In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp;



Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-the-heart-with-light">Controlling the heart with light</h2>



The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest.



The external controller detects abnormal rhythms and sends light through the body to activate the pacemaker and restore heartbeat. The study demonstrates the device’s effectiveness across animal and human donor hearts.&nbsp;



The development of the pacemaker was led by John A. Rogers, a professor of material science, biomedical engineering, and neurological surgery at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>.&nbsp;



“We have developed what is, to our knowledge, the world’s smallest pacemaker,” said Professor Rogers.



“There’s a crucial need for temporary pacemakers in the context of pediatric heart surgeries, and that’s a use case where size miniaturization is incredibly important. In terms of the device load on the body - the smaller, the better.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solution-designed-for-newborns">Solution designed for newborns</h2>



Though the light-activated pacemaker can function in patients of all sizes, its miniaturized design was motivated by the needs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infant-speech-is-driven-by-heart-rate-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>. 



Igor Efimov is a co-leader of the study and experimental cardiologist at Northwestern.&nbsp;



“About 1% of children are born with congenital heart defects. The good news is that these children only need temporary pacing after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surgery</a>. In about seven days or so, most patients’ hearts will self-repair. But those seven days are absolutely critical," said Efimov.



Traditional pacemakers require surgery and have wires sticking out of the chest to connect to an external device. When they are no longer needed, the wires are removed - risking bleeding, tissue damage, or even death.



“Wires literally protrude from the body, attached to a pacemaker outside the body,” Efimov explained. “When the pacemaker is no longer needed, a physician pulls it out. The wires can become enveloped in scar tissue. That’s actually how Neil Armstrong died.”



The new injectable pacemaker addresses these risks. All of its components are biocompatible and bioresorbable, meaning they safely dissolve in the body’s fluids without needing surgical removal. Once the device has served its purpose, it simply disappears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-the-light-activated-pacemaker">Refining the light-activated pacemaker</h2>



This innovation builds on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41587-021-00948-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earlier work</a> by Rogers and Efimov, who developed a quarter-sized dissolvable pacemaker in 2021. Surgeons asked for a smaller version to allow easier placement and suit the smallest patients.&nbsp;



The original device used near-field communication (NFC), but its antenna limited how small the device could be made. To overcome this, the team replaced the NFC system with a novel light-based mechanism.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/pacemaker_light-activated_worlds-smallest_heart-health_Northwestern_1s.webp" alt="The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University" class="wp-image-1964846"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The tiny pacemaker sits next to a single grain of rice on a fingertip. The device is so small that it can be non-invasively injected into the body via a syringe. Click image to enlarge. Credit: John A. Rogers/Northwestern University</figcaption></figure>



“Instead of using the radio frequency scheme for wireless control, we developed a light-based scheme for turning the pacemaker on and delivering stimulation pulses to the surface of the heart. This is one feature that allowed us to dramatically reduce the size,” said Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powered-by-the-body-s-own-fluids">Powered by the body’s own fluids</h2>



The engineers also reimagined how to power the tiny pacemaker. Rather than requiring a battery or external power source, the device uses a simple galvanic cell - a chemical battery formed by two different metals as electrodes.&nbsp;



When the device is inside the body, surrounding biofluids act as the electrolyte, allowing electrical current to flow and stimulate the heart.



“A very tiny light-activated switch on the opposite side from the battery allows us to turn the device from its ‘off’ state to an ‘on’ state upon delivery of light that passes through the patient’s body from the skin-mounted patch,” explained Professor Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-trauma-and-risk">Reducing trauma and risk</h2>



Using infrared light, which can safely penetrate deep into the body, the wearable controller detects when a patient’s heart rate falls too low. It then triggers a light-emitting diode (LED) to flash on and off at the desired pacing rhythm.&nbsp;



“Infrared light penetrates very well through the body,” Efimov said. “If you put a flashlight against your palm, you will see the light glow through the other side of your hand. It turns out that our bodies are great conductors of light.”



Despite its microscopic size - just 1.8 mm wide, 3.5 mm long, and 1 mm thick - the pacemaker delivers stimulation on par with traditional devices. “The heart requires a tiny amount of electrical stimulation,” Rogers said.&nbsp;



“By minimizing the size, we dramatically simplify the implantation procedures, we reduce trauma and risk to the patient, and, with the dissolvable nature of the device, we eliminate any need for secondary surgical extraction procedures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-heart-care">A new era of heart care</h2>



Because these light-activated pacemakers are so small and wireless, doctors could one day deploy multiple units on different parts of the heart to create more advanced pacing systems. 



Each device could be controlled independently using different light wavelengths, enabling personalized and precisely timed stimulation across the heart’s surface.



“We can deploy a number of such small pacemakers onto the outside of the heart and control each one,” Efimov said. “Then we can achieve improved synchronized functional care.”



Professor Rogers noted that because it’s so small, the pacemaker can be integrated with almost any kind of implantable device.



“We also demonstrated integration of collections of these devices across the frameworks that serve as transcatheter aortic valve replacements to address complications that can occur during a patient’s recovery process," said Rogers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bioelectronic-medicine">Future of bioelectronic medicine</h2>



While this breakthrough has clear implications for pediatric heart care, the technology could pave the way for a new generation of bioelectronic medicine.&nbsp;



These tiny, dissolvable devices could one day be adapted to promote nerve and bone regeneration, manage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-meditation-is-a-powerful-weapon-against-chronic-pain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain</a>, support wound healing, and more.



Northwestern engineers shrank the device and removed risks by making it dissolve after use. In doing so, they’ve created a tool that could reshape how doctors care for the heart - from the tiniest patients to adults.



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Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/j_0hZ8cUwgo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video interview...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08726-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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World's smallest pacemaker is set to revolutionize heart health

In a remarkable medical breakthrough, engineers have developed a light-activated pacemaker so tiny that doctors can inject it into the body through a syringe. Remarkably, the device simply dissolves after it’s no longer needed.&nbsp; Designed for newborns, the pacemaker could transform temporary heart care after congenital defect surgeries. Controlling the heart with light The new pacemaker is smaller than a grain of rice. It's wirelessly activated through pulses of light which are delivered by a soft, wearable device mounted on the patient’s chest. The external controller detects...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.tsukuba.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tsukuba</a> have identified a novel method to detect cognitive fatigue through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pupils-enlarge-dilate-when-working-memory-engaged-focused-on-task/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pupil</a> contraction. This discovery is particularly relevant in the realm of prolonged digital activities, such as esports, which demand high levels of mental exertion.



The study reveals that pupil diameter decreases as cognitive fatigue sets in, offering a measurable indicator of mental strain that is often unnoticed by the individual.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-cognitive-fatigue-in-esports">Addressing cognitive fatigue in esports</h2>



As digital interactions increasingly dominate our daily lives, balancing human performance and health between physical and digital realms has become a significant challenge.



While strategies for maintaining physical health are well-documented, methods for managing cognitive health during extended digital activities are still emerging.



Esports, a blend of physical and digital activities, often involve intense and prolonged mental engagement. Despite the cognitive benefits of moderate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/video-gaming-actually-improves-brain-functions-at-any-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gaming</a>, prolonged exposure can lead to adverse effects, including cognitive fatigue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The researchers set out to explore whether gamers can accurately sense their own cognitive fatigue and identify potential non-invasive indicators of this fatigue. They recruited 35 young adult participants from the University of Tsukuba and gaming communities in Akihabara, Japan.



The participants were divided into two groups: casual players, who played <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-violent-video-games-impact-the-human-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">video games</a> recreationally, and hardcore players, who engaged in competitive esports and often participated in tournaments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experimental-protocol">Experimental protocol </h2>



The participants underwent a detailed pre-experiment protocol, including a body composition analysis and a survey to assess their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/video-games-linked-to-unhealthy-habits-among-male-college-students/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gaming habits</a>, physical activity levels, and sleep patterns.



On the day of the experiment, the individuals abstained from alcohol, caffeine, and strenuous exercise to ensure uniform physiological conditions.



The experiment was conducted in a controlled environment, with temperature and humidity standardized to 23°C and 50%, respectively. Participants played a virtual football game for three continuous hours in individual tents to maintain consistent visual stimuli.



During the gaming session, heart rates were monitored using a chest-worn heart rate sensor, and pupil diameters were measured using an eye tracker positioned at the bottom of the monitor. This setup allowed for real-time tracking of physiological responses without interrupting the gaming experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-declining-cognitive-performance">Declining cognitive performance </h2>



Cognitive performance was assessed using three specific tasks: the Flanker task, the Stroop task, and the Simon task. These tasks measured different aspects of executive function, such as reaction time and accuracy in response to visual stimuli.



Assessments were conducted before the gaming session and at hourly intervals to track changes in cognitive function over time.



In addition to cognitive tasks, participants completed questionnaires to gauge their subjective feelings of enjoyment and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-fatigue-impairs-athletic-performance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fatigue</a> using visual analog scales.



Initially, casual players showed an improvement in executive function after one hour of gameplay, particularly in the Flanker task, which measures the ability to manage directional interference. 



However, after two hours, both casual and hardcore players exhibited a decline in cognitive performance. This was evident in increased reaction times and decreased accuracy in cognitive tasks.



Interestingly, this cognitive fatigue did not align with the players’ subjective feelings of fatigue, suggesting a dissociation between perceived and actual cognitive states.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognitive-performance-and-pupil-size">Cognitive performance and pupil size</h2>



The most striking finding was the significant decrease in pupil diameter after more than two hours of continuous play. This reduction in pupil size was consistent across both casual and hardcore players, indicating a decrease in physiological arousal. 



Pupil diameter, controlled by the autonomic nervous system, can reflect changes in cognitive load and fatigue. 



As cognitive fatigue set in, pupil diameter decreased, suggesting it could serve as a reliable indicator of mental exhaustion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-digital-fatigue-management">Implications for digital fatigue management</h2>



Despite observed cognitive fatigue and pupil constriction, there were no significant changes in heart rate or cortisol levels throughout the gaming session. 



This lack of change in traditional stress markers implies that the cognitive fatigue experienced by the players was not accompanied by increased physiological stress. 



Instead, the decrease in pupil diameter provided a more sensitive measure of cognitive fatigue.



Both casual and hardcore players reported increased enjoyment during the gaming session, which did not correlate with the onset of cognitive fatigue. 



The sense of fatigue, as measured by subjective questionnaires, did not significantly increase until after three hours of play for casual players and remained relatively stable for hardcore players. 



This disparity suggests that players may not be fully aware of their cognitive decline, potentially leading to overexertion without realizing it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pupil-diameter-as-a-marker-for-cognitive-fatigue">Pupil diameter as a marker for cognitive fatigue</h2>



The researchers concluded that pupil diameter is a promising non-invasive marker for detecting cognitive fatigue during prolonged digital activities such as esports. This finding is particularly relevant for developing strategies to manage digital fatigue and promote healthier gaming practices. 



However, the study also had its limitations. The sample size was relatively small, and the experiment was conducted in a controlled environment that may not fully represent real-world conditions. Additionally, the study focused on a specific type of esports game - virtual football - and the results might differ with other game genres or in different contexts.



Future research could expand on these findings by exploring other types of digital activities, involving a more diverse participant pool, and testing in real-world settings. 



Investigating the impact of different gaming conditions, such as competitive stress and social interactions, could also provide deeper insights into the dynamics of cognitive fatigue.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563224000876" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Direct</a>.



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Pupil size reveals hidden cognitive fatigue

Researchers at the University of Tsukuba have identified a novel...

The first week after birth is a pivotal period for the development of the senses in newborn mammals. Smell and touch are the earliest sensations perceived, enabling newborns to nurse and bond with their mothers.



Defects in these early senses can lead to various <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toddler-screen-time-linked-to-atypical-sensory-behaviors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurodevelopmental disorders</a> in humans.



"Our senses are crucial for the proper formation and functioning of brain circuits," noted Professor Theofanis Karayannis, co-director of the Brain Research Institute at the <a href="https://www.hifo.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a> (UZH).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-odors-on-newborn-brains">Impact of odors on newborn brains</h2>



Previous research has underscored the importance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emotions-sensory-perception-brain-fascinating-interplay/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensory</a> input for the development of corresponding senses - odors for smell, sounds for hearing, and so on. However, little is known about how different senses may influence the maturation of each other.



To address this gap, the research team delved into the effects of olfactory stimuli on the brains of newborn mice.



The researchers delivered a pleasant odor to the nostrils of the pups and mapped the resulting brain activity using advanced wide field-of-view imaging of one cortical hemisphere. 



They observed that odors triggered neural activity across a large part of the cerebral cortex, including areas responsible for touch.



"Using anatomical and functional approaches in mice, we reveal that odor-driven activity propagates to a large part of the cortex during the first postnatal week and enhances whisker-evoked activation of primary whisker somatosensory cortex," noted the study authors. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-critical-window-after-birth">A critical window after birth</h2>



This phenomenon was observed within a very short window of time: the first week after birth. In older pups and adult mice, odors affected more restricted areas of the brain.



"This clearly shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-story-behind-our-sense-of-smell-is-coming-into-focus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">olfactory</a> input in the first postnatal week induces a special pattern of electrical activity in the brain. This indicated to us that it may be essential for the formation of brain circuits for non-olfactory sensory processing," explained Professor Karayannis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-link-between-smell-and-touch">The link between smell and touch</h2>



To test this assumption, the team investigated whether early olfactory stimulation is also crucial for the maturation of the sense of touch.



They trained adult mice to distinguish between fine and coarse sandpaper touching their whiskers - a primary way mice survey their environment.



The researchers found that mice deprived of olfactory input in their first week performed significantly worse than those exposed to odors. 



"A deficiency in olfaction during the critical window of time also affects touch processing in later life," explained Professor Karayannis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-sensory-interactions-and-brain-anatomy">Early sensory interactions and brain anatomy</h2>



The transient functional interaction between smell and touch was evident in the brain's anatomy. 



During the first week of life, the researchers detected a string of nerve connections between the brain areas that process smell and touch. This link disappeared within a few weeks.



"Our study demonstrates that early-life exposure to odor is essential for touch development and maturation," said Professor Karayannis. "This finding perhaps extends to other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loss-of-smell-may-be-the-earliest-warning-of-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">senses</a> such as hearing or sight, which mature later in life."



Although the experiments were conducted with newborn mice, previous findings suggest similar processes occur in the human brain. Such sensory deficits can result from genetic alterations or environmental factors.



"Our findings raise attention to assessing the impact of olfactory deficiencies, especially early in life, on the maturation of general sensory and cognitive processing." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-benefits-of-odor-therapy-in-newborns">Potential benefits of odor therapy in newborns </h2>



One practical implication of this research relates to premature babies in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs), where they are deprived of a normal sensory environment. This deprivation can potentially have long-term cognitive and emotional effects to the newborns.



"While hospitals aim to provide optimal tactile, auditory, and visual stimuli to these babies, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-sense-of-smell-can-change-the-colors-we-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense of smell</a> is not as widely used," said Professor Karayannis. "Our results suggest a mechanism by which proper olfactory cues may positively support the development of various sensory and cognitive skills in babies."



The study emphasizes the crucial role of early sensory experiences in the proper development of brain circuits, highlighting the need for a holistic approach to sensory stimulation in early life, particularly for vulnerable populations such as premature infants.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn5611" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Odors influence newborn brain growth in the first week

The first week after birth is a pivotal period for...

Around two million years ago, Earth was home to early human ancestors living alongside saber-toothed tigers, mastodons, and massive rodents.&nbsp;



The planet experienced multiple ice ages, likely caused by factors such as Earth’s tilt, rotation, tectonics, volcanic activity, and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.&nbsp;



However, a new study led by <a href="https://www.bu.edu/">Boston University</a> (BU) has suggested that the sun’s location in the galaxy may have also played a significant role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interstellar-cloud-encounter">Interstellar cloud encounter </h2>



The experts found that around two million years ago, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-water-travel-through-our-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a> encountered an interstellar cloud dense enough to disrupt the sun’s solar wind, which forms the protective heliosphere around the solar system.&nbsp;



The heliosphere shields Earth from harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-surges-of-cosmic-radiation-from-space-directly-linked-to-earthquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic radiation</a> and galactic rays, which can alter DNA. The dense cloud compressed the heliosphere, briefly exposing Earth to the interstellar medium.



“This paper is the first to quantitatively show there was an encounter between the sun and something outside of the solar system that would have affected Earth’s climate,” said lead author Merav Opher, an astrophysicist at BU.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-wind-and-the-interstellar-medium-nbsp">Solar wind and the interstellar medium&nbsp;</h2>



Opher’s models, which propose that the heliosphere is shaped like a puffy croissant, have significantly influenced the understanding of how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-solar-wind-which-creates-beautiful-auroras-on-earth-is-now-less-mysterious/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar wind</a> interacts with the interstellar medium.



To investigate these phenomena, Opher and her team used sophisticated computer models to trace the sun’s position two million years ago.&nbsp;



They mapped the path of the Local Ribbon of Cold Clouds system, a series of large, dense, and cold clouds primarily composed of hydrogen atoms.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-lynx-of-cold-cloud">Local Lynx of Cold Cloud</h2>



The simulations indicated that the Local Lynx of Cold Cloud, a part of this ribbon, could have collided with the heliosphere.



If such a collision occurred, Earth would have been exposed to the interstellar medium, which contains gas, dust, and radioactive particles from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hm-sagittae-star-exploded-nova-40-years-ago-has-not-dimmed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exploded stars</a>. Normally, the heliosphere filters out these particles, but without it, they could reach Earth.&nbsp;



This scenario aligns with geological evidence showing increased levels of iron-60 and plutonium-244 isotopes in ocean sediments, lunar samples, Antarctic snow, and ice cores from that period, coinciding with a cooling phase on Earth. 



Iron 60 and plutonium 244 are very rare heavy metals that are created when massive stars explode.



“It is everywhere, in the deep ocean, on the moon, on ice in Antarctica,” said Opher. “These papers describe a global phenomenon. Something happened. And iron 60 is not produced on Earth. So I knew that somehow this iron 60 got trapped in dust, and somehow, 2 to 3 million years ago, we had more dust delivered to us.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dense-cloud-compressed-the-heliosphere-nbsp">Dense cloud compressed the heliosphere&nbsp;</h2>



“Only rarely does our cosmic neighborhood beyond the solar system affect life on Earth,” said co-author Avi Loeb, the director of <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>’s Institute for Theory and Computation.&nbsp;



“It is exciting to discover that our passage through dense clouds a few million years ago could have exposed the Earth to a much larger flux of cosmic rays and hydrogen atoms.”



The pressure from the Local Lynx of Cold Cloud could have kept the heliosphere compressed for hundreds of years to a million years, depending on the cloud’s size. Once Earth moved away from the cloud, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heliosphere-best-path-space-probes-beyond-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heliosphere</a> would have re-expanded to encompass all the planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-interstellar-clouds-and-earth-s-climate-nbsp">Interstellar clouds and Earth's climate&nbsp;</h2>



While it is difficult to determine the exact impact of these cold clouds on Earth’s climate, Opher argued that the sun has likely encountered other cold clouds over billions of years and will do so again in the future.&nbsp;



Her team is now working on mapping the sun’s location seven million years ago and further back, using data from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Gaia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency’s Gaia mission</a>, which is creating the largest 3D map of the galaxy.



“This cloud was indeed in our past, and if we crossed something that massive, we were exposed to the interstellar medium,” noted Opher. 



Her team at BU’s NASA-funded SHIELD (Solar wind with Hydrogen Ion Exchange and Large-scale Dynamics) DRIVE Science Center is now exploring the potential effects on Earth’s radiation, atmosphere, and climate.



“This is only the beginning,” Opher said. She hopes this research will lead to further exploration of how the solar system’s encounters with interstellar forces have shaped Earth’s history and life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41550-024-02279-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



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Earth collided with an interstellar cloud millions of years ago

Around two million years ago, Earth was home to early...

We all know bumblebees as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bee-day-2024-bee-engaged-with-youth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tireless workers</a> that buzz around our gardens, pollinating flowers and making honey. But did you know that these smart creatures are also capable of complex logical reasoning? 



A recent study from the <a href="https://www.stir.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Stirling</a> has revealed that bumblebees possess a surprising level of intelligence previously thought to be the exclusive domain of humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inferential-reasoning">Inferential reasoning</h2>



Inferential reasoning is a complex cognitive process that enables individuals to make informed deductions and judgments even when faced with incomplete information. 



Unlike simpler forms of reasoning that rely on direct observation or explicit instructions, inferential reasoning requires the ability to analyze available data, identify patterns, and apply logical principles to draw conclusions that extend beyond what is explicitly stated. 



This sophisticated cognitive skill has been traditionally considered a hallmark of human intelligence, but recent research suggests that it may be more widespread in the animal kingdom than previously thought.



In essence, inferential reasoning involves filling in the gaps of knowledge by connecting the dots between disparate pieces of information. 



It allows individuals to make sense of their environment, predict future events, and solve complex problems even when faced with uncertainty or ambiguity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sweet-rewards-and-smart-bees">Sweet rewards and smart bees</h2>



Dr. Gema Martin-Ordas, the lead researcher behind this study, designed a clever experiment to test the bumblebees' logical prowess. 



She presented wild bumblebees with a series of sugar-coated paper strips, varying their position and color. The bees were then tasked with finding the corresponding strip that hid a sweet reward.



The results were astonishing. The bumblebees consistently searched in the correct location for the hidden treat, demonstrating a clear understanding of the relationship between the different strips. 



"The results are very robust because bees' performance was consistent across the experiments," says Dr. Martin-Ordas, one of study's researchers. This remarkable finding not only challenges our understanding of insect intelligence but also raises intriguing questions about the origins of logical reasoning itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smart-qualities-in-bumblebees">Smart qualities in bumblebees</h2>



The discovery that bumblebees can reason inferentially has scientists buzzing with excitement. 



"This is the first time that this ability is shown in invertebrates, specifically in insects, and questions whether language or big brains are required for this ability," explains Dr. Martin-Ordas. 



It seems that complex thought processes might not be limited to creatures with large brains or sophisticated language skills. This opens up a whole new world of possibilities for understanding intelligence across different species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-smart-bumblebees">Significance of the smart bumblebees</h2>



Aside from being a fascinating scientific discovery, understanding the cognitive abilities of bumblebees has important implications for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/different-bee-species-have-unique-nutritional-needs-and-appetites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>. 



Bumblebees are essential pollinators, playing a crucial role in maintaining healthy ecosystems and food production. Unfortunately, their populations have been declining in recent years due to habitat loss, pesticide use, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-colonies-are-collapsing-as-climate-change-progresses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.



By understanding the intelligence of these vital insects, we can develop more effective strategies for protecting them and ensuring their survival. Dr. Martin-Ordas hopes that her research will contribute to these conservation efforts. 



"Bee decline has become a very public symbol of environment deterioration, which has galvanized conservation efforts through public appreciation. This conservation effort has been further propelled by many of the fascinating discoveries about bees' cognition. I hope the results of my study will also contribute to these conservation efforts," noted Dr. Martin-Ordas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-buzz-worthy-discoveries-to-come">More buzz-worthy discoveries to come</h2>



This study is just the tip of the iceberg when it comes to understanding the intelligence of the smart bumblebees. 



As scientists continue to delve deeper into the minds of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-face-a-multitude-of-complex-stressors-in-the-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tiny creatures</a>, we can expect even more exciting discoveries that challenge our preconceived notions about what it means to be smart and intelligent.



So, the next time you see a bumblebee buzzing around your garden, take a moment to appreciate its remarkable cognitive abilities. These little pollinators are more than just busy workers; they're also brilliant thinkers with a surprising capacity for logic and deduction.



And who knows, maybe they'll even teach us a thing or two about solving complex problems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2023.0561" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Bumblebees showcase smart logical reasoning abilities

We all know bumblebees as the tireless workers that buzz...

Snow leopards, those majestic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/south-africas-leopards-have-the-highest-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> of the snow-capped peaks, are renowned for their stealthy hunting skills and carnivorous diet. But what if these apex predators have a secret - a surprising preference for plants?



A fascinating study from <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto University</a> has uncovered this unexpected behavior, showing that these elusive cats are not strictly meat-eaters. 



By analyzing the DNA present in their feces, researchers have found that snow leopards consume a significant amount of plants, particularly a species called Myricaria, both in the wild and in captivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feces-of-plant-eating-snow-leopards">Feces of plant-eating snow leopards</h2>



This revelation may surprise many, as felids (the family that includes cats) are traditionally classified as carnivores, with bodies adapted to a meat-based diet. 



Yet, the Kyoto University team found Myricaria DNA in 90 fecal samples collected from wild snow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-clouded-leopard-day-the-fight-to-protect-an-elusive-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leopards</a> in the Kyrgyz Republic. Interestingly, the plant was most frequently found in samples with little or no trace of prey animal DNA.



"Given that felids are essentially <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-carnivores-need-protection-to-avoid-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carnivores</a>, we were surprised to see a higher frequency of Myricaria in samples with little or no trace of prey animal DNA, suggesting that the plant is consumed by snow leopards when they are hungry," explained Kodzue Kinoshita, the team leader from KyotoU's <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/research/fields/graduate-schools/graduate-school-of-asian-and-african-area-studies-asafas" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-snow-leopards-eat-plants">Why do snow leopards eat plants?</h2>



The discovery of snow leopards consuming plants raises intriguing questions about the motivations behind this behavior. Researchers are actively investigating several potential explanations.



One hypothesis suggests that plants may serve as a supplemental source of nutrients or hydration, especially in environments where prey is scarce or during periods of physiological stress. 



Another possibility is that certain plants could possess medicinal properties, aiding snow leopards in self-medicating against parasites or other ailments. Additionally, plant consumption might contribute to digestive health by providing fiber or aiding in the elimination of hairballs.



While each of these hypotheses presents a plausible explanation, further research is necessary to determine the precise reasons why snow leopards incorporate plants into their diet. 



By shedding light on this unexpected behavior, the study has paved the way for future investigations that could unlock the secrets behind this fascinating dietary adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snow-leopard-research">Snow leopard research</h2>



In addition to analyzing snow leopard feces, the research team expanded their study to include 36 fecal samples from other mammals inhabiting the same alpine environment. 



This marked the first instance of such a comprehensive approach to examining the relationship between prey animals and plant consumption in felid diets. 



By comparing data across different species, researchers can gain a broader understanding of dietary patterns and ecological interactions within this specific ecosystem. Prior research has documented the presence of plants in the feces of 24 out of 41 extant felid species. 



However, these previous studies lacked the depth to definitively conclude whether the consumption of specific plants, like Myricaria, is a behavior that is unique to snow leopards or simply a more common occurrence than previously understood.



The current study aims to address this knowledge gap by providing a more extensive analysis of plant consumption across various felid species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



The findings of this study are not just interesting tidbits for animal enthusiasts. They have important implications for the conservation of snow leopards, a species listed as <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/endangered-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vulnerable</a> on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://www.iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) Red List. Understanding their dietary habits could lead to improved captive environments and more suitable conservation plans.



"Through our innovative research, we anticipate providing insight into improved captive environments and more suitable conservation plans for the snow leopard," said Kinoshita.



The snow leopard's unexpected plant-eating habit serves as a reminder of the complexities of nature and the need for continued research. 



As we delve deeper into the mysteries of the animal kingdom, we uncover surprising behaviors that challenge our understanding and open up new possibilities for conservation.



While the snow leopard's penchant for Myricaria may remain an enigma for now, this study is a step towards unraveling the dietary secrets of these elusive creatures. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.240132" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



&nbsp;-----



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-----

Snow leopards: The carnivores that eat plants

Snow leopards, those majestic creatures of the snow-capped peaks, are...

In the vast, mysterious depths of the ocean, a drama spanning millions of years has been playing out in silence. A drama of survival, adaptation, and ultimately, diversity decline. The actors in this play are the sharks, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sign-of-the-times-solitary-orcas-are-hunting-great-whites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient predators</a> that have long captured our imaginations and fears. 



However, a recent study has illuminated a surprising twist in the story of sharks – a significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shocking-shark-mortality-rates-are-on-the-rise-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decrease</a> in their functional diversity, signaling a profound shift in the ocean's ecological balance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-functional-diversity">Functional diversity</h2>



Functional diversity refers to the variety of roles that different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silky-shark-shatters-records-by-swimming-over-17000-miles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> play within an ecosystem. This concept extends beyond simply counting the number of species present. Instead, it emphasizes the importance of the different ways these species interact with their surroundings and with one another.



For instance, within a forest ecosystem, some species may be herbivores, consuming plants, while others are predators, controlling herbivore populations. 



Some may be decomposers, breaking down dead organic matter, while others are pollinators, facilitating plant reproduction. Each of these roles contributes to the overall functioning of the ecosystem, ensuring its stability and resilience to disturbances.



When functional diversity is high, an ecosystem is better equipped to withstand environmental changes. If one species declines or disappears, others can often fill its ecological role, preventing a catastrophic collapse. 



This is why maintaining high functional diversity is crucial for the long-term health and sustainability of ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-and-declining-diversity">Sharks and declining diversity</h2>



Sharks have been around for over 250 million years, surviving countless environmental changes and mass extinction events. They are not simply mindless predators, but key players in maintaining healthy oceans. 



Some are apex predators, keeping prey populations in check and preventing them from overgrazing crucial habitats. Others are scavengers, cleaning up the seafloor and recycling nutrients. 



This functional diversity is a sign of a thriving ecosystem, a testament to the sharks' ability to adapt and thrive in a changing world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teeth-time-capsules-of-shark-diversity">Teeth: Time capsules of shark diversity </h2>



Studying the functional diversity of extinct sharks is a challenge, as their cartilaginous skeletons rarely fossilize. However, their teeth - made of durable enamel - are often preserved in the fossil record.



By analyzing the size, shape, and serrations of thousands of fossil and modern shark teeth, researchers can reconstruct the ecological roles these creatures played throughout history. It's like piecing together a jigsaw puzzle, revealing the hidden lives of these enigmatic predators.



“Measurements like tooth size, shape, and types of edges broadly reflect a shark’s functional traits such as body size and diet, allowing us to assess their functional diversity through time," noted study lead author Jack Cooper, a PhD student at <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swansea University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-golden-age-of-sharks">Golden age of sharks</h2>



The research paints a picture of a dynamic history. Sharks maintained high functional diversity for most of the last 66 million years, peaking around 20 million years ago during the Miocene epoch. This was a time of abundant marine life, and sharks thrived in their diverse roles.



From massive apex predators like the megalodon to smaller, specialized filter feeders, sharks occupied a wide range of niches, contributing to the overall health and resilience of the ocean ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-loss-of-ecological-specialists">A loss of ecological specialists</h2>



However, the past 10 million years have seen a steady decline in shark functional diversity. This decline has been driven by a combination of factors, including extinction events, environmental changes, and human-induced pressures such as overfishing. 



As we lose unique and specialized shark species, the ecological roles they once filled remain vacant, creating a ripple effect throughout the ecosystem.



One of the most significant losses in shark functional diversity is the extinction of the megalodon, the largest shark to ever exist. 



This apex predator occupied a unique ecological niche, a role that no other shark can fill today. Its disappearance marked a turning point in the ocean's history, altering the balance of power and leaving a void in the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-remaining-specialists">Protecting the remaining specialists</h2>



The decline in shark functional diversity is a sobering reminder of the impact we have on the natural world. It underscores the importance of protecting modern sharks, particularly those that fill unique ecological roles. 



By supporting sustainable fishing practices, reducing pollution, and advocating for marine protected areas, we can help preserve these ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unprovoked-shark-attacks-and-fatalities-increased-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> and the vital roles they play in maintaining the health of our oceans.



The story of sharks is not just a tale of ancient predators and their changing fortunes. It's a reflection of our own relationship with the ocean and the consequences of our actions. By understanding the complex history and ecological significance of sharks, we can make informed decisions about their conservation and the future of our planet.



The ocean is a vast and mysterious realm, teeming with life and interconnectedness. Sharks are an integral part of this web of life, and their decline is a warning sign that we must heed. It's a call to action to protect these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-face-deadly-threats-in-shipping-lanes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnificent creatures</a> and the fragile ecosystems they call home.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/geb.13881" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Ecology and Biogeography</a>.



-----



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Shark diversity hits 66-million-year low

In the vast, mysterious depths of the ocean, a drama...

Deep beneath our feet, in the heart of our planet, something unexpected is happening. Scientists have discovered that Earth's inner core, a solid iron-nickel sphere roughly the size of the moon, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-ice-caps-changing-earths-rotation-need-negative-leap-second/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">is slowing down</a>.



This finding challenges previous assumptions about the inner core's behavior and raises intriguing questions about its impact on our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-20-year-long-debate-settled">20-year long debate settled</h2>



The movement of the inner core has been a topic of scientific debate for over two decades. While some research suggested that the inner core rotates faster than the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>'s surface, the new USC study provides unambiguous evidence to the contrary. 



According to <a href="https://dornsife.usc.edu/profile/john-vidale/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">John Vidale</a>, Dean's Professor of Earth Sciences at <a href="https://dornsife.usc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USC Dornsife</a> College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, the inner core began to decrease its speed around 2010, moving slower than the Earth's surface for the first time in approximately 40 years.



"When I first saw the seismograms that hinted at this change, I was stumped," Vidale admits. "But when we found two dozen more observations signaling the same pattern, the result was inescapable. The inner core had slowed down for the first time in many decades."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composition-of-earth-s-inner-core">Composition of Earth's inner core</h2>



The extreme pressure and temperature conditions at the center of the Earth cause the iron and nickel metals that compose the core to behave in unique ways, forming a solid inner core despite the incredibly high temperatures.



The inner core's density is estimated to be about 12.8 to 13.1 grams per cubic centimeter, which is slightly less dense than pure iron at Earth's surface. 



This difference in density suggests that the inner core may contain lighter elements such as sulfur, oxygen, or silicon in addition to iron and nickel.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's magnetic field</a> is generated by the motion of the liquid iron outer core surrounding the solid inner core. This process, known as the geodynamo, is driven by the convection currents in the outer core and the Earth's rotation. The inner core plays a crucial role in stabilizing and sustaining the magnetic field.



Seismic waves traveling through the inner core exhibit anisotropy, meaning they travel at different speeds depending on their direction. This anisotropy suggests that the inner core has a complex structure, possibly with aligned iron crystals or layering.



Scientists believe that the inner core is gradually growing larger over time as the Earth cools and the outer core solidifies. This growth process is estimated to occur at a rate of about 0.5 to 1 millimeter per year, which means the inner core's age is approximately 1 to 1.5 billion years old.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-repeating-earthquakes-and-seismic-waves">Repeating earthquakes and seismic waves</h2>



To determine the slowdown of Earth's inner core, Vidale's team employed a novel methodology. Their approach centered on analyzing seismic data collected from 121 repeating earthquakes near the South Sandwich Islands between 1991 and 2023. 



These repeating earthquakes, which originate from the same location and produce identical seismic wave patterns (seismograms), provide a consistent baseline to study the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-research-enhances-predictions-on-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's interior</a>.



Additionally, the team incorporated historical data from twin Soviet nuclear tests (1971-1974) and repeated French and American nuclear tests. 



By comparing the seismic waves generated by these events over time, they were able to detect subtle changes in how long it took for the waves to travel through the Earth. 



These variations in wave travel time served as indicators of the inner core's shifting rotation patterns, ultimately leading to the discovery of its slowdown.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-possible-culprits-identified">Two possible culprits identified</h2>



The exact cause of the inner core's slowdown remains unclear, but Vidale proposes two primary factors. 



First, the turbulent movement of the liquid iron outer core, responsible for generating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weak-magnetic-field-may-have-set-the-stage-for-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's magnetic field</a>, could be exerting a drag force on the inner core, slowing its rotation. 



Second, gravitational interactions with the denser regions of the rocky mantle above the outer core could be pulling on the inner core, further contributing to its deceleration.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/earth-inner-core-rotation_slowing-down_credit-Edward-Sotelo_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/earth-inner-core-rotation_slowing-down_credit-Edward-Sotelo_1s.jpg" alt="Earth's inner core began to decrease its speed around 2010, moving slower than the Earth’s surface. Credit: USC/Edward Sotelo" class="wp-image-1936479"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Earth's inner core began to decrease its speed around 2010, moving slower than the Earth’s surface. Credit: USC/Edward Sotelo</figcaption></figure>



These intricate interactions deep within the Earth highlight the interconnected nature of our planet's systems. 



The inner core's rotation is not isolated but rather influenced by the complex interplay of forces within the Earth's interior. 



Understanding these dynamics is crucial for comprehending how our planet functions and evolves over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ripple-effects-on-the-surface">Ripple effects on the surface</h2>



The implications of this change in the inner core's movement for Earth's surface are still a matter of speculation. Vidale notes that the backtracking of the inner core may alter the length of a day by fractions of a second. 



"It's very hard to notice, on the order of a thousandth of a second, almost lost in the noise of the churning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ringwoodite-mineral-confirms-vast-ocean-exists-400-miles-under-earths-crust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans</a> and atmosphere," Vidale adds.



While the immediate effects may be subtle, this discovery opens up a new avenue of research, offering a deeper understanding of the intricate processes that shape our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deeper-into-earth-s-inner-core">Deeper into Earth's inner core</h2>



The USC scientists are eager to continue their research and chart the trajectory of the inner core in greater detail. 



By unraveling the mysteries of Earth's heart, they hope to shed light on the complex interplay of forces that drive our planet's evolution.



"The dance of the inner core might be even more lively than we know so far," Vidale concludes. 



This new discovery reminds us that even the most seemingly solid and unchanging parts of our world are in constant motion, influenced by a complex web of interactions that we are only beginning to understand.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07536-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Earth's inner core rotation is slowing down, making our days a bit longer

Deep beneath our feet, in the heart of our planet,...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-travel-takes-a-greater-toll-on-astronauts-brains-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space flight</a> significantly alters kidney structure and function, with galactic radiation causing permanent damage, which could jeopardize any mission to Mars, according to new research led by <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> (UCL). 



This study is the most extensive analysis of kidney health in space to date and includes the first health dataset for commercial astronauts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-flight-and-health-issues">Space flight and health issues</h2>



Researchers have known since the 1970s that space flight causes various health issues, such as bone mass loss, heart and eyesight weakening, and kidney stone development.&nbsp;



These problems are believed to stem from exposure to space radiation, including solar winds from the Sun and Galactic Cosmic Radiation (GCR) from deep space, from which Earth's magnetic field partially shields astronauts in Low Earth orbit (LEO).&nbsp;



However, the 24 individuals who traveled to the moon experienced unmitigated GCR exposure for only short durations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kidney-response-to-space-flight-nbsp">Kidney response to space flight&nbsp;</h2>



The current study aimed to explore how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-human-kidneys-feasible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kidneys</a> respond to space flight conditions. A UCL-led team from over 40 institutions across five continents conducted various experiments and analyses, using data and samples from 20 study cohorts. 



This included samples from over 40 LEO space missions involving humans and mice, mostly from the International Space Station, and 11 space simulations involving mice and rats.&nbsp;



Seven of these simulations exposed mice to simulated GCR doses equivalent to 1.5-year and 2.5-year Mars missions, replicating space flight beyond Earth's magnetic field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kidneys-are-remodeled-in-space-nbsp">Kidneys are remodeled in space&nbsp;</h2>



The results indicated that both human and animal kidneys are 'remodeled' in space, with kidney tubules responsible for calcium and salt balance showing signs of shrinkage after less than a month.&nbsp;



This change is likely due to microgravity rather than GCR, although further research is needed to determine if the interaction between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microgravity-causes-big-problems-with-human-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microgravity</a> and GCR can worsen these structural changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kidney-stone-formation-nbsp">Kidney stone formation&nbsp;</h2>



Previously, the primary reason for kidney stone formation in space was assumed to be microgravity-induced bone loss leading to a calcium build-up in the urine.&nbsp;



However, the recent findings suggest that space flight fundamentally alters how kidneys process salts, likely contributing to kidney stone formation.



A particularly concerning finding for potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-missions-prepare-intense-solar-storms-coming-red-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars missions</a> is that mice exposed to simulated GCR for 2.5 years experienced permanent kidney damage and loss of function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-astronauts-on-long-space-missions">Astronauts on long space missions</h2>



“We know what has happened to astronauts on the relatively short space missions conducted so far, in terms of an increase in health issues such as kidney stones. What we don’t know is why these issues occur, nor what is going to happen to astronauts on longer flights such as the proposed mission to Mars,” said lead author Keith Siew, an expert in renal medicine at UCL.



“If we don’t develop new ways to protect the kidneys, I’d say that while an astronaut could make it to Mars they might need dialysis on the way back. We know that the kidneys are late to show signs of radiation damage; by the time this becomes apparent it’s probably too late to prevent failure, which would be catastrophic for the mission’s chances of success.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facilitating-extended-space-travel-nbsp">Facilitating extended space travel&nbsp;</h2>



“Our study highlights the fact that if you’re planning a space mission, kidneys really matter,” added senior author Stephen B. Walsh, a professor at the same university.&nbsp;



“You can’t protect them from galactic radiation using shielding, but as we learn more about renal biology it may be possible to develop technological or pharmaceutical measures to facilitate extended space travel.”&nbsp;



“Any drugs developed for astronauts may also be beneficial here on Earth, for example by enabling cancer patients’ kidneys to tolerate higher doses of radiotherapy, the kidneys being one of the limiting factors in this regard.”



Though the study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-49212-1">Nature Communications</a>, only describes kidney health up to two and a half years, it provides the most comprehensive data available for this timeframe.&nbsp;



The findings underscore the necessity of addressing these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronauts-microbiome-health-is-crucial-to-future-space-exploration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health challenges</a> to ensure the success of long-duration space missions, such as those to Mars.



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Astronauts’ kidneys may not survive a roundtrip to Mars

Space flight significantly alters kidney structure and function, with galactic...

The sun, a brilliant display of sunspots and flares, has captivated astronomers for centuries. These mesmerizing features are driven by the solar magnetic field, generated by a process called "dynamo action."



Having long been thought to originate deep within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sun-covered-with-moss-peculiar-structure-sunspot-groups/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star's interior</a>, a new study challenges this long-held assumption, suggesting that the sun's magnetic activity may be shaped by a much shallower process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shallower-origins-of-solar-dynamo">Shallower origins of solar dynamo</h2>



In a paper published in Nature, the research team, led by Keaton Burns, a research scientist in MIT's <a href="https://math.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Mathematics</a>, presents a precise model of the sun's surface. 



By simulating perturbations in the flow of plasma within the top 5–10% of the sun, they discovered that these surface changes were sufficient to generate realistic magnetic field patterns, closely resembling those observed by astronomers.



Geoffrey Vasil, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Edinburgh</a> and co-author of the study, emphasizes the importance of this new idea, stating.



"We know the dynamo acts like a giant clock with many complex interacting parts. But we don't know many of the pieces or how they fit together. This new idea of how the solar dynamo starts is essential to understanding and predicting it," Vasil explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forecasting-space-weather">Forecasting space weather</h2>



If the sun's magnetic field does indeed arise from its outermost layers, it could have significant implications for space weather forecasting. 



By better understanding the origins of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sunspot-archipelago-15-times-wider-than-earth-spotted-by-nasa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sunspots</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noaa-issues-severe-geomagnetic-storm-watch-first-time-since-2005/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flares</a>, scientists may be able to more accurately predict geomagnetic storms that have the potential to damage satellites and telecommunications systems.



"The features we see when looking at the sun, like the corona that many people saw during the recent solar eclipse, sunspots, and solar flares, are all associated with the sun's magnetic field," explains Keaton Burns.



"We show that isolated perturbations near the sun's surface, far from the deeper layers, can grow over time to potentially produce the magnetic structures we see."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-sunspots-and-the-solar-dynamo">Simulating sunspots and the solar dynamo</h2>



Rather than attempting to simulate the complex flow of plasma throughout the entire body of the sun, which requires millions of hours on national supercomputing facilities, Burns and his colleagues focused on studying the stability of plasma flow near the surface. 



By leveraging data from helioseismology, a field that uses observed vibrations on the sun's surface to determine the average structure and flow of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geomagnetic-storms-are-influenced-by-earths-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plasma beneath the surface</a>, the team was able to develop a more targeted approach.



Burns draws an analogy to understanding the shape and stiffness of a drumhead by observing its vibrational modes in slow motion. "Similarly, we can use vibrations that we see on the solar surface to infer the average structure on the inside," he explains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dedalus-project-powerful-fluid-dynamics-tool">Dedalus Project: Powerful fluid dynamics tool</h2>



To search for patterns that could explain the sun's magnetic field, the team utilized the Dedalus Project, a numerical framework developed by Burns that can simulate various types of fluid flows with high precision. 



The code has been applied to a wide range of problems, from modeling the dynamics inside individual cells to ocean and atmospheric circulations.



"My collaborators have been thinking about the solar magnetism problem for years, and the capabilities of Dedalus have now reached the point where we could address it," Burns notes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sunspots-and-the-solar-cycle">Sunspots and the solar cycle</h2>



The team's simulations revealed patterns that match the locations and timescales of sunspots observed by astronomers since Galileo in 1612. 



Sunspots, which are relatively cooler regions that appear as dark spots on the sun's surface, are thought to be shaped by the sun's magnetic field and follow a cyclical pattern, growing and receding every 11 years.



The researchers found that certain changes in the flow of plasma within the top 5–10% of the sun's surface layers were enough to generate magnetic structures in the same regions where sunspots are typically observed. 



In contrast, changes in deeper layers produced less realistic solar dynamo fields that were concentrated near the poles rather than the equator.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inspired-by-black-hole-accretion-disks">Inspired by black hole accretion disks</h2>



The team's motivation to examine flow patterns near the sun's surface stemmed from the similarity between these conditions and the unstable plasma flows observed in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-black-hole-disrupts-a-bigger-one-causing-cosmic-hiccups/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">accretion disks around black holes</a>. 



Accretion disks are massive disks of gas and stellar dust that rotate towards a black hole, driven by the "magnetorotational instability," which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">generates turbulence</a> in the flow and causes it to fall inward.



Burns and his colleagues suspected that a similar phenomenon might be at play in the sun and that the magnetorotational instability in the sun's outermost layers could be the first step in generating the sun's magnetic field.



While the team's findings may be met with some controversy, as most of the scientific community has been focused on finding solar dynamo action deep within the sun, Burns believes their results provide a better match to observations. 



The team continues to study whether these new surface field patterns can generate individual sunspots and the full <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-storms-will-intensify-then-slow-as-the-solar-cycle-peaks-in-early-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">11-year solar cycle</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-the-deep-solar-dynamo-theory">Challenging the deep solar dynamo theory</h2>



In summary, this important study challenges the long-held belief that the sun's magnetic field originates from a solar dynamo deep within its interior. 



By simulating perturbations in the flow of plasma near the sun's surface and comparing the results with observational data, the team has shown that the sun's magnetic field and its associated features, such as sunspots and flares, may arise from much shallower surface depths than previously thought. 



This finding offers a new perspective on the fundamental processes driving solar activity, and holds promise for improving space weather forecasting and protecting vital satellite and telecommunications systems. 



As the scientific community continues to debate and build upon this research, we move closer to unraveling the enigmatic nature of our nearest star and its far-reaching influence on our technology-dependent world.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-01357-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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'Solar dynamo' and the secret origin of the Sun's magnetic field

The sun, a brilliant display of sunspots and flares, has...

Although we often seek peace and quiet in the woods, a recent study led by the USDA Forest Service <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/rmrs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rocky Mountain Research Station</a> has revealed that our recreation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-protected-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">noise</a> follows us, disturbing wildlife. 



This noise triggers fear responses in animals, akin to escaping predators, raising concerns about whether these habitats offer real refuge when humans are present and highlighting the need to balance recreation and conservation.



“Providing outdoor recreational opportunities to people and protecting wildlife are dual goals of many land managers,” wrote the study authors.



“However, recreation is associated with negative effects on wildlife, ranging from increased stress hormones to shifts in habitat use to lowered reproductive success.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-responses-to-recreation-noise-nbsp">Wildlife responses to recreation noise&nbsp;</h2>



“Wildlife responses to recreation noise are often unobservable, and it was a fun research challenge,” said lead author Katherine Zeller, an expert in wildlife biology at the Rocky Mountain Research Station.&nbsp;



“Our study is the first to quantify responses to human-produced recreation noise based on recreation type, group size, group vocalizations, and wildlife species. Information like this can help managers balance recreation opportunities with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildlife-conservation-can-help-stabilize-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> management, which is critical as outdoor recreation continues to grow in popularity.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mimicking-recreation-noise-to-study-wildlife">Mimicking recreation noise to study wildlife</h2>



The research was conducted in the Bridger-Teton National Forest, Wyoming. The scientists used an innovative method to isolate and study the effects of recreation noise on various mammal species.&nbsp;



The team placed wildlife cameras and speakers on trails, playing different types of noise when animals approached and capturing their reactions. These noises mimicked activities such as hiking, mountain biking, and off-highway vehicle use, with variations in group size and vocal presence.&nbsp;



This setup allowed scientists to observe immediate changes in animal behavior and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inequitable-impacts-of-urban-noise-pollution-harm-people-and-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> presence in response to these noises. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-findings-of-the-study">Key findings of the study</h2>



<ul>
<li>Increased fleeing and vigilance: Wildlife were 3.1 to 4.7 times more likely to flee and showed vigilance behaviors for 2.2 to 3.0 times longer when exposed to recreation noise compared to natural sounds or silence.</li>



<li>Reduced wildlife presence: The local wildlife abundance was 1.5 times lower in the week following exposure to recreation noise.</li>



<li>Impact of group size and activity type: Larger groups, especially vocal hikers and mountain bikers, had a 6 to 8 times greater likelihood of causing wildlife to flee.</li>



<li>Species sensitivity: Elk and black bears were most sensitive to recreation noise, fleeing most consistently, while large carnivores were least affected.</li>
</ul>



“Our findings highlight the need for thoughtful planning, with potential consideration of noise mitigation measures to minimize the impact on wildlife while still providing outdoor recreational opportunities for people,” said study co-author Mark Ditmer, an ecologist at the Rocky Mountain Research Station.



“Noise from recreation can carry far beyond a trail system, so understanding how noise alone can affect wildlife is important for management.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-human-noise-on-wildlife">Impacts of human noise on wildlife</h2>



Human noise has significant impacts on wildlife, disrupting their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-and-light-pollution-alter-the-breeding-behavior-of-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural behaviors</a> and habitats. This noise, often originating from urban development, transportation, and industrial activities, can interfere with animals' communication, making it difficult for them to find mates, avoid predators, and care for their young. 



For instance, birds may sing louder and at higher pitches to be heard over the din, which can be energetically costly and less effective.&nbsp;



Marine life, particularly species like whales and dolphins that rely on echolocation, can be severely affected by underwater noise pollution from ships and sonar, leading to disorientation, stress, and even strandings.&nbsp;



Additionally, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposure-to-traffic-noise-disrupts-bird-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chronic noise exposure</a> can alter wildlife behavior, causing animals to avoid noisy areas, which may result in the loss of critical habitats and food sources. 



These disturbances can also affect reproduction rates and increase mortality rates due to accidents or predation in unfamiliar territories.&nbsp;



The overall biodiversity and health of ecosystems can be compromised as species struggle to adapt to the relentless presence of human-made noise.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.05.030" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Outdoor recreation noise triggers fear response in wildlife

Although we often seek peace and quiet in the woods,...

Stromatolites are ancient structures formed by layers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-algae-genes-chlorophyll-boost-crop-yields-land-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> that grow toward the light and precipitate carbonates.



First appearing 3.48 billion years ago, these formations dominated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-emerged-zygnema-star-algae-conquer-earths-landmass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a> as the sole living carbonate factory for nearly three billion years.



They played a crucial role in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ancient-breath-study-links-atmospheric-oxygen-and-mantle-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Oxygenation Event</a>, which introduced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ancient-breath-study-links-atmospheric-oxygen-and-mantle-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen</a> to our atmosphere and drastically altered Earth's environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algae-layers-and-stromatolites">Algae layers and stromatolites</h2>



Stromatolites are layered structures formed by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/clear-lake-turns-green-with-algal-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity of algae</a>, specifically cyanobacteria. These ancient formations date back 3.48 billion years and are some of the oldest evidence of life on Earth. 



Cyanobacteria in stromatolites perform <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>, capturing sunlight and producing oxygen, which was crucial in transforming Earth's early atmosphere.



Stromatolites thrived for billions of years, dominating Earth's shallow marine environments and playing a pivotal role in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Oxygenation Event</a> around 2.4 billion years ago. 



This event introduced significant amounts of oxygen into the atmosphere, paving the way for more complex life forms to evolve.



Despite their ancient origins, stromatolites are not just relics of the past. They can still be found today in extreme environments where other life forms struggle to survive. 



Notable locations include Shark Bay in Australia, where hypersaline conditions limit competition, and now, Sheybarah Island in the Red Sea. These environments mimic conditions from the Proterozoic era, allowing stromatolites to thrive.



The recent discovery on Sheybarah Island by Volker Vahrenkamp and his team has renewed interest in these ancient structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-and-resurgence-of-stromatolites-and-algae-layers">Decline and resurgence of stromatolites and algae layers</h2>



Stromatolites initially thrived, eliminating competition with their oxygen production. However, as more life forms adapted to the oxygen-rich atmosphere, stromatolites began to decline. 



Today, they appear in the geological record primarily after mass extinctions or in extreme environments.



"The bacteria are always around, but they don't usually get the chance to make stromatolites," explains Volker Vahrenkamp, the author of a new study in Geology. "They are largely outcompeted by corals."



Today, stromatolites are found in niche environments like hypersaline marine settings (e.g., Shark Bay, Australia) and alkaline lakes. 



Until recently, the only known modern analogue to the biologically diverse, shallow marine settings of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laughing-gas-supported-life-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proterozoic</a> era was the Exuma Islands in the Bahamas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-discovery-in-the-red-sea">Surprising discovery in the Red Sea</h2>



This changed when Vahrenkamp discovered living stromatolites on Sheybarah Island, located on the northeastern shelf of the Red Sea in Saudi Arabia. 



Initially studying tepee structures -- salt crust domes visible from space -- Vahrenkamp unexpectedly came across the stromatolite field.



"When I stepped on them, I knew what they were," says Vahrenkamp. "It is 2000 km of carbonate platform coastline, so in principle it is a desirable area to look for stromatolites… but then, it is the same in the Bahamas, and yet there is only one small area where you find them."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-environmental-conditions">Unique environmental conditions </h2>



Sheybarah Island features an intertidal-to-shallow subtidal setting with alternating wet and dry conditions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brazilian-coast-has-warmed-significantly-and-experiences-many-extreme-temperature-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme temperature</a> variations from 46.4°F (8°C) to over 118.4°F (48°C), and oligotrophic conditions, similar to those in the Bahamas.



These environmental conditions suggest that other stromatolite fields might exist nearby. 



Vahrenkamp and his team are currently exploring this possibility, but finding these algae structures can be challenging due to their small size, about 15 cm across.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-stromatolite-growth">Understanding stromatolite growth</h2>



The Sheybarah Island field contains several hundred stromatolites formed by algae layers, ranging from well-developed examples to more sheet-like formations.



 "Perhaps they could be juvenile," hypothesizes Vahrenkamp, "but we don't know what a baby stromatolite looks like. They must start small, but we don't know."



One challenge in studying stromatolites is determining their growth rate. 



Dating them is difficult because they contain two types of carbonate: the microbe-precipitated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-are-disrupting-earths-largest-carbon-storage-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbonate</a> of interest and the misleading carbonate sand from the environment.



Vahrenkamp's team monitors the field monthly to record any changes. There are plans to transfer some stromatolites to an aquarium to study their growth in a controlled environment -- an exciting experimental prospect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-early-life-and-beyond">Implications for early life and beyond</h2>



Vahrenkamp's discovery provides an opportunity to better understand algae structures like stromatolites, their formation and growth.



This research can offer insights into early life and ocean evolution on Earth and aid in the search for life on other planets, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-search-for-signs-of-life-on-mars-continues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>.



Stromatolites, as some of the first life forms on Earth, offer a promising avenue for understanding what life might look like on Mars and how we could recognize it.



By studying these ancient algae structures, we continue to uncover the mysteries of early life on our planet and beyond.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/52/5/347/634859/Discovery-of-modern-living-intertidal" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a>.



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Stromatolites found in the Red Sea offer new clues to the earliest life on Earth

Stromatolites are ancient structures formed by layers of algae that...

After 128 years of exploration and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ugly-fossil-unveils-secrets-of-extinct-cats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> excavation, researchers have finally unearthed the skull of Genyornis newtoni.



The skull of Australia's own giant megafauna bird was discovered by researchers from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a> in Adelaide, South Australia, shedding new light on the species that once roamed the Australian outback.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-skull-fossils-of-genyornis-newtoni">New skull fossils of Genyornis newtoni</h2>



The only previously known skull of Genyornis newtoni, reported in 1913, was heavily damaged, leaving much about this bird a mystery.



However, recent excavations from the saline, dry beds of Lake Callabonna in South Australia have brought new, nearly complete skull fossils to light. 



These findings, attributed to field trips in 2019, provide a clearer picture of what this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-known-bird-footprints-discovered-in-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient bird</a> looked like.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-the-fossil-skull">Insights into the fossil skull</h2>



Published in the journal Historical Biology, the detailed description of this remarkable skull has enabled researchers to explore the ecology, functional morphology, and evolutionary relationships of Genyornis newtoni.



Weighing around 230 kg, this bird was approximately five times the weight of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-bird-may-soon-go-extinct/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southern Cassowary</a>.



The skull features a massive braincase, large jaws, and a distinctive casque on its head. 



Its upper beak, in particular, shows surprising morphology, setting it apart from its closest relatives. 



"Genyornis newtoni had a tall and mobile upper jaw like that of a parrot but shaped like a goose, a wide gape, strong bite force, and the ability to crush soft plants and fruit on the roof of their mouth," explains Flinders University researcher Phoebe McInerney.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-evolutionary-mysteries">Unraveling evolutionary mysteries</h2>



The skull also showed complex similarities to early diverging waterfowl lineages, such as the South American Screamers and the Australian Magpie Goose. 



"The exact relationships of Genyornis within this group have been complicated to unravel; however, with this new skull, we have started to piece together the puzzle which shows, simply put, this species to be a giant goose," McInerney adds.



Co-author Dr. Trevor Worthy was particularly excited about discovering the first fossil upper bill of Genyornis. 



"For the first time, we could put a face on this bird, one very different from any other bird, yet like a goose," he says.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reconstructing-the-past">Reconstructing the past</h2>



Examining the morphology of the skull provided researchers with insights into how the head functioned, including muscle and joint movement. 



"The form of a bone, and structures on it, are partly related to the soft tissues that interact with them, such as muscles and ligaments, and their attachment sites or passages," Co-author Jacob Blokland notes. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/genyornis-newtoni-skull_credit-Jacob-Blokland_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/genyornis-newtoni-skull_credit-Jacob-Blokland_1s.jpg" alt="Genyornis newtoni skull. Credit: Jacob Blokland" class="wp-image-1936557"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Genyornis newtoni skull. Credit: Jacob Blokland</figcaption></figure>



Using modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australias-largest-eagle-was-a-massive-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> as comparatives, they are able to put flesh back on the fossils and bring them back to life.



Blokland has successfully reconstructed Genyornis newtoni through a scientifically accurate model, revealing its true form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aquatic-adaptations">Aquatic adaptations</h2>



The study on skull fossils also uncovered several unusual adaptations for aquatic habitats in Genyornis newtoni.



These adaptations include features that allowed the bird to protect its ears and throat from water influx when submerged. 



The ability to close off its ears and throat would have been crucial for an animal living in or around water.



These adaptations suggest that Genyornis newtoni was well-suited to life in aquatic environments. The bird's ability to thrive in such habitats indicates a strong ecological connection to freshwater areas.



However, the transition of freshwater bodies in northern South Australia to salt lakes may have played a significant role in the extinction of Genyornis newtoni. 



The loss of suitable freshwater habitats would have made survival increasingly difficult for this species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greater-understanding-of-genyornis-newtoni">Greater understanding of Genyornis newtoni</h2>



With this new skull, researchers have gained a greater understanding of Genyornis newtoni. They have identified its unique features, including its tall and mobile upper jaw and its strong bite force. 



The skull also provided information about the bird's way of life, such as its diet and habitat preferences.



This discovery offers invaluable insights into the history of these giant birds. Researchers now have a clearer picture of how Genyornis newtoni lived and interacted with its environment.



Additionally, this finding helps explain the factors that led to the species' eventual disappearance from the Australian landscape.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2024.2308212" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Historical Biology</a>.



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Prehistoric 'giga-goose' bird recently discovered was a true giant

After 128 years of exploration and fossil excavation, researchers have...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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