,” said Aristilde.&nbsp;



“It is amazing that this bacterium can perform that entire process, and we identified a key enzyme responsible for breaking down the plastic materials. This could be optimized and exploited to help get rid of plastics in the environment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-on-earlier-research-nbsp">Expanding on earlier research&nbsp;</h2>



Aristilde, an expert in organic dynamics in environmental processes, led the study along with her team, including co-first authors Rebecca Wilkes and Nanqing Zhou. Several graduate and undergraduate researchers from Aristilde’s lab also contributed to the work.



This new research builds upon earlier work by Aristilde’s group, which explored how Comamonas testosteroni metabolizes simple carbons from broken-down plants and plastics.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-and-pet-plastic">Bacteria and PET plastic</h2>



In this study, the team focused again on C. testosteroni, which is known to grow on polyethylene terephthalate (PET) - a type of plastic commonly found in food packaging and beverage bottles.&nbsp;



PET is notorious for being difficult to break down and is a major contributor to plastic pollution worldwide.



“It’s important to note that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-can-break-down-pet-pollution-in-ocean-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PET plastics</a> represent 12% of total global plastics usage,” Aristilde said. “And it accounts for up to 50% of microplastics in wastewaters.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-bacteria-degrade-plastic">Watching bacteria degrade plastic</h2>



To better understand how C. testosteroni interacts with and feeds on plastic, Aristilde’s team used a range of experimental and theoretical approaches.&nbsp;



First, they grew the bacteria - isolated from wastewater - on PET films and pellets. Using advanced microscopy, they observed how the plastic surfaces changed over time.&nbsp;



The team also examined the surrounding water to detect plastic broken down into smaller nanoparticles.&nbsp;



Finally, the researchers investigated the bacteria to identify the tools they use to degrade the plastic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transforming-plastic-into-a-carbon-source-nbsp">Transforming plastic into a carbon source&nbsp;</h2>



“In the presence of the bacterium, the microplastics were broken down into tiny nanoparticles of plastics,” Aristilde explained.&nbsp;



“We found that the wastewater bacterium has an innate ability to degrade plastic all the way down to monomers - small building blocks that join together to form polymers. These small units are a bioavailable source of carbon that bacteria can use for growth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-deeper-understanding-of-the-process-nbsp">A deeper understanding of the process&nbsp;</h2>



Once the team confirmed that C. testosteroni could indeed break down plastics, they delved deeper into understanding how this process occurs.&nbsp;



Using omics techniques to measure all enzymes inside the bacterial cells, they identified a specific enzyme that was expressed when the bacteria were exposed to PET plastic.&nbsp;



Collaborators at <a href="https://www.ornl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a> in Tennessee then prepared bacterial cells that lacked the ability to express this enzyme. Remarkably, the bacteria without this enzyme lost or significantly diminished their ability to degrade plastic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



While this discovery could potentially lead to new environmental cleanup technologies, Aristilde also emphasized that the research provides valuable insights into how plastics change during wastewater treatment.



Aristilde noted that wastewater is a huge reservoir of microplastics and nanoplastics.



“Most people think nanoplastics enter wastewater treatment plants as nanoplastics. But we’re showing that nanoplastics can be formed during wastewater treatment through microbial activity,” Aristilde said.



“That’s something we need to pay attention to as our society tries to understand the behavior of plastics throughout its journey from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-wastewater-is-a-hidden-solution-to-the-climate-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wastewater</a> to receiving rivers and lakes.”



The team’s findings highlight the importance of paying closer attention to how plastics behave and transform in environmental systems, with the potential for new strategies to mitigate plastic pollution on the horizon.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.4c06645" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.



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Wastewater bacteria break down plastic waste for food

Researchers have long known that a common family of environmental...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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