Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Like all the other vaccines, the revolutionary mRNA <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-booster-shots-are-highly-effective-against-hospitalization/">vaccines</a> need to be injected. This can be a hurdle for many people who fear needles. A research team led by the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) has recently developed a way of delivering RNA in a capsule that can be easily swallowed, hoping that this new technology could make more people receptive to vaccination. 



Moreover, in addition to making vaccines easier to tolerate, this approach could also be employed to deliver other types of therapeutic RNA or DNA directly into the digestive tract and treat a variety of gastrointestinal diseases such as ulcers.



“Nucleic acids, in particular RNA, can be extremely sensitive to degradation particularly in the digestive tract. Overcoming this challenge opens up multiple approaches to therapy, including potential vaccination through the oral route,” said study senior author Giovanni Traverso, an expert in Biomedical Engineering at MIT and a gastroenterologist at <a href="https://www.brighamandwomens.org/">Brigham and Women’s Hospital</a> in Boston.



In their new experimental study, Professor Traverso and his colleagues managed to develop a capsule that could deliver up to 150 micrograms of RNA (which is more than the amount used in COVID-19 vaccines) in the stomach of pigs. This research is built upon previous <a href="https://news.mit.edu/2019/pill-deliver-insulin-orally-0207">studies</a> in which they developed new ways to deliver solid drugs, such as insulin, into the lining of the stomach.



Since nucleic acids are susceptible to degradation when entering the body, they need to be carried by protective particles. The scientists developed a new type of polymer called poly(beta-amino esters), which seemed to be much more effective than linear polymers at protecting nucleic acids and delivering them into cells. They also discovered that using two of these polymers together was more effective than using only one.&nbsp;



“We made a library of branched, hybrid poly(beta-amino esters), and we found that the lead polymers within them would do better than the lead polymers within the linear library,” explained study co-author Ameya Kirtane, a postdoctoral fellow at MIT. “What that allows us to do now is to reduce the total amount of nanoparticles that we are administering.”



Although the reporter proteins showing that cells have been successful in absorbing RNA have been detected in pigs’ stomachs after the delivery of the capsules, they have not been found elsewhere in their organisms. Further experimental research is needed to manage to increase RNA uptake in other organs, by changing the composition of the nanoparticles or providing larger doses.&nbsp;



However, scientists believe that it may also be possible to generate strong immune responses with delivery only to the stomach. “There are many immune cells in the gastrointestinal tract, and stimulating the immune system of the gastrointestinal tract is a known way of creating an immune response,” said study lead author Alex Abramson, a postdoctoral researcher at MIT.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matt.2021.12.022">Matter</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists are making vaccines easier to swallow

Like all the other vaccines, the revolutionary mRNA vaccines need...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mercury-levels-in-bluefin-tuna-reveal-patterns-of-ocean-pollution/">Mercury</a> is a dangerous neurotoxin which can negatively impact brain development in fetuses and children. The U.S. <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (E.P.A.) has attempted to limit mercury emissions from coal plants since 2012. During the Trump administration, however, the EPA determined that the industry costs of these rules outweighed their benefits. As a result, the agency stopped enforcing restrictions on mercury emissions.&nbsp;



On Monday, January 31, 2022, the Biden administration said that it will resume enforcement of the 2012 Mercury and Air Toxics Standards for regulating mercury emissions. The action is part of a of Biden-era plan to reduce water and air <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childrens-public-health-strategies-must-focus-on-pollution/">pollution</a>.



“Sound science makes it clear that we need to limit mercury and toxins in the air to protect children and vulnerable communities from dangerous pollution,” said EPA Administrator Michael S. Regan. “E.P.A. is committed to aggressively reducing pollution from the power sector so that all people, regardless of zip code or amount of money in their pocket, can breathe clean air and live healthy and productive lives.”



According to the EPA, the mercury rules first implemented during the Obama administration sharply reduced mercury emissions while they were in place. Compared to 2010 levels, mercury emissions from power plants were 86 percent lower by 2017, before the rules were deemed to be neither appropriate nor necessary in May of 2020.&nbsp;



The reinforcement of mercury restrictions is part of a broader series of environmental regulations planned or already taken by the Biden administration in order to reduce pollution. These measures include placing limits on tailpipe emissions, converting the American automobile industry from gas-powered cars to electric vehicles, restricting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-methane-is-the-fastest-way-to-slow-global-warming/">methane</a> emissions, and limiting the spillover of pollutants in wetlands and waterways.



Limiting mercury emissions will also have important co-benefits, such as reducing other dangerous pollutants like sulfur dioxide and fine particulate soot, which are linked to increased risks of brain, heart, lung and respiratory diseases. Over five years, the benefits of curbing these emissions will likely save $80 billion and prevent 130,000 asthma attacks, 4,700 heart attacks, and 11,000 premature deaths annually.



The EPA will allow public comments on the mercury reduction proposal over the next 60 days and will hold a virtual public hearing to debate the new regulations.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mercury pollution rules reinstated under President Biden

Mercury is a dangerous neurotoxin which can negatively impact brain...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.128.035703">Physical Review Letters</a> has investigated the origins of water on Earth. According to a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.skoltech.ru/en/">Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology</a> (Skoltech) and <a href="https://en.nankai.edu.cn/">Nankai University</a>, a chemical compound that is now extinct could have helped preserve water deep underground in the era when massive asteroid collisions must have evaporated all the Earth’s surface water.



Surface <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mega-iceberg-released-152-billion-tons-of-fresh-water/">water</a> has an important role in stabilizing a planet’s climate over long periods of time, allowing life to emerge. Moreover, even small amounts of water under a planet’s surface dramatically increase rock plasticity, which is essential for plate tectonics - a process fundamentally shaping the planet’s continents and oceans, and driving earthquakes and volcanism.



While some scientists believe that water on Earth was seeded by comets, others argue that water originated deep within our planet’s mantle or even core. By using the crystal structure prediction method <a href="https://uspex-team.org/en">USPEX</a>, the researchers discovered a stable compound that could lock up hydrogen and oxygen atoms within the Earth’s interior long enough, and then release them as water: magnesium hydrosilicate (Mg2SiO5H2), which consists of over 11 percent water and is stable at extremely high temperatures and pressures of more than two million atmospheres.



According to the scientists, for over 30 million years, while the Earth was frequently bombarded by asteroids, part of the Earth’s water was safely stored away in the form of hydrosilicates at the depths of what only later on became the planet’s iron core. By the time the core formed, the hydrosilicates had been pushed into low pressure areas, where they became unstable and decomposed, producing the magnesium oxide and silicate that now form the mantle.



This theory is “a story about how a material that existed for a brief moment on the planetary timescale had a&nbsp;massive impact on the Earth’s evolution,” said study co-author Artem Oganov, a material scientist at Skoltech. “This runs counter to the usual geological mindset, but come to&nbsp;think of it, an evolutionary biologist, for whom much of what we see today has evolved out of&nbsp;now-extinct species, would hardly be surprised, would they?”



These findings have important implications for understanding other celestial bodies too. &nbsp;“Mars, for example, is&nbsp;too small to produce pressures necessary to stabilize magnesium hydrosilicate,” said Professor Oganov. “This explains why it is so dry and means that whatever water exists on Mars, it likely came from comets.”



In the case of very large planets from outside our solar system that can perhaps contain water and thus support life (the hypothetical “super-Earths”), pressures stabilizing the magnesium hydrosilicate can exist even outside the core, locking large amounts of water indefinitely. “As a result, super-Earths can have a&nbsp;much greater water content and still support the existence of exposed continents,” concluded study co-author Xiao Dong, a physicism at Nankai University.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

How did early Earth hold onto its oceans?

A new study published in the journal Physical Review Letters...

By deploying advanced computer modeling techniques, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> has found that the financial toll of flooding caused by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperate-rainforests-can-help-fight-climate-change/">climate change</a> will rise by more than a quarter (from $32 billion currently to $40.6 billion) in the United States by 2050. According to the scientists, disadvantaged communities will be the most affected by these extreme events.



Through an in-depth analysis of nation-wide property asset data combined with detailed flood projections, an international team of researchers has developed for the first time a comprehensive, high-resolution assessment of flood risk in the United States, and estimated an increase of 26.4 percent over the next three decades in the financial toll caused by flooding. Since these estimates of financial loss (including damage to houses and businesses) were based on 2021 dollar values, the actual numbers may turn out to be higher due to inflation.



“Climate change combined with shifting populations present a double whammy of flood risk danger and the financial implications are staggering,” said study lead author Dr. Oliver Wing, a research fellow at the University of Bristol.



“Typical risk models rely on historical data which doesn’t capture projected climate change or offer sufficient detail. Our sophisticated techniques using state-of-the-science flood models give a much more accurate picture of future flooding and how populations will be affected.”



According to Dr. Wing and his colleagues, disadvantaged communities such as Black or poorer White communities living on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts will be disproportionately affected by flooding events. These findings are a call to action for stepping up adaptation and mitigation strategies aiming to reduce the devastating financial impact caused by flooding.



“Current flood risk in western society is already unacceptably high, yet climate and population change threaten to inflate these losses significantly,” said study co-author Paul Bates, a professor of Hydrology at the University of Bristol.



“The relatively short timescales over which this increase will take place mean we cannot rely on decarbonisation to reduce the risk, so we have to adapt better, both to the situation now and for the future,” he warned.



The study is published in the journal Nature Climate Change.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Financial toll caused by flooding will soar by mid-century

By deploying advanced computer modeling techniques, a new study led...

Icebergs,Floating,In,The,Labrador,Sea,,Nuuk,Fjord,,Sermersooq,,Greenland

The Labrador Sea, located in the North Atlantic Ocean between Greenland and Canada, is one of the few regions on our planet where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warm-climates-linked-to-low-oxygen-dead-zones-in-the-north-pacific/">oxygen</a> from the atmosphere can reach the deep ocean directly, through “wintertime deep convection." This is a process that homogenizes the water column to a depth of up to two kilometers and brings deep water undersaturated in oxygen in direct contact with the atmosphere.&nbsp;



A new study <a href="https://www.dal.ca/">Dalhousie University</a>&nbsp;in Halifax, Canada and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.geomar.de/en/">GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel</a>&nbsp;in Germany&nbsp;has measured the flow of oxygen into the ocean interior that is carried by deep currents in the Labrador Sea, and analyzed how this intense oxygen uptake affects the properties of the outflowing deep western boundary current, which distributes oxygen to the rest of the Atlantic Ocean and beyond.&nbsp;



According to the scientists, oxygen that is “inhaled” in the Labrador Sea can support deep ocean life in Antarctica and even as far as the Pacific or Indian oceans.



By using dissolved oxygen sensors mounted for two years on anchored cables that reached from near the surface to the seafloor, the researchers investigated the connection between oxygen uptake from the atmosphere and its onward transport into the interior of the oceans.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that nearly half of the oxygen taken up from the atmosphere in the central Labrador Sea in winter was injected into the deep boundary current during the following five months, and distributed at vast distances.



“We wanted to know how much of the oxygen that is breathed in each winter actually makes it into the deep, fast-flowing currents that transport it across the globe,” said study lead author Jannes Koelling, an oceanographer at Dalhousie University.&nbsp;



“The circulation of the Labrador Sea is complex, and we’ve only focused, so far, on the most direct export route. Some oxygen-rich water may be transported eastwards, instead of to the southwest, and it may enter the boundary current off Greenland before returning southwards, over a longer time-period.”



Better understanding the pathways through which oxygen flows from the “lung of the deep ocean,” as the Labrador Sea is known, to other seas and oceans is of utmost importance in our climate change era.&nbsp;



Since climate model projections suggest that an increased supply of freshwater from melting glaciers and other climate-related changes in the Arctic could reduce the depth of wintertime mixing in the Labrador Sea in the next decades, and thus affect the life-supporting supply of oxygen to the deep sea, close monitoring of these changes is essential in order to mitigate the effects of anthropogenic global warming on a variety of ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bg.copernicus.org/articles/19/437/2022/">Biogeosciences</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Oxygen flow from the Labrador Sea sustains life globally

The Labrador Sea, located in the North Atlantic Ocean between...

Blue,Glowing,Spinning,Neutron,Star,,Computer,Generated,Abstract,Background,,3d

A research team led by the <a href="https://www.icrar.org/">International Center for Radio Astronomy Research</a> (ICRAR) has recently detected an extremely unusual object located not very far away in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-hibernating-squirrels-can-teach-space-travelers/">space</a>. This mysterious object, which is unlike anything astronomers have seen before, spins around in space and releases a giant burst of energy or beam of radiation three times per hour. 



The discovery was made using the Murchison Widefield Array (MWA) telescope in outback Western Australia.



“This object was appearing and disappearing over a few hours during our observations,” said Dr.&nbsp; Natasha Hurley-Walker, an astrophysicist at ICRAR. “That was completely unexpected. It was kind of spooky for an astronomer because there's nothing known in the sky that does that. And it's really quite close to us - about 4,000 lightyears away. It's in our galactic backyard.”



Astronomical objects that turn on and off in the Universe, called “transients” are not new to astronomers. According to study co-author Dr. Gemma Anderson, another astrophysicist at ICRAR, when studying transients, you're watching the death of a massive star or the activity of the remnants it leaves behind.&nbsp;



While “slow transients” like supernovas might appear over the course of a few days and disappear in a few months, “fast transients” such as pulsars flash on and off within seconds or even milliseconds.



However, finding a transient that turns on for a full minute three times every hour is unprecedented. The scientists think the mysterious object could be a neutron star or a white dwarf with an ultra-powerful magnetic field. It is smaller than our Sun, but extremely bright, and emits highly polarized radio waves, a feature which suggests that it has an extremely strong magnetic field.



According to Dr. Hurley-Walker, this newly discovered transient matched a predicted astrophysical object called an “ultra-long period magnetar.”&nbsp;



“It's a type of slowly spinning neutron star that has been predicted to exist theoretically,” she explained. “But nobody expected to directly detect one like this because we didn't expect them to be so bright. Somehow it's converting magnetic energy to radio waves much more effectively than anything we've seen before.”



Further observations are needed to clarify whether this object is an isolated star or part of a larger population of neutron stars that was not noticed before.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04272-x">Nature</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mysterious object detected in our galactic backyard

A research team led by the International Center for Radio...

After wreaking havoc all over the world, pushing up the number of coronavirus cases to all-time records, the highly contagious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-the-omicron-variant-jump-to-humans-from-mice/">Omicron</a> variant has already begun to subside in many countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, or Spain. However, a new version of Omicron, called BA.2, has recently been detected in several countries. The new variant raises new doubts that the pandemic is near its end, and suggests that SARS-CoV-2 may soon turn into an <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/14/world/europe/coronavirus-europe-uk.html">endemic</a> virus.&nbsp;



Estimated to be 1.5 times more contagious than the original Omicron variant BA.1, the sister-variant BA.2 (which emerged from a common ancestor with BA.1) has already become dominant in <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/ba2-subvariant-omicron-appears-more-contagious-than-ba1-denmark-says-2022-01-26/">Denmark</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0uGX4BMWD8&amp;ab_channel=ANINews">India</a>. However, according to Danish Health Minister Magnus Heunicke and scientists from Denmark’s top infectious disease authority, <a href="https://www.ssi.dk/">Statens Serum Institut</a> (SSI), the emergence of this sub-variant is no reason to panic.



“There is no evidence that the BA.2 variant causes more disease, but it must be more contagious,” Heunicke told a news conference on Wednesday, January 26, 2022.&nbsp;



“There is some indication that it is more contagious, especially for the unvaccinated, but that it can also infect people who have been vaccinated to a greater extent,” added SSI's technical director Tyra Grove Krause at the same news briefing.&nbsp;



Due to this sub-variant, Denmark’s Omicron peak may extend a bit further into February than previously estimated, but will not cause significantly more hospitalizations and deaths, said Krause.



During the past week, about one hundred BA.2 cases have also been detected in the United States, but this number is likely underestimated and is expected to skyrocket very soon. However, as in the case of Denmark, many U.S&nbsp; scientists are not very worried that BA.2 might become a serious game-changer.&nbsp;



“Variants have come, variants have gone,” said Robert Garry, a virologist at <a href="https://medicine.tulane.edu/">Tulane University School of Medicine</a>. “I don’t think there’s any reason to think this one is a whole lot worse than the current version of Omicron.”



Other scientists though, including those from the <a href="https://www.who.int">World Health Organization</a> (WHO), are more cautious, and refrain from making any sweeping statements regarding the nature and possible impact of BA.2.&nbsp;



Jacob Lemieux is an infectious diseases physician at <a href="https://www.massgeneral.org/">Massachusetts General Hospital</a> who is helping lead a state program studying coronavirus variants. He said that while we can already be certain that BA.2 will soon displace BA.1 as the dominant variant, what we don’t know, and still have almost no information on, is what impact this will have on case counts, on hospitalizations, on death.



“As of 24.01.2022, the BA.2 descendent lineage, which differs from BA.1 in some of the mutations, including in the spike protein, is increasing in many countries. Investigations into the characteristics of BA.2, including immune escape properties and virulence, should be prioritized independently (and comparatively) to BA.1,” urged WHO.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Omicron’s sister has arrived, and Covid may be here to stay

After wreaking havoc all over the world, pushing up the...

A British scientist from <a href="https://aru.ac.uk/">Anglia Ruskin University</a> has recently discovered a new species which belongs to a group of insects so rare that its closest relative was last spotted in 1969. During field work with his students in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/illegal-gold-mining-dumps-mercury-in-the-peruvian-rainforest/">rainforest</a> of the Kibale National Park in western Uganda, Dr. Alvin Helden, an expert in Animal and Environmental Biology, found a new type of leafhopper. Dr. Helden named the species Phlogis kibalensis and described it in the journal <a href="https://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/">Zootaxa</a>.



Leafhoppers are closely related to cicadas, but they are much smaller. These insects feed mainly on plant sap, which they suck directly from the phloem, and are preyed on by invertebrates such as spiders, parasitic wasps, and beetles, as well as some species of birds.



The newly discovered leafhopper is only 6.5 mm long, has a distinctive metallic sheen, pitted body, and – as most other leafhoppers – bizarre, leaf-shaped male sexual organs.



“It’s the first time I’ve ever discovered a newly described species. Personally, it’s one of those things you aspire to do as an entomologist and I’ve managed to do it now,” said Dr. Helden. “To find this new species is a once-in-a-lifetime achievement, particularly as its closest relative was last found in a different country over 50 years ago.&nbsp;I knew it was something very special as soon as I spotted it.”



“Phlogis kibalensis&nbsp;is a member of the leafhoppers. Most people are familiar with cicadas, and leafhoppers are related to cicadas. I usually describe them as much, much smaller. They all have the same overall structure; their head end is held slightly higher than their back end and they are quite colorful.”



“Leafhoppers of this genus, and the wider tribe, are very unusual in appearance, and are rarely found. In fact, they are so incredibly rare that their biology remains almost completely unknown. We know almost nothing about&nbsp;Phlogis kibalensis,&nbsp;the new species I found, including what plants it feeds on or its role in the local ecosystem.”



According to Dr. Helden, there are many other animal species waiting to be discovered. However, due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coordinated-efforts-needed-to-slow-deforestation/">deforestation</a> and habitat loss, a large number of these species may sadly become extinct before we will even know they exist. Urgent measures to protect the rainforests and other endangered ecosystems are necessary in order to avoid the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sixth-mass-extinction-is-currently-in-progress/">extinction</a> of numerous species.



Image Credit: Dr. Alvin Helden, Anglia Ruskin University



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rare insect with leaf-shaped genitals discovered in Uganda

A British scientist from Anglia Ruskin University has recently discovered...

Winter snowstorms are increasingly frequent on the United States’ eastern coast and often cause major disruption to transportation, economy, and public safety. In order to study these extreme weather events, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a> has initiated a program called <a href="https://espo.nasa.gov/impacts/content/IMPACTS">The Investigation of Microphysics and Precipitation for Atlantic Coast-Threatening Snowstorms</a> (IMPACTS).&nbsp;



With the help of an international group of experts and state-of-the-art technology, the project aims to clarify how storms develop and how snow bands can be used to predict snowfall. The research may ultimately help mitigate the natural, social, and economic impacts of snowstorms.



The team will be tracking storms with the help of two NASA planes equipped with top notch scientific instruments. One of them – the NASA Armstrong Flight Research Center’s<a href="https://airbornescience.nasa.gov/aircraft/ER-2_-_AFRC">&nbsp;ER-2</a> - will fly at 65,000 feet to get a top-down view of the storm clouds, and complement the measurements of cloud properties taken by ground-based radars.



“A project like IMPACTS can really complement those spacecraft measurements with aircraft measurements that are higher resolution, higher accuracy, sample an event more frequently, and provide additional parameters such as Doppler measurements,” explained John Yorks, one of the deputy principal investigators for IMPACTS.



The second aircraft - the<a href="https://airbornescience.nasa.gov/aircraft/P-3_Orion_-_WFF">&nbsp;P-3 Orion</a> – will fly at variable altitudes of up to 26,000 feet and will use probes hanging off its wings to measure the size, shape, and distribution of precipitation particles. Flying this aircraft at different altitudes will allow scientists measure snow particles throughout the clouds, as well as the temperature, water vapor, and other conditions in which they form.&nbsp;



Moreover, P-3 Orion will also drop small instruments called dropsondes over the ocean, which, together with weather balloons launched from the ground, will measure temperature, wind, and humidity, and provide crucial information about the atmospheric conditions before, during, and after a storm.



“Snowstorms are really complicated storms, and we need every piece of data – models, aircraft instruments, meteorological soundings – to really figure out what’s going on within these storms,” said Gerry Heymsfield, another deputy principal investigators for IMPACTS.



This data will help the scientists relate the properties of the snow particles and their environment to large-scale processes such as the structure of clouds and precipitation patterns, and thus improve meteorological models and complement the use of satellite data in order to predict how particular storms will develop and what their impact will be.&nbsp;



Today, residents of New England are bracing themselves for possible whiteout conditions, as a nor'easter has brought heavy snowfall and fierce winds to the region. More than 10 million people in coastal areas (all the way down to Virginia) are under blizzard warnings, and some areas may reach record snowfall totals. According to CNN, parts of eastern Massachusetts and Maine could get more than two feet of snow.&nbsp;



John Yorks, one of the deputy principal investigators for IMPACTS at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, explained that nor'easters travel up the East Coast and can dump several feet of snow, effectively shutting down cities. Being able to predict which areas will get hit the hardest, and with how much snow, could help cities better prepare for severe winter weather.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

NASA project aims to more accurately predict snowstorms

Winter snowstorms are increasingly frequent on the United States’ eastern...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a> has identified the genetic characteristics relevant to the behavior of two nuisance western honey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-it-comes-to-bee-colonies-size-matters/">bee</a> subspecies. The “killer bee” or “Africanized honey bee” is a light-colored bee known for its highly defensive, territorial nature, and the “cape honey bee” is a darker colored social parasite, capable of colonizing bee hives of other subspecies.



Both species are invasive bees that can easily take over colonies of managed honey bees, with costly consequences for beekeepers. Although the cape bees appear to be more docile than the Africanized bees, they are capable of an extraordinary feature that helps them overtake bee hives: they can clone themselves, producing female eggs without mating.



“More amazing than the cape bee worker’s ability to clone itself is the rate at which it can take over other colonies,” said study senior author James Ellis, a professor of Entomology and Nematology. “We are working to ensure these bees do not make their way to the United States because in most cases, when these bees take over a colony, the colony is doomed.”&nbsp;



Professor Ellis and his colleagues analyzed genetic data related to these subspecies in order to better understand what genetic traits contribute to their appearance and behavior.&nbsp;



“We found really interesting variations in the genes of these bees that can help explain why they look and behave differently,” said study co-lead author Laura Patterson Rosa.



“There are a lot of implications to what we found. We have not yet been able to verify these new discoveries in additional populations, but if our findings stand the test of time, it could partially explain why we see behavioral changes, why they do not acknowledge the existence of queens of other subspecies and why they can clone themselves when other bees cannot.”



The research findings suggest that the darker color of cape bees could be genetically correlated to their cloning and colony takeover behavior. Further research is needed to assess whether this correlation holds for other subspecies of bees.



“There are potentially over 30 subspecies of honey bees. We investigated only two in the published study. Does this finding hold true for the other dark colored honey bee subspecies? It would be interesting to look for these mutations across all western honey bee subspecies to determine if this is the case,” Professor Ellis concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0260833">PLoS One</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dangerous bee behavior may be linked to appearance

A new study led by the University of Florida has...

It is not uncommon for people to develop symptoms of ‘long COVID’ after recovering from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pigs-are-highly-resistant-to-sars-cov-2-infection/">SARS-CoV-2</a> infection. Also known as PACS (post-acute COVID-19 syndrome), this condition is familiar to scientists and medical practitioners by now, with as many as 3 out of 4 people presenting with at least one lingering symptom in the weeks and months after initial infection.



The most common symptoms of PACS include fatigue, muscle weakness and sleep disturbance - but the potential causes of these symptoms are unknown. Some suggestions include an exaggerated immune system response, cell damage, or the physiological consequences of a critical illness, all of which may contribute to the development of long COVID. Furthermore, scientists do not yet understand why some people suffer persistent symptoms after clearing the initial infection whereas others do not.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In a new study published in the BMJ journal <a href="https://gut.bmj.com/">Gut</a>, researchers from the Chinese University of Hong Kong propose that the human gut microbiome may play a role in the development of long COVID. They set out to analyze which bacteria, fungi and other microbes are present in the intestines of people who have not had COVID, those who have had COVID, and those who have developed PACS.



There is evidence that gut microbes are important in the development and maintenance of major components of a person’s innate and adaptive immune system, and that imbalances in the populations of different gut microbes can contribute to auto-immune diseases and other illnesses. Given this evidence, it is possible that a disordered immune response to COVID-19 infection, induced by resident microbes, may affect the recovery process as well.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed the gut microbiomes of 106 patients who had been admitted to one of three different hospitals in Hong Kong between February and August 2020. These patients had all tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 virus and subsequently developed varying levels of COVID symptoms.&nbsp;



For comparison, the gut microbiomes of a further 68 people, none of whom had COVID, were also analyzed. These non-COVID controls were recruited before the start of the pandemic (between September 2019 and November 2019) from the volunteer patients at the endoscopy center at the Prince of Wales Hospital. Stool samples were collected before these subjects underwent a normal colonoscopy.



Initial stool samples were collected from the sick people upon their admission to hospital, and from the control group just prior to their colonoscopies. Samples were collected again after one month and after six months. Samples were also collected from 11 patients after 9 months.&nbsp;



The researchers also checked all participants for the presence of the 30 most common long COVID symptoms, one, three, six and nine months after admission to hospital. Their aerobic capacity and endurance, an indicator of long COVID, was also measured in a 6-minute distance walk test.&nbsp;



Of the patients diagnosed with COVID, 86 (81 percent) of them had symptoms of PACS three months later, and 81 (76.5 percent) after six months. The most common symptoms reported at 6 months were fatigue (31 percent), poor memory (28 percent), hair loss (22 percent), anxiety (21 percent) and sleep disturbances (21 percent).&nbsp;



There were no significant differences in potentially influential factors, such as age, gender, prevalence of underlying conditions, use of antibiotics or antiviral drugs, or COVID-19 severity between patients with and without long COVID, six months after initial infection.



However, there were significant differences in the gut microbe populations found in those who developed PACS, and those who did not. While the microbiota were similar for people who did not develop PACS and those in the control group, those who suffered from long COVID had a less diverse and abundant community of gut microbes.&nbsp;



In particular, patients with long COVID had reduced populations of 28 different species of microbes, including the ‘friendly’&nbsp;Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, and&nbsp;Blautia obeum. These species are associated with anti-inflammatory effects. In addition, these patients also had increased numbers of 14 other ‘unfriendly’ gut bacterial species, such as Ruminococcus gnavus&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bacteroides vulgatus, both of which are associated with inflammation.&nbsp;



Interestingly, this dysbiosis (unbalance between gut microbe populations) was present at the time of admission to hospital, and it did not improve, even after six months. In contrast, patients who did not develop PACS had only 25 changes in bacterial species at the time of hospital admission, and this recovered completely after 6 months such that their gut microbes were similar to those of people who had not had COVID.



The researchers then looked in more detail at whether the composition of the gut microbiome was associated with specific symptoms of long COVID. They considered the following symptoms: respiratory; neuropsychiatric (headache, dizziness, loss of taste and smell, anxiety, poor concentration, disrupted sleep, low mood, poor memory, blurred vision); gastrointestinal; skin (hair loss); musculoskeletal; and fatigue.&nbsp;



Eighty-one bacterial species were associated with different categories of long COVID symptoms, and many species were associated with more than two categories of persistent symptoms. For example, after six months, persistent respiratory symptoms were strongly associated with the presence of several opportunistic ‘unfriendly’ microbes, including&nbsp;Streptococcus anginosus,&nbsp;Streptococcus vestibularis,&nbsp;Streptococcus gordonii&nbsp;and&nbsp;Clostridium disporicum.&nbsp;



Additionally, several species known to boost immunity, including&nbsp;Bifidobacterium pseudocatenulatum,&nbsp;F. prausnitzii,&nbsp;R. inulinivorans&nbsp;and&nbsp;Roseburia hominis, were depleted in those with long COVID at six months.



Similarly, several ‘unfriendly’ bacterial species were associated with poorer performance on the 6-minute walk test among those with long COVID.



Overall, the study found that, at the time of hospital admission, the diversity and richness of gut bacteria in patients who subsequently developed long COVID was significantly lower than that of patients who didn’t, suggesting that particular gut microbial profiles may indicate heightened susceptibility, say the researchers.



“In summary, altered gut microbiome composition is strongly associated with persistent symptoms in patients with COVID-19 up to six months after clearance of the SARS-CoV-2 virus."&nbsp;



The study authors propose that gut profiling may even help to identify people who are more vulnerable to developing serious long-term symptoms after having COVID.



“Considering the millions of people infected during the ongoing pandemic, our findings are a strong impetus for consideration of microbiota modulation to facilitate timely recovery and reduce the burden of post-acute COVID-19 syndrome," concluded the researchers.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gut microbe diversity may predispose people to long COVID

It is not uncommon for people to develop symptoms of...

Migratory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/song-sparrows-shuffle-and-mix-their-tunes/">songbirds</a> embark upon very long journeys to return to their breeding grounds. Although these trips can occasionally span several continents, the birds arrive each year at the same spots with remarkable precision. While much research has focused on understanding how birds learn migratory routes and navigate them, until recently it has remained a mystery how they know where and when to stop migrating.



According to new research led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a>, migratory songbirds use cues derived from the Earth’s magnetic field, such as magnetic declination, inclination, intensity, and area-specific strength, in order to guide their arrival.&nbsp;



However, the Earth’s magnetic field slightly shifts each year, and thus the magnetic parameters that are used to define a bird’s natal and breeding site will occur in a slightly different location every year. Despite this, birds are often able to arrive within meters of their natal sites year after year.



“Although it is known that birds can return to their breeding grounds with exceptional precision, it has remained a mystery how they know when and where to stop migrating,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



“Using nearly a century’s worth of Eurasian reed warbler (Acrocephalus scirpaceus) ringing recoveries, we investigated whether fluctuations in Earth’s magnetic field predict variation in the sites to which birds return. Ringing recoveries suggest that magnetic inclination [the specific dip angle between the Earth’s magnetic field and the Earth’s surface] is learned before departure and is subsequently used as a uni-coordinate “stop sign” when relocating the natal or breeding site.”&nbsp;



Although several locations on the Earth’s surface have the same magnetic inclination, songbirds solve this problem by stopping at the first place where the correct inclination is encountered on the flight trajectory that they inherited. This amazing, instinctive capacity makes them able to return to their natal and breeding grounds after each migration.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abj4210">Science</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How do birds know when it's time to stop migrating?

Migratory songbirds embark upon very long journeys to return to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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