Wildfires in the western U.S. have become a growing crisis. They’re lasting longer, burning hotter, and spreading into areas that rarely burned in the past. 



But another danger is rising, beyond heatwaves and droughts. Lightning - sudden, fierce, and incredibly powerful - is becoming one of the biggest wildfire risks.



In the coming decades, scientists warn that lightning will become an increasingly dominant spark for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-making-wildfire-smoke-more-deadly/">wildfires</a>, adding to the already mounting risks across the West.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lightning-is-fueling-more-wildfires">Lightning is fueling more wildfires</h2>



Wildfires need a few things to get going: dry fuel, hot temperatures, low humidity, and a spark. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lightning-is-changing-the-atmosphere-in-surprising-ways/">Lightning</a> is one of the most powerful natural igniters.



In the western U.S., lightning already causes more than two-thirds of the area burned by wildfires. And now, new research shows that number is going to rise sharply due to climate change. 



Warmer air holds more moisture, which means more unstable weather patterns. Those patterns, in turn, set the stage for more lightning.



A recent study has revealed that virtually all of the western U.S. - 98 percent of the region - will have more days with a greater likelihood of lightning-ignited wildfires starting as early as the 2030s. 



For regions already accustomed to such fires, such as Oregon, Idaho, and Montana, the risk is even greater. As early as 2060, those states may have as many as 12 additional lightning-filled days per summer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-model-to-forecast-lightning">A model to forecast lightning</h2>



Traditional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-models-underestimate-sea-ice-melt-and-global-warming/">climate models</a> don’t really track lightning. That’s why a team of researchers led by Dmitri Kalashnikov built their own system to fill in the gaps.



“The first step was to project lightning,” said Kalashnikov, a research scientist at the <a href="https://www.ucmerced.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California Merced</a>. “The typical climate models don’t directly simulate lightning. It’s too small a process.”



The researchers applied machine learning to forecast where lightning would hit based on variables that we can quantify - such as temperature, humidity, and the level of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moisture-in-the-atmosphere-causes-extreme-weather-to-last-longer/">moisture in the air</a>. 



The team merged those results with the Fire Weather Index (FWI), a mechanism that was developed back in 1968 to monitor how probable wildfire initiation and spread is from local weather.



The result is a forecast model tailored to the western U.S., designed to project conditions from 2030 to 2060 - decades earlier than most studies, which typically look only to the end of the century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-lightning-in-the-northwest">More lightning in the Northwest</h2>



The northwestern states of Idaho, Oregon, and Montana are projected to experience the greatest growth in lightning days. But strangely, they may not experience the most rapid expansion in wildfires. 



Although lightning will grow, the conditions favoring fires (such as extreme heat or dryness) are not expected to worsen as quickly in the Northwest compared to other regions.



That doesn’t mean northwestern states are off the hook. Cloud-to-ground lightning, the kind that hits trees or grass directly, is still expected to rise significantly in those areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-lightning-greater-wildfire-risk">Less lightning, greater wildfire risk</h2>



In contrast, the Southwest - including Colorado, Wyoming, Arizona, and New Mexico - won’t see as much of a jump in lightning strikes. But the fire risk will still climb. 



This is because even a small spark becomes a big threat when the land is extra dry, the heat is intense, and there’s little rain to cool things off.



The researchers found that these southern states are likely to experience the biggest increases in wildfires caused by lightning, despite the smaller bump in lightning activity. That’s because climate change is pushing up the number of fire-prone days overall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dry-and-wet-lightning">Dry and wet lightning</h2>



Kalashnikov said the next steps could involve separating the kinds of lightning events. “You can’t help but wonder what the future will look like, especially if you dig in and you realize that there’s actually a lot that we don’t understand,” he said.



One key factor will be figuring out how to distinguish between "dry lightning" and "wet lightning." Dry lightning happens without much rain, making it a fire hazard. 



Wet lightning brings <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heavy-rainfall-poses-extreme-risks-in-the-western-us/">heavy rain</a>, which can reduce fire risk but increase flood danger. Understanding that difference could help emergency services respond more precisely to fire threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfire-risks-are-rising-fast">Wildfire risks are rising fast</h2>



As climate patterns shift, the West isn’t just getting warmer and drier - it’s getting stormier in a dangerous way. Lightning is expected to spark more fires, and fires are expected to find more dry fuel waiting. It’s a feedback loop that could reshape fire seasons in the U.S.



This isn’t about something that might happen a hundred years from now. The changes are coming within the next few decades - some may already be happening. 



And for the people living in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/double-hazard-wildfire-zones-identified-in-the-american-west/">high-risk areas</a>, that means more heat, more smoke, and a greater need for preparation.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2025EF006108" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's Future</a>.



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Lightning will ignite even more wildfires as the climate heats up

Wildfires in the western U.S. have become a growing crisis. They’re lasting longer, burning hotter, and spreading into areas that rarely burned in the past. But another danger is rising, beyond heatwaves and droughts. Lightning - sudden, fierce, and incredibly powerful - is becoming one of the biggest wildfire risks. In the coming decades, scientists warn that lightning will become an increasingly dominant spark for wildfires, adding to the already mounting risks across the West. Lightning is fueling more wildfires Wildfires need a few things to get...

Can humans truly adapt to long-term living in deep space? This question has been a topic of debate and speculation for decades. However, a new theory published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fspas.2023.1081340">Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences</a>, called the Pancosmorio theory, provides a somewhat tentative answer.&nbsp;



Pancosmorio, a term coined to mean "all world limit," describes the challenges and complexities involved in maintaining gravity and oxygen, obtaining water, developing agriculture, and handling waste far from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-signals-are-aliens-trying-to-contact-earth/">Earth</a>.



Morgan Irons, a doctoral student at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>, co-authored the paper alongside her father, Lee Irons, executive director of the Norfolk Institute. Morgan's research focuses on soil organic carbon persistence under Earth's gravity and varying gravity conditions. She also collaborated with Johannes Lehmann, a professor in Cornell's School of Integrative Plant Science.



“For humans to sustain themselves and all of their technology, infrastructure, and society in space, they need a self-restoring, Earth-like, natural ecosystem to back them up,” said Morgan. She further emphasized that without these kinds of systems, any mission to colonize space is bound to fail.



<h2 id="h-solving-the-gravity-problem">Solving the gravity problem</h2>



One of the most significant factors in sustaining human life in space is gravity. Earth life has evolved within the context of 1G of gravity, which is essential for the proper functioning of living organisms.&nbsp;



“Gravity induces a gradient in the fluid pressure within the body of the living thing to which the autonomic functions of the life form are attuned ” explained Lee Irons. He pointed to the negative effect on human eyesight in Earth orbit as an example of gravity imbalance.



Morgan Irons emphasized the importance of solving the gravity problem before investing billions of dollars in space settlements. “Our bodies, our natural ecosystems, all the energy movement, and the way we utilize energy is all fundamentally based upon 1G of gravity being present.”&nbsp;



Morgan noted that no other place in our solar system has 1G of gravity, making this one of the first problems that must be addressed.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-generating-enough-sustainable-oxygen">Generating enough sustainable oxygen</h2>



Another vital factor for sustaining life in space is oxygen. Earth's ecosystem generates oxygen for humans and other life forms.&nbsp;



Lee Irons highlighted the need for a reserve system in case a technologically advanced primary and backup system fail to provide oxygen for a moon base or another outpost. “A reserve exists everywhere in Earth’s nature. Think of the hundreds of thousands of species of plants that generate oxygen. That’s the kind of system reserve we need to replicate to be truly sustainable.”



Creating such an ecological system for a space outpost would require an enormous amount of energy from the sun. However, the more distant planets and moons in our solar system receive decreased amounts of solar energy. Lee Irons emphasizes the need for abundant energy, comparing powering the ecological system of an outpost to running a car or an entire household on a cell phone battery.



In conclusion, the Pancosmorio theory highlights the complexities and challenges involved in maintaining a self-sustaining, Earth-like ecosystem in deep space.&nbsp;



While the answer to whether humans can endure long-term living in space remains a lukewarm maybe, the theory underscores the need for innovative solutions to the problems of gravity, oxygen, and energy to make space colonization a viable possibility.



<h2 id="h-technology-needed-for-humans-to-colonize-space">Technology needed for humans to colonize space</h2>



For humans to successfully colonize space, numerous technological advancements and innovations must be developed to address various challenges. Some key technologies include:



<ol>
<li>Advanced propulsion systems: Developing faster and more efficient propulsion systems is crucial for reducing travel time between Earth and potential space colonies, as well as for exploring more distant regions of our solar system and beyond.</li>



<li>Artificial gravity: As the Pancosmorio theory highlights, gravity is crucial for the proper functioning of living organisms. Therefore, creating artificial gravity systems, such as rotating habitats or centrifugal force-based solutions, will be necessary to mimic Earth-like conditions in space colonies.</li>



<li>Life support systems: Reliable and closed-loop life support systems are essential for providing breathable air, clean water, and waste management. These systems must be highly efficient, regenerative, and capable of handling contingencies.</li>



<li>Space agriculture and food production: Colonists will need a sustainable food supply, which means developing space agriculture and advanced food production methods that can function in microgravity or low-gravity environments.</li>



<li>Radiation protection: Space is filled with harmful radiation, which poses a significant risk to human health. Technologies to shield astronauts and colonists from radiation, both during space travel and while living in space habitats, are vital.</li>



<li>In-situ resource utilization (ISRU): Utilizing local resources, such as water and minerals found on the Moon or Mars, can reduce the cost and logistical challenges of transporting supplies from Earth. Technologies for extracting, processing, and using these resources will be crucial for self-sustaining colonies.</li>



<li>Energy generation and storage: Reliable and efficient energy sources, such as advanced solar panels, nuclear reactors, or other novel energy generation methods, are essential for powering space colonies. Additionally, developing robust energy storage solutions will ensure a stable power supply.</li>



<li>Habitat construction and infrastructure: Technologies for constructing habitats and infrastructure in space, including 3D printing, modular design, and the use of local materials, will be necessary for establishing permanent settlements.</li>



<li>Communication systems: High-speed and reliable communication systems will be needed to maintain contact between Earth and space colonies, as well as among colonists within settlements.</li>



<li>Medical and health technologies: Prolonged exposure to space environments can lead to numerous health issues. Developing advanced medical technologies and countermeasures for diagnosing, treating, and preventing these health problems will be essential for the long-term survival of space colonists.</li>
</ol>



These technologies represent only a portion of what will be required for successful space colonization. As research and development continue, we can expect further innovations to emerge, addressing the myriad challenges associated with human settlement beyond Earth.



-—



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Earth-like ecosystem necessary for humans to live in deep space

Can humans truly adapt to long-term living in deep space?...

Since dense urban areas usually amplify the impact of high temperatures due to a phenomenon known as the “urban island effect,” cities are more vulnerable to extreme climate events. Now, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a> in Sweden has found that large investments in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harvesting-electricity-with-nature-inspired-techniques/">electricity</a> networks will be necessary to protect us from heatwaves and cold snaps.



“Unless we account for extreme climate events and continued urbanization, the reliability of electricity supply will fall by up to 30 percent. An additional outlay of 20-60 percent will be required during the energy transition in order to guarantee that cities can cope with different kinds of climate,”&nbsp;said co-author Vahid Nik, a professor of Building Physics at Lund.



The experts designed a modeling platform tying together climate, building, and energy system models. The goal was to facilitate the simulation and evaluation of cities’ energy transition in order to secure their resilience against future climate changes while densification of urban areas is increasing.



“Our results show that high density areas give rise to a phenomenon called urban heat islands, which make cities more vulnerable to the effects of extreme climate events, particularly in southern Europe. For example, the outdoor temperature can rise by 17 percent while the wind speed falls by 61 percent. Urban densification – a recommended development strategy in order to reach the UN’s energy and climate goals – could make the electricity network more vulnerable. This must be taken into consideration when designing urban energy systems,” said co-author Kavan Javanroodi, an assistant professor of Building and Urban Physics at Lund.



This new framework relates future climate models to buildings and energy systems at city level, while taking the urban microclimates into account, revealing that peaks in demand in the energy system increase much more than previously thought when extreme microclimates are considered.&nbsp;



“There is a marked deviation between the heat and cooling requirements shown in today’s urban climate models, compared to the outcomes of our calculations when urban morphology, the physical design of the city, is more complex. For example, if we fail to take into account the urban climate in Madrid, we could underestimate the need for cooling by around 28 percent,” Javanroodi explained.



Although an increasing number of countries are currently concerned by the relation between extreme weather events, energy issues, and public health, there are still no accurate methods of quantifying the effects of climate change and devising appropriate adaptation strategies. Future research is needed to investigate the relationship between urban density and climate change in energy forecasts and to develop more innovative methods of increasing energy flexibility and climate resilience in cities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41560-023-01232-9">Nature Energy</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Cities need resilient electricity networks to cope with climate change

Since dense urban areas usually amplify the impact of high...

Arctic rivers play a crucial role in transporting fallen trees from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-are-forest-gardeners-that-help-reduce-global-warming/">forests</a> to oceans, inadvertently contributing to long-term carbon storage as logs accumulate along the waterways' twists and turns.&nbsp;



Recently, a groundbreaking study has mapped the largest known woody deposit in the Mackenzie River Delta, Nunavut, Canada, spanning 51 square kilometers (20 square miles) and storing an estimated 3.4 million tons (3.1 million metric tons) of carbon.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Low-Res_DJI_0058.JPG.png" alt="" class="wp-image-1916737"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists have mapped the world’s biggest cumulative logjam that we know of, as reported in a new study in the AGU journal Geophysical Research Letters. Image Credit: Alicia Sendrowski</figcaption></figure>



According to Alicia Sendrowski, the research engineer who led the study at <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a>, this staggering quantity of carbon is equivalent to the emissions produced by approximately two and a half million cars in a year.&nbsp;



Despite its significance, our understanding of this "large carbon" in the form of wood remains limited compared to other forms of carbon, such as dissolved or particulate organic carbon. However, recent developments in research are beginning to address this gap in knowledge.



For many years, scientists have been aware of the mobility of driftwood in the Arctic, but only recently have they started to quantify the amount of wood and the potential loss of carbon storage due to climate change.&nbsp;



The region's cold, often dry or icy conditions allow trees to remain preserved for tens of thousands of years. As Sendrowski explained, a tree that fell a thousand years ago might appear just as fresh as one that fell the previous winter.



Virginia Ruiz-Villanueva, a fluvial geomorphologist at the University of Lausanne who was not involved in the study, highlights the importance of this emerging research area: "There's been a lot of work on fluxes of carbon from water and sediment, but we simply didn't pay attention to the wood until very recently. This is a very young field of research that is developing quite fast."&nbsp;



Ruiz-Villanueva further emphasizes the significance of studying these woody deposits, not only in the context of the carbon cycle but also to better understand the functioning of natural fluvial systems and the mobilization and distribution of wood by rivers.



<h2 id="h-how-scientists-measured-this-giant-logjam">How scientists measured this giant logjam</h2>



The research team sought to map and quantify woody deposits in the Arctic. They focused on the Mackenzie River, which boasts exceptionally high-resolution imagery and is known for its sizable wood deposits. The river's delta, the third-largest in the world by land area, drains approximately 20% of Canada. The team examined around 13,000 square kilometers (5,000 square miles) of delta in the largest attempt to map woody deposits to date.



Over a three-week period, Sendrowski and her colleagues from Colorado State University measured river driftwood, mapped logjams, and sampled wood for radiocarbon dating. Utilizing remote imagery, Sendrowski identified wood on the river's surface and estimated the areal extent of the logjam. She then calculated the volume of wood within the logjam and the amount of carbon it stored based on her field measurements.



The deposit, which comprises over 400,000 miniature caches of wood, stores approximately 3.4 million tons (3.1 million metric tons) of carbon. The largest single deposit, covering an area equivalent to around 20 American football fields, holds 7,385 tons (6,700 metric tons) of carbon.&nbsp;



However, Sendrowski believes that the actual amount of carbon stored in the delta's wood could be roughly twice as large, considering the logs buried in soil, submerged underwater, and hidden under vegetation from aerial imagery.



Although the Mackenzie River Delta is a "hotspot" of carbon storage due to its highly carbon-rich soils, the logs' carbon storage represents a relatively small fraction of the delta's total carbon storage - around 3 quadrillion grams of carbon.&nbsp;



"But we think it's still important because as changes in the basin occur, like logging or damming, and as climate change alters precipitation patterns and warming, wood preservation will decrease. It's a significant amount of carbon, so there's a potentially significant loss of carbon storage," said Sendrowski.



The study reveals that the Mackenzie logjam is only one of many such basins in the Arctic. With at least a dozen deltas larger than 500 square kilometers, the combined large woody deposits throughout the region could constitute a significant carbon storage pool - one that remains largely unexplored.



The researchers also investigated the lifespan of trees in the Arctic, a crucial factor when modeling how "active" a carbon pool is, meaning how quickly material is moved around. Carbon dating revealed that while many sampled trees started growing around or after 1950, some were much older, dating back to around 700 CE. One study from the 1960s even carbon-dated wood from a tree preserved in an icy mound to approximately 33,000 years ago.



According to Sendrowski, the Mackenzie River Delta proved an ideal starting point for the study. "The exciting aspect for me isn't just the scale, but also the potential to apply this to other places where large wood hasn't been focused on," she said.&nbsp;



As a burgeoning field, there is still much to be learned about the role of large woody deposits in carbon storage and the Arctic environment.



This groundbreaking study, which sheds new light on the role of Arctic rivers in carbon storage, was published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2022GL100913">Geophysical Research Letters</a>, a journal known for high-impact, short-format reports with immediate implications across all Earth and space sciences.



<h2 id="h-more-about-logjams-around-the-world">More about logjams around the world</h2>



It is difficult to determine the exact number of massive logjams around the world, as they can form and dissipate in various river systems over time. Logjams, also known as wood jams or driftwood accumulations, are naturally occurring phenomena that result from the transport and deposition of large woody debris by rivers and streams. The size and location of logjams can change due to factors such as river flow, precipitation, vegetation, and human intervention.



Massive logjams have been documented in several major river systems worldwide, such as the Mackenzie River Delta in Canada, the Amazon River in South America, and the Lena River in Siberia. However, without comprehensive studies and monitoring, it is challenging to provide an accurate count of massive logjams across the globe.



Research on large woody deposits and their role in carbon storage and ecosystem functioning is still a burgeoning field. As more studies are conducted, scientists will likely gain a better understanding of the distribution, dynamics, and impact of massive logjams worldwide.



-—



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Dead trees in the Arctic store massive amount of carbon

Arctic rivers play a crucial role in transporting fallen trees...

A breakthrough study from researchers at <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/">Carnegie Science</a> and UCLA suggests that the origins of Earth's water may be linked to the interactions between hydrogen-rich atmospheres and magma <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-could-be-devastating-to-all-living-creatures/">oceans</a> of the planetary embryos during Earth's formative years.&nbsp;



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05823-0">Nature</a>, offers new insights into the development of Earth's signature features and has significant implications for our understanding of the planet's evolution.



For many years, the understanding of planet formation was primarily based on observations of our own Solar System. While there are active debates surrounding the formation of gas giants like Jupiter and Saturn, it is widely accepted that Earth and other rocky planets accreted from the disk of dust and gas surrounding the Sun during its infancy.



The planetesimals that eventually formed Earth grew larger and hotter as they collided with increasingly larger objects, creating a vast magma ocean due to the heat generated from these impacts and the presence of radioactive elements. Over time, as the planet cooled, the densest material sank inward, separating Earth into three distinct layers: the metallic core, and the rocky, silicate mantle and crust.



Recent advancements in exoplanet research have led to a new approach to modeling Earth's early stages. "Exoplanet discoveries have given us a much greater appreciation of how common it is for just-formed planets to be surrounded by atmospheres that are rich in molecular hydrogen, H2, during their first several million years of growth," explained Anat Shahar, one of the researchers involved in the study. "Eventually these hydrogen envelopes dissipate, but they leave their fingerprints on the young planet’s composition."



<h2>How the study was done</h2>



Armed with this new perspective, Shahar and her colleagues at Carnegie Science and UCLA developed a model to simulate Earth's formation and evolution, examining whether the planet's unique chemical traits could be reproduced.&nbsp;



Their findings reveal that early interactions between Earth's magma ocean and a molecular hydrogen proto-atmosphere could have led to the formation of its abundance of water and its overall oxidized state.



The research team utilized mathematical modeling to explore the exchange of materials between molecular hydrogen atmospheres and magma oceans, considering 25 different compounds and 18 different types of reactions.



The results from these simulations revealed that the interactions between the magma ocean and the atmosphere caused large masses of hydrogen to move into the metallic core, oxidized the mantle, and produced significant amounts of water.



The study suggests that even if all the rocky material that combined to form Earth was completely dry, the interactions between the molecular hydrogen atmosphere and the magma ocean would still generate substantial amounts of water. While other water sources may exist, they are not necessary to explain the current state of our planet.



Shahar emphasizes that this is just one possible explanation for Earth's evolution, but one that could establish an important connection between Earth's formation history and the most common exoplanets discovered orbiting distant stars, known as Super-Earths and sub-Neptunes.



This research was conducted as part of the multi-institution, interdisciplinary AEThER project, led by Shahar, which aims to understand the chemical makeup of the Milky Way galaxy's most common planets and develop a framework for detecting signs of life on distant worlds.&nbsp;



Funded by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the project seeks to understand how the formation and evolution of these planets shape their atmospheres, which could, in turn, help scientists differentiate true biosignatures from atmospheric molecules of non-biological origin.



"Increasingly powerful telescopes are enabling astronomers to understand the compositions of exoplanet atmospheres in never-before-seen detail," Shahar said. "AEThER’s work will inform their observations with experimental and modeling data that, we hope, will lead to a foolproof method for detecting signs of life on other worlds."



<h2 id="h-prevalence-of-water-in-the-universe">Prevalence of water in the universe</h2>



Water is indeed quite common throughout the universe. It is primarily composed of two of the most abundant elements in the cosmos: hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, making up about 75% of its elemental mass, while oxygen is the third most abundant element.



Water has been detected in various forms in our Solar System, such as ice on planets and moons, as well as in the form of water vapor in the atmosphere of some planets. Additionally, water has been found in the form of ice in comets and asteroids, which are remnants from the early Solar System.



Beyond our Solar System, water has been detected in interstellar clouds and the disks around young stars, where new planets are forming. Observations of exoplanets, planets orbiting stars outside our Solar System, have also revealed the presence of water vapor in the atmospheres of some of these distant worlds.



Although water is common throughout the universe, it is important to note that the conditions required for liquid water to exist, which is essential for life as we know it, are more specific and depend on factors such as temperature, pressure, and the presence of a suitable atmosphere.&nbsp;



The search for planets within the "habitable zone" around their host stars, where conditions might allow for liquid water to exist, is a key aspect of the ongoing quest to find potentially habitable worlds and evidence of extraterrestrial life.



<h2 id="h-liquid-water-in-our-solar-system">Liquid water in our solar system</h2>



Apart from Earth, where liquid water is abundant, there is evidence of liquid water on other celestial bodies as well, although it is often hidden beneath the surface or mixed with other materials. Some examples include:



<ol>
<li>Mars: There is evidence of liquid water beneath the surface of Mars, with several underground lakes discovered through radar data from the Mars Express orbiter. Additionally, scientists believe that water may exist as transient, thin layers of briny (salty) water on the Martian surface due to the presence of hydrated salts.</li>



<li>Europa: Europa, one of Jupiter's largest moons, is believed to have a subsurface liquid water ocean beneath its icy crust. This ocean might contain more than twice the amount of water found on Earth. The presence of this subsurface ocean is inferred from observations made by the Galileo spacecraft and the Hubble Space Telescope, such as evidence of geysers and surface features indicating a liquid layer below the ice.</li>



<li>Enceladus: Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, is also believed to have a subsurface ocean of liquid water beneath its icy shell. This has been supported by data from the Cassini spacecraft, which observed geysers spouting water vapor and ice particles from the moon's south polar region. These geysers are believed to be connected to the subsurface ocean, which could contain hydrothermal vents, making Enceladus a potential target in the search for extraterrestrial life.</li>



<li>Ganymede: Ganymede, another of Jupiter's large moons, is also suspected to have a subsurface ocean of liquid water beneath its icy surface. Evidence from the Galileo and Hubble missions, as well as from Earth-based telescopes, suggests the existence of this subsurface ocean.</li>
</ol>



These examples show that liquid water exists in our Solar System beyond Earth, primarily in the form of subsurface oceans on icy moons. This has led to increased interest in these celestial bodies as potential habitats for life, as water is a crucial ingredient for life as we know it.



-—



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Scientists may have learned how Earth got its water

A breakthrough study from researchers at Carnegie Science and UCLA...

In a recent study, an international team of researchers uncovered new evidence suggesting that dairy farming on the Tibetan Plateau began much earlier than previously believed, approximately 3500 years ago.&nbsp;



This finding not only highlights the importance of dairy pastoralism in the long-term settlement of the region but also provides new insights into how prehistoric populations adapted to the harsh conditions of the plateau.



The Tibetan Plateau, often referred to as the "third pole," is one of the world's largest and highest plateaus. It presents significant challenges to human survival due to its extreme environment and agriculturally poor highlands.&nbsp;



To understand how early populations were able to adapt to this inhospitable landscape, Professor Michael Petraglia, Director of Griffith's <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/australian-research-centre-human-evolution">Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution</a>, joined forces with researchers from the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, the Tibetan Cultural Relics Conservation Institute, and the Center for Archaeological Science at Sichuan University. Their findings were published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adf0345">Science Advances</a>.



Led by PhD candidate Li Tang, the research team included Professor Nicole Boivin of the Max Planck Institute, Professor Shargan Wangdue from the Tibetan Cultural Relics Conservation Institute, and Professor Hongliang Lu from Sichuan University. The team's investigation focused on the role of dairy pastoralism in the early settlement of the Tibetan Plateau, as the contribution of pastoralism, particularly dairy pastoralism, to the region's colonization remains poorly understood.



“The extreme environments of the Tibetan Plateau – one of the world’s largest and highest and commonly referred to as the ‘third pole’ – offer significant challenges to human survival and demanded novel adaptations,” Professor Petraglia said.&nbsp;



While biological and agricultural adaptations that enabled early human colonization of the plateau have been widely discussed.&nbsp;



“These included genetic adaptations that allowed Tibetans to use smaller amounts of oxygen more efficiently,” Li Tang said.&nbsp; “But the contribution of pastoralism to the settlement of Tibet is less well understood, especially the dairy pastoralism that has historically been central to Tibetan diets.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



Through their research, the team discovered that dairy farming was a crucial cultural adaptation that supported the expansion of early livestock farming into the non-arable highlands of the Tibetan Plateau. This adaptation, in turn, enabled widespread, long-term human occupation of the region.



<h2 id="h-how-scientists-found-evidence-of-early-dairy-farming">How scientists found evidence of early dairy farming</h2>



The researchers used palaeo proteomic techniques to analyze ancient milk proteins preserved in dental calculus has shed new light on the dietary habits of early human populations in Tibet and western Qinghai.&nbsp;



Dental calculus provides a unique and direct source of ancient dietary information, as food proteins and other substances become trapped in the calcified matrix during its formation. This matrix helps to stave off decay, allowing for the long-term preservation of ancient biomolecules from specific foods like milk. By investigating the amino acid sequences of milk proteins, the researchers discovered that ancient humans in the region sourced their dairy from sheep, goat, and possibly cattle and yak.



The study, conducted by an international team of researchers, examined dental calculus from 40 human individuals across 15 ecologically diverse sites in Tibet and western Qinghai. The patterns of milk protein recovery highlighted the importance of dairy for individuals living in agriculturally poor regions higher than 3,700 meters above sea level.



“Previous research has suggested that crop cultivation based on frost-tolerant barley was one of the critical adaptative strategies that enabled more sustained habitation of the Tibetan Plateau, facilitating its permanent occupation by around 3600 years ago,” Professor Boivin said.&nbsp;&nbsp;



But this finding reflects data collected only from arable regions of the plateau situated below 3500 meters above sea level.&nbsp;



“Our findings indicate that dairying was introduced onto the interior Tibetan Plateau by at least 3500 years ago, more than 2000 years earlier than recorded in historical sources.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The chronology aligns with the discovery of the oldest domesticated ruminant bones in the inland plateau, suggesting that the practice of dairying was likely embraced promptly following the expansion of pastoralism in that area.&nbsp;



“Understanding how ancient populations obtained sufficient food to survive in these agriculturally marginal highlands is key to understanding the long-term economic and demographic, as well as land-use development of the Tibetan Plateau,” Li Tang said.



Discovering how ancient populations obtained sufficient food to survive in agriculturally marginal highlands is essential for unraveling the long-term economic, demographic, and land-use development of the Tibetan Plateau.&nbsp;



The discovery of early dairy farming in the region not only provides new insights into the dietary habits of ancient populations but also underscores the importance of dairy resources in enabling long-term human occupation and adaptation in these extreme environments.



<h2 id="h-early-human-activity-on-the-tibetan-plateau">Early human activity on the Tibetan Plateau</h2>



Aside from the domestication of animals for dairy purposes, early humans on the Tibetan Plateau also domesticated several other animals for various purposes, such as food, transportation, and clothing. Some of the commonly domesticated animals in the region include:



<ol>
<li>Yaks: Yaks have been essential to the livelihood of Tibetan people for centuries. They were domesticated primarily for their meat, milk, and transportation capabilities. Yak hair and hides are also used for clothing and tent materials.</li>



<li>Horses: Horses were domesticated on the Tibetan Plateau for transportation, labor, and military purposes. The Tibetan people have a long history of horse riding, and horses have played a vital role in the region's trade and communication.</li>



<li>Sheep: Apart from dairy production, sheep were also domesticated for their meat, wool, and hides. Wool from sheep is a critical resource for making clothing and textiles to protect against the harsh climate of the plateau.</li>



<li>Goats: Like sheep, goats were domesticated for their milk, meat, and hides. The hair from goats, such as the Tibetan cashmere goat, is used to produce high-quality textiles.</li>



<li>Pigs: Although less common than other domesticated animals on the Tibetan Plateau, pigs were also kept for their meat and fat.</li>



<li>Chickens: Chickens were domesticated for their meat and eggs, providing a valuable source of protein for the people living on the plateau.</li>
</ol>



These domesticated animals played a crucial role in early human settlements on the Tibetan Plateau, providing essential resources, food, and transportation necessary for survival in the region's harsh environment.



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Humans began dairy farming much earlier than previously believed

In a recent study, an international team of researchers uncovered...

As the world grapples with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-affects-ground-squirrels-in-unexpected-ways/">climate change</a> and its consequences, an often-overlooked aspect of the carbon cycle may hold a key to mitigating some of its effects: soil microbes. Soil stores more carbon than plants and the atmosphere combined, with these microscopic organisms playing a crucial role in the process.&nbsp;



However, the increasing frequency and severity of droughts, such as those impacting California, could disrupt this delicate ecosystem and have far-reaching consequences for soil health and future greenhouse gas levels.



In a perspective published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2023.03.002">Trends in Microbiology</a>, microbial ecologist Steven Allison of <a href="https://uci.edu/">UC Irvine</a> warns that if soil microbes adapt to drought more rapidly than plants do, we could face significant consequences. To better manage the situation in both agricultural and natural settings, it is crucial to understand how microbes respond to drought.



“Soil microbes are beneficial, and we couldn’t live without their cycling of carbon and nutrients, but climate change and drought can tweak that balance, and we have to be aware of how it’s changing,” says Allison.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-how-soil-microbes-store-carbon">How soil microbes store carbon</h2>



Some soil microbes help store carbon from decomposing plants in the soil, while others release plant carbon back into the atmosphere. The carbon-rich soil has numerous benefits, including improved nutrient retention, increased plant productivity, and erosion prevention.



However, the changing weather patterns in California, characterized by more intense droughts followed by heavier rainfall, can lead to erosion, landslides, mudslides, and sedimentation.&nbsp;



“From a climate mitigation standpoint, what we want is for more carbon to be in plants and soils and less carbon to be in the atmosphere,” says Allison. Understanding the balance of incoming and outflowing carbon and how it changes with drought, warming, or other climate factors is crucial for managing climate change.



While plants and microbes are both impacted by drought, Allison believes that microbes are more adaptable and can recover faster. Microbes can change their physiology, abundance, and even evolve, which allows them to resist or bounce back from drought more rapidly than plants.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-potential-repercussions-if-soil-balance-isn-t-restored">Potential repercussions if soil balance isn’t restored</h2>



However, if more carbon-releasing microbes survive than carbon-sequestering ones, the result could be carbon-depleted soils with negative implications for plant productivity and future greenhouse gas levels.



To nudge the balance in the right direction, Allison emphasizes that more research is needed. “Right now, we have data that suggests that when we have drought, something changes that results in carbon loss, but we don't understand exactly how or why that's happening,” says Allison.&nbsp;



Identifying the microbes most beneficial to plants and most likely to retain carbon in soil could help us tip the balance in their favor.



There is potential to manage or engineer soil microbes to mitigate the effects of drought. In agricultural systems, soil manipulation or the addition of beneficial microbes could be explored.&nbsp;



In more natural systems, managing plants could indirectly benefit the microbial part of the ecosystem. Furthermore, Allison suggests that more measurements are needed to understand how drought affects soil carbon change in different ecosystems, from the Arctic tundra to deserts.



As climate change continues to threaten ecosystems worldwide, understanding the complex interplay between soil microbes, plants, and carbon could provide valuable insights and solutions for mitigating its impacts.



<h2 id="h-earth-s-other-natural-carbon-storage-mechanisms">Earth’s other natural carbon storage mechanisms</h2>



Natural carbon storage mechanisms, also known as carbon sinks, play a vital role in the Earth's carbon cycle by capturing and storing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. These mechanisms help maintain a balance of carbon on our planet and mitigate the impacts of increasing greenhouse gas emissions. Here are some of the major natural carbon storage mechanisms on Earth:



<ol>
<li>Oceans: Oceans are the largest carbon sinks on the planet, absorbing approximately 25% of CO2 emissions generated by human activities. The carbon dioxide dissolves in seawater, forming carbonic acid and bicarbonate and carbonate ions, which are used by marine organisms to build shells and other structures.</li>



<li>Forests: Trees and plants absorb CO2 from the atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis. They convert the carbon dioxide into glucose, which they use for energy and growth. As plants die and decompose, some of the carbon is transferred to the soil, while some is released back into the atmosphere through the process of respiration.</li>



<li>Soil: Soil is the second-largest carbon sink on Earth, storing more carbon than plants and the atmosphere combined. Carbon is stored in soil as organic matter, which is derived from decomposing plant and animal material. Soil microbes also play a crucial role in transferring carbon from plants to the soil and releasing it back into the atmosphere.</li>



<li>Wetlands: Wetlands, including peatlands, swamps, and marshes, store significant amounts of carbon in the form of plant material and soil organic matter. The waterlogged conditions in wetlands slow down the decomposition of organic matter, resulting in the accumulation of carbon over time.</li>



<li>Permafrost: Permafrost is the permanently frozen ground found in polar regions and high mountain areas. It contains large amounts of carbon in the form of frozen organic matter. As the climate warms and permafrost thaws, this stored carbon may be released as CO2 or methane, which can exacerbate climate change.</li>



<li>Carbonate rocks: Carbonate rocks, such as limestone and dolomite, are formed by the accumulation of carbonate minerals from the shells and skeletal remains of marine organisms. These rocks represent a long-term storage of carbon and can sequester carbon over geological timescales.</li>
</ol>



These natural carbon storage mechanisms help regulate the Earth's climate by capturing and storing carbon dioxide. However, human activities, such as deforestation, fossil fuel combustion, and land-use changes, have disrupted the balance of the carbon cycle, leading to increased greenhouse gas concentrations and global warming.



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Droughts are disrupting Earth’s largest carbon storage source

As the world grapples with climate change and its consequences,...

As the Colorado River continues to shrink due to overuse and the worsening 23-year-long drought, the Biden administration has proposed a controversial and unprecedented solution.&nbsp;



According to a recent report in the <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/">New York Times</a>, in an attempt to save the river and prevent an imminent water and power catastrophe across the West, the administration suggests evenly cutting water allotments to California, Arizona, and Nevada by as much as one-quarter. This reduction in water delivery to the states has never occurred in American history.



The Colorado River supplies <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunlight-may-provide-millions-with-safe-drinking-water/">drinking water</a> to 40 million Americans, irrigates 5.5 million agricultural acres, and generates electricity for millions of homes and businesses. The river's flows have recently fallen by one-third compared to historical averages, and its two main reservoirs, Lake Mead and Lake Powell, are facing critically low water levels.&nbsp;



If these levels continue to drop, the turbines that generate electricity may fail, and the water may no longer reach intake valves controlling its flow out of the reservoirs, causing the river to come to a standstill.



The Biden administration is determined to prevent this scenario, known as deadpool, but faces a political and ethical dilemma on how to distribute the required cuts.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-preventing-deadpool-on-the-colorado-river-reservoirs">Preventing "deadpool" on the Colorado River reservoirs</h2>



On Tuesday, the <a href="https://www.doi.gov/">Interior Department</a>, which manages the river, released a draft analysis considering three options: taking no action, which would risk deadpool; making reductions based on the most senior water rights; or evenly distributing the cuts across Arizona, California, and Nevada.



According to Christopher Flavelle’s reporting in the New York Times, if the reductions were based on seniority of water rights, California would be largely spared, causing disastrous consequences for Nevada and Arizona. Deputy Secretary for the Interior Department, Tommy Beaudreau, stated that these consequences would not be allowed to happen.&nbsp;



Reducing water deliveries evenly would impact Arizona's Native American tribes and Southern California's agriculture industry, potentially inviting lawsuits. However, Beaudreau expressed confidence that evenly allocating cuts would help achieve the department's goals while protecting health and safety.



Beaudreau defended the government's willingness to depart from the longstanding seniority rules regarding water rights, arguing that the impacts of climate change could not have been predicted when these rights were established decades ago.&nbsp;



Until now, the federal government has primarily responded to drought by paying farmers, cities, and Native tribes to voluntarily use less water, but it seems that this approach may no longer be sufficient.



While the Interior Department would prefer states to reach an agreement among themselves, recent attempts to do so have failed. Last summer, states were given two months to agree on a plan for reducing their use of Colorado River water, but failed to reach a consensus.&nbsp;



In January, six states proposed that the bulk of the cuts should come from California, which in turn suggested that Arizona should bear the brunt of the reductions. Negotiations have continued without reaching a deal.



However, two factors may increase the odds of states reaching an agreement, according to Sharon Megdal, director of the University of Arizona's Water Resources Research Center. First, an unusually wet winter has temporarily reduced the scale of the cuts required to avoid deadpool. Second, the federal government's readiness to act may push the states to come up with a better alternative solution.



As the final analysis is expected this summer, it remains to be seen how the states and the federal government will navigate the complex challenges posed by the shrinking Colorado River and the ever-present threat of climate change.



<h2 id="h-the-root-cause-of-the-colorado-river-crisis">The root cause of the Colorado River crisis</h2>



The Colorado River crisis is primarily caused by a combination of factors:



<ol>
<li>Overuse: The river supplies water to about 40 million people, irrigates millions of acres of farmland, and provides electricity to millions of homes and businesses. As the population in the region grows, the demand for water has increased, putting a strain on the river's resources.</li>



<li>Prolonged drought: The Colorado River basin has been experiencing a drought for over 23 years, which has significantly reduced the river's flow. The drought is linked to climate change and natural climate variability, which leads to lower precipitation and higher evaporation rates in the region.</li>



<li>Climate change: Climate change has exacerbated the drought by causing warmer temperatures, reduced snowpack, and earlier snowmelt in the river basin. These factors have intensified the water crisis by reducing the amount of water available for human use and increasing water loss through evaporation.</li>
</ol>



Together, these factors have led to the Colorado River crisis, characterized by shrinking water resources, falling water levels in reservoirs like Lake Mead and Lake Powell, and increasing risks of water and power shortages in the region.&nbsp;



The crisis has prompted federal and state governments to consider difficult choices regarding water allocation and management, as they grapple with the challenges posed by climate change, population growth, and competing water needs.



<h2 id="h-the-logistics-of-managing-water-allotments">The logistics of managing water allotments</h2>



Managing water allotments on the Colorado River is a complex task, given the competing demands for water resources and the challenges posed by climate change and population growth. Here are some strategies the government can adopt to better manage water allotments:



<ol>
<li>Negotiate interstate agreements: Encourage cooperation and negotiation among the states that rely on the Colorado River, aiming for a fair and equitable distribution of water resources that takes into account each state's unique needs and priorities.</li>



<li>Implement water conservation measures: Encourage and incentivize water conservation practices among agricultural, industrial, and residential users. This could include funding and supporting water-efficient irrigation systems, promoting the use of water-saving appliances and fixtures, and implementing public awareness campaigns on the importance of water conservation.</li>



<li>Develop alternative water sources: Invest in the development of alternative water sources, such as water recycling and reuse, desalination, and stormwater capture, to reduce dependence on the Colorado River.</li>



<li>Optimize water storage and infrastructure: Improve the management of existing water storage facilities, such as reservoirs and dams, to maximize their efficiency and minimize water loss. This may also involve investing in new infrastructure projects to enhance water storage and distribution capabilities.</li>



<li>Protect and restore ecosystems: Preserve and rehabilitate ecosystems within the Colorado River basin to maintain their natural functions, such as water filtration, groundwater recharge, and habitat provision, which contribute to the overall health of the river system.</li>



<li>Adapt to climate change: Incorporate climate change projections and risk assessments into water management plans to better anticipate and adapt to future changes in water availability and demand.</li>



<li>Support research and innovation: Invest in research and development to advance new technologies and strategies for water management, conservation, and efficiency, and facilitate their adoption by water users.</li>



<li>Improve monitoring and data collection: Enhance the monitoring of water resources, including river flows, groundwater levels, and water use, to provide accurate and timely data for decision-making and long-term planning.</li>
</ol>



By adopting a combination of these strategies, the government can better manage water allotments on the Colorado River, ensuring the sustainable and equitable use of this critical resource for current and future generations.



—



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Biden administration proposes water rationing to save the Colorado River

As the Colorado River continues to shrink due to overuse...

The euptychines are one of the most diverse groups of butterflies in the American Tropics, with over 100 co-occurring species in the rainforests of Peru and Brazil. Since even distantly related species often look very similar, they have not been very attractive to collectors and researchers, and the early naturalists had no method to accurately classify them.



For instance, the German entomologist Jacob Hübner – the first to describe the group in the early 1880s – lumped the few species then known into several genera based on similar appearance.



Now, by using DNA analysis, an international team of scientists has found that there are at least 70 Euptychiina genera, consisting of over 500 species. Moreover, the analysis also revealed that there are at least 130 unnamed species in this group awaiting formal scientific description.



The project of mapping Euptychiina diversity was initiated in 2009 by Keith Willmott, the director of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/mcguire/">McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity</a>&nbsp;at the Florida Museum of Natural History, who reached to several researchers attempting to classify these frequently called “brown, boring butterflies” individually, and proposed them to combine their efforts.



A first question was how many groups of Eupychiina there were and how they were related to one another. “The way people would typically work on this kind of problem would be to divide and conquer, but that doesn’t work for euptychiines, because there are very few unifying features among species that you can use to define groups,” Willmott&nbsp;explained.



To overcome this issue, the scientists examined over 60,000 specimens from museums in Europe and North and South America, along with butterflies collected throughout their range, from the foothills of the Andes in Ecuador to the Atlantic Forest in Southeastern Brazil. These investigations helped them document more than 100 new species, many of which were previously concealed by their close resemblance to each other.&nbsp;



“A recent example is a large butterfly that used to be known as&nbsp;Pseudodebis celia&nbsp;from western Ecuador, which turned out to be four separate species. These are big butterflies. It’s hard to imagine these kinds of species are still escaping detection,” Willmott said.



While many euptychiines are masters of disguise, using mimicry to blend in with their surroundings as well as resemble other butterfly species, others have evolved bright blue scales or blazing orange eyespots, which would assumedly make them easier to classify. However, the results of genetic analyses have shown that such color patterns could be deceptive too, since multiple species have transformed their wings into blue frescoes, making them appear superficially similar.



Moreover, while many innocuous species of butterflies mimic the color of poisonous species in order to deter predators, this does not seem to be the case for euptychiines. “As far as we know, they’re not unpalatable or protected against predators in any way. It looks like mimicry, but there’s really no basis for it. It’s a fascinating mystery that needs study,” Willmott said. Finally, blue euptychiines can play further tricks on experts&nbsp;since this color is sometimes present only in some individuals belonging to a species, such as the males.&nbsp;



This new, DNA-based classification will help scientists clarify the exact identity of known euptychiines and describe a variety of new species, while setting the stage for scientific forays into other aspects of euptychiine biology.



Image Credit: Photo by Keith Willmott



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/syen.12590">Systematic Entomology</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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"Boring" tropical butterflies have a fascinating family tree

The euptychines are one of the most diverse groups of...

As the world grapples with the consequences of climate change, a new study reveals that the deteriorating habitat conditions have significantly disrupted the timing of bird <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/short-distance-migrations-are-a-common-part-of-life/">migration</a>.&nbsp;



However, birds have found a way to partially compensate for this disruption by delaying their spring migration and completing the journey faster, although this strategy comes with a cost - a decline in overall survival.



The groundbreaking study was conducted by researchers from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>, the University of Maryland, and Georgetown University, and their findings were published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecy.3938">Ecology</a>. The team focused on the American Redstart, a migratory songbird that breeds in North America and winters in the Caribbean.



"We found that our study species, the American Redstart, can migrate up to 43% faster to reach its breeding grounds after delaying departure from wintering grounds in Jamaica by as much as 10 days," said study lead author Bryant Dossman.



Dossman, who led the study while a graduate student at Cornell and is currently a postdoctoral fellow at Georgetown, added that "increased migration speed also led to a drop of more than 6% in their overall survival rate."



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Low-Res_Motus-Wildlife-Tracking_American-Redstarts_April2016-July2022.png.png" alt="" class="wp-image-1916698"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Spring migration routes for American Redstarts wintering in Jamaica. Image Credit: Motus Wildlife Tracking System</figcaption></figure>



The tactics employed by these birds to speed up their migration include flying faster and making fewer or shorter stopovers to refuel along the way. However, migrating faster only helps to compensate for the delayed departure to a certain extent, as it cannot entirely make up for the lost time.&nbsp;



For instance, Dossman explains that for a 10-day delay, individual birds can recover about 60% of the lost time, but they still arrive late on the breeding grounds.



Jamaica has experienced increased aridity in recent decades, leading to a decline in insect populations, which form the primary diet of the American Redstart. This shortage of insects means that the birds now take longer to get into condition for the rigors of migration, especially those in poorer quality habitats.&nbsp;



Simultaneously, climate change has caused plants to green and insects to emerge sooner on the breeding grounds.



Dossman emphasizes the importance of keeping to a tight schedule for migratory songbirds, as they generally only live for a year or two, giving them only one or two chances to breed.



In contrast, longer-lived birds are less likely to take the risk of speeding up migrations, as they have more opportunities throughout their lives to breed and pass on their genes.



<h2 id="h-good-news-and-bad-news-for-migrating-birds">Good news and bad news for migrating birds</h2>



To conduct the study, researchers employed a combination of historical data, automated radio tracking, and light-level tags. By comparing the redstarts' expected departure dates with their actual departure dates in recent years, scientists were able to determine how the birds' migration patterns have changed over time. The findings suggest that the subtle effects of climate change on animal behavior can be challenging to detect without long-term observation.



"The behavioral shifts documented in this research remind us that the manner in which climate change affects animals can be subtle and, in some cases, able to be detected only after long term study," commented study co-author Professor Amanda Rodewald.



The study also highlights the importance of understanding how animals might compensate for the challenges imposed by climate change.&nbsp;



"Understanding how animals can compensate is an important part of understanding where the impacts of climate change will play out," said study co-author Peter Marra. "In this case, we may not lose a species entirely, but it is possible that populations of some species may go extinct locally due to climate change."



Interestingly, the researchers found that the changes observed in the redstart's wintering grounds can carry over into the breeding season. While the overall redstart population remains stable and is increasing across much of its breeding range, detailed eBird Trend maps reveal that the species is declining in the northeastern United States and southern Quebec, Canada.



Dossman shared some optimism regarding the birds' ability to adapt to environmental changes: "The good news is that birds are able to respond to changes in their environment. They have some flexibility and variation in their behaviors to begin with, but the question is, have they reached the limit of their ability to respond to climate change?"



The research sheds light on the challenges faced by migratory birds due to climate change and the adaptations they have developed to cope with these changes. However, the long-term consequences of these adaptations on their overall survival and breeding success remain uncertain.



As climate change continues to reshape our planet, understanding how animals respond and adapt is crucial for the conservation and management of ecosystems. This long-term study of the American Redstart serves as a valuable case study in comprehending the subtle ways in which wildlife might be affected by our changing climate, and it underscores the need for more comprehensive, long-term research on various species.



<h2 id="h-more-about-migratory-birds">More about migratory birds</h2>



Migratory birds exhibit a range of behaviors as they undertake their seasonal journeys between breeding and non-breeding grounds. These behaviors can be broadly categorized as follows:



<ol>
<li>Navigation and orientation: Migratory birds have an innate ability to navigate vast distances using a combination of environmental cues and their internal compass. They rely on the sun, stars, Earth's magnetic field, and various other landmarks to find their way.</li>



<li>Timing: Many migratory bird species follow a strict annual schedule, with their departure and arrival times closely linked to seasonal changes in daylight and temperature. This ensures they arrive at their breeding grounds when conditions are optimal for reproduction and food availability.</li>



<li>Flight behavior: During migration, birds display different flight behaviors depending on their size, morphology, and environmental conditions. Some species, such as waterfowl and shorebirds, undertake non-stop flights over long distances, while others, such as songbirds, fly in stages, stopping to rest and refuel at regular intervals.</li>



<li>Flocking: Many migratory bird species, particularly those that travel in large groups or flocks, exhibit coordinated flight behaviors. This social structure provides numerous benefits, such as improved navigation, protection from predators, and reduced energy expenditure through aerodynamic advantages.</li>



<li>Stopover behavior: Migratory birds often utilize stopover sites to rest, feed, and refuel during their journeys. They exhibit specific behaviors at these sites, such as foraging, roosting, and interacting with other individuals.</li>
</ol>



Common migratory bird species



Some of the most common species of migratory birds include:



<ol>
<li>Arctic Tern: This small seabird undertakes the longest known migration, traveling around 25,000 miles (40,000 km) annually between its Arctic breeding grounds and Antarctic non-breeding grounds.</li>



<li>Bar-tailed Godwit: This large shorebird is known for its impressive non-stop flights, covering up to 7,000 miles (11,000 km) between Alaska and New Zealand in about nine days.</li>



<li>Swainson's Hawk: This bird of prey migrates from North America to Argentina, traveling around 6,000 miles (9,600 km) each way.</li>



<li>Ruby-throated Hummingbird: This tiny bird migrates between North and Central America, covering up to 3,000 miles (4,800 km) round trip, with some individuals making an 18-hour non-stop flight across the Gulf of Mexico.</li>



<li>Barn Swallow: A widespread migratory species, the Barn Swallow breeds across the Northern Hemisphere and migrates to Central and South America, southern Africa, and parts of Asia for the non-breeding season.</li>
</ol>



These are just a few examples of the thousands of migratory bird species found worldwide. Their incredible journeys and unique behaviors highlight the complexity and resilience of the natural world.



Research funding was provided by the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, the Smithsonian Institute, and the National Science Foundation.



—-



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Migratory birds have new strategy to cope with climate change

As the world grapples with the consequences of climate change,...

A groundbreaking study led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a> (UBC) has uncovered new insights into the nature of ancient underwater volcanic eruptions and their potential impact on Earth's climate.&nbsp;



The team has analyzed material deposited on the seafloor by bronze-age volcanic eruptions, offering a better understanding of the size, hazards, and climate impact of these massive events.



Approximately 3,600 years ago, a semi-submerged volcano in the southern Aegean Sea erupted, decimating the island of Santorini. The explosion released large quantities of ash, rocks, and gases into the atmosphere, leaving kilometers of sediment in terraces on the seafloor.&nbsp;



Events like these have long been linked to sudden changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-may-cause-stingrays-to-move-toward-danger/">climate</a>; however, recent underwater volcanic eruptions, such as the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai eruption in 2022, have challenged this notion due to their relatively minor impact on the climate.



The UBC-led study, which spanned several years, has examined deposits from the ancient Santorini volcano to unravel the secrets behind these massive caldera-forming eruptions. The research is providing new clues about how future eruptions could influence Earth's climate.



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/low-res-1.png" alt="" class="wp-image-1916690"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Studying bronze-age underwater volcanic eruptions is helping researchers better understand the size, hazards and climate impact of their parent eruptions. Credit: Johan Gilchrist, University of British Columbia</figcaption></figure>



During colossal volcanic eruptions, eruption columns pass through shallow seas as jets of ash, rocks, and gases, rising tens of kilometers into the atmosphere. However, it has remained unclear how much of this material reaches the sea surface or ground, and how it is transported there.



Dr. Johan Gilchrist, a UBC researcher and lead author of the study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-023-01160-z">Nature Geoscience</a>, said, "We've proved the architecture of volcanic deposits in subaerial and submarine settings can be used to quantitatively constrain the dynamics of the eruption that occurred there, including the vent source and environmental conditions."



"The study also provides crucial lower bounds on eruption strength, jet heights and frequencies and sizes of the sedimentation waves linked to terraced deposits. That will help us predict the evolution of hazards during these caldera-forming eruptions and understand the surprisingly small climate impact of similar events.”



<h2 id="h-surprising-findings-about-underwater-volcanic-eruptions">Surprising findings about underwater volcanic eruptions</h2>



Dr. Mark Jellinek, a UBC Earth and planetary scientist, joined Dr. Gilchrist and looked into the mysteries surrounding the concentric terraces that remain around the Santorini caldera, historically known as the Minoan eruption.



The researchers discovered that the terrace widths decrease as the distance from the vent increases, and slope backward up towards the caldera wall. This pattern is consistent with other terraced caldera deposits. They also found that the terraces near the caldera wall are much broader than those present in caldera from purely submarine or subaerial eruptions.



Dr. Gilchrist suspected that sedimentation waves collapsing periodically around the volcanic jet spread where they impacted the water surface during shallow submarine eruptions. To test this hypothesis, the scientists conducted experiments by injecting particles into shallow water layers, mimicking the submarine Minoan eruption.&nbsp;



The results confirmed that descending sedimentation waves caused by shallow water eruptions could impact and spread at the sea surface, creating tsunamis, and also scour the seafloor, depending on the eruption strength and water depth.



These terraced deposits left a fingerprint, outlining the events that took place during the eruption, the size of the sedimentation waves, and how they interacted with the water and seafloor.



“The limits this study has uncovered will guide a next generation of hydrovolcanic climate models aimed at understanding how the mass partitioning properties of eruptions like Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai - as well as the largest and most impressive volcanic phenomena in the geological record - minimize their effects on climate change," said Dr. Jellinek.



Dr. Gert Lube, a volcanologist from Massey University who was not involved in the study, commented on the significance of the findings: "For the case of three submarine caldera-forming eruptions, this study provides the first direct relationships between the deposit architecture and parental eruption conditions. The results of this study are intriguing and could possibly be extended to non-marine, caldera-forming and smaller eruption events.”



The research conducted by Dr. Gilchrist and Dr. Jellinek has shed new light on the complex interactions between underwater volcanic eruptions and the marine environment. The study not only advances our understanding of these geological phenomena but also paves the way for the development of improved hydrovolcanic climate models, which will help scientists better predict the impact of future eruptions on Earth's climate.



<h2 id="h-more-about-underwater-volcanic-eruptions">More about underwater volcanic eruptions</h2>



Underwater volcanic eruptions, also known as submarine volcanic eruptions, occur beneath the surface of the ocean and involve complex interactions between magma, water, and the seafloor. These eruptions can vary in size and intensity, from small-scale events that have little impact on the surrounding environment to large-scale eruptions that can significantly alter the seafloor and trigger tsunamis. Here are some key aspects of underwater volcanic eruptions:



<ol>
<li>Formation of new land: Submarine volcanic eruptions can lead to the formation of new land, such as islands, when lava accumulates above the water surface. This process has created many of the world's volcanic islands, like those in the Hawaiian archipelago.</li>



<li>Hydrothermal vents: Underwater volcanic eruptions can also give rise to hydrothermal vents, which are openings in the seafloor where heated water and minerals are released. These vents create unique and diverse ecosystems that support life in the deep sea, including extremophile organisms that thrive in extreme conditions.</li>



<li>Seafloor spreading: Underwater volcanic eruptions play a crucial role in the process of seafloor spreading, which occurs at mid-ocean ridges. Magma rises from the mantle and erupts along these ridges, creating new oceanic crust and causing the seafloor to spread apart.</li>



<li>Gas release: Submarine eruptions release gases like water vapor, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. These gases can dissolve into the surrounding seawater, potentially leading to ocean acidification and impacting marine life.</li>



<li>Tsunamis: Large-scale underwater volcanic eruptions can cause tsunamis by displacing vast amounts of water or triggering underwater landslides. The tsunamis can result in significant damage to coastal areas and pose risks to human life.</li>



<li>Impact on climate: Underwater volcanic eruptions can release large amounts of ash, aerosols, and gases into the atmosphere. Depending on the size and intensity of the eruption, these releases can affect Earth's climate by reflecting sunlight, cooling the planet, or causing short-term climate changes.</li>



<li>Challenges in studying submarine eruptions: Studying underwater volcanic eruptions is challenging due to their remote locations and the harsh conditions of the deep sea. However, advances in technology, such as remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), and seafloor observatories, have improved our ability to monitor and study these eruptions.</li>
</ol>



As research on underwater volcanic eruptions continues, scientists are gaining a deeper understanding of these complex geological processes and their impacts on the Earth's oceans, climate, and biosphere.



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Underwater volcanic eruptions are more harmful than previously believed

A groundbreaking study led by researchers from the University of...

The quantity of dissolved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/which-types-of-fish-suffer-from-oxygen-starvation/">oxygen</a> in rivers is highly important for the survival of the plants and animals inhabiting them. However, the oxygen concentration varies substantially among rivers, depending on their temperature, light, and flow. 



To clarify which of these factors has the largest impact on the concentration of dissolved oxygen, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Pennsylvania State University</a> used a deep learning model to analyze data from hundreds of rivers across the United States, and found that temperature is the most significant factor driving oxygen concentrations.&nbsp;



The amount of oxygen dissolved in rivers is a critical measure of water quality since fish and other aquatic organisms rely on it to breathe. 



“Studies have shown that three major factors — flow, temperature, and sunlight — influence the amount of dissolved oxygen found in a river or stream. We wanted to know, at the U.S. continental scale, which of these competing drivers was dominant,” said lead author Wei Zhi, an assistant professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Penn State.&nbsp;



Previous studies have argued that all the three factors are equally important, since how quickly a river flows impacts how fast atmospheric oxygen can dissolve in water, the level of sunlight shining into the water affects how much oxygen aquatic plants can produce on their own, and temperature affects how much oxygen the water can pull from air. 



However, since there has been little consistency in how dissolved oxygen concentrations have been measured in different rivers, the Penn State team used 40 years of data from 580 rivers across the country to train a deep learning model that could clarify the relationship between weather conditions and dissolved oxygen.



“Traditionally, it has been very difficult to predict the dissolved oxygen levels on such a large scale, simultaneously with one model. But with a deep learning and big data approach, we can do that. Deep learning models enable large-scale systematic analysis of patterns and drivers,” explained senior author Li Li, a professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Penn State.



The analysis reveled that, at a continental scale, temperature significantly outweighed both light and stream flow in affecting the dissolved oxygen concentrations. While light was the second-important factor, stream flow appeared to have minimal influence.



“Temperature is the predominant driver of daily dissolved oxygen dynamics in U.S. rivers. Fairly accurate predictions of oxygen concentration can be made by temperature alone. Dissolved oxygen is declining in warming rivers, which has important implications for water security and ecosystem health in the future warming climate,” Zhi concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s44221-023-00038-z">Nature Water</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Temperature is the main driver of oxygen in U.S. rivers

The quantity of dissolved oxygen in rivers is highly important...

A recent study conducted by researchers at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">The Ohio State University</a> reveals that urban light pollution may have a significant impact on the winter dormancy period, or diapause, of mosquitoes and mosquito biting season that transmit West Nile virus. This discovery carries both positive and negative implications for public <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-failure-is-influenced-by-gut-health/">health</a>.



On a positive note, the research suggests that if mosquitoes are unable to enter their diapause period and accumulate sufficient fat reserves, they may not survive the winter. However, the negative side of the equation is that the disruption of diapause could lead to mosquitoes remaining active and biting humans and animals later into the fall.



Study senior author Professor Megan Meuti explained the potential consequences of this disruption: “We see the highest levels of West Nile virus transmission in the late summer and early fall in Ohio. If you have mosquitoes postponing or delaying diapause and continuing to be active longer in the year, that’s at a time when the mosquitoes are most likely to be infected with West Nile virus and people could be at greatest risk of contracting it.”



The study is among the first to demonstrate the potential effects of artificial light at night on mosquito behavior. Interestingly, the researchers found that the impact of urban light pollution on mosquitoes is not entirely predictable, as the same light sources can produce varying effects depending on the season.



<h2>How do you study mosquitoes</h2>



For the study, which was recently published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/insects14010064">Insects</a>, Meuti collaborated with study first author Matthew Wolkoff and Lydia Fyie, both PhD candidates in Entomology at Ohio State, 



The research focused on the diapause of female Northern house mosquitoes (Culex pipiens), which is not a complete winter slumber but rather a period of dormancy during which the insects reside in semi-protected locations such as caves, culverts, and sheds. Before winter arrives, mosquitoes convert sugary substances like plant nectar into fat, which sustains them during diapause.&nbsp;



As the days grow longer, female mosquitoes begin searching for blood meals to enable egg production. Some of these mosquitoes become infected with West Nile virus after feeding on infected birds, subsequently transmitting the virus to humans, horses, and other mammals during subsequent feedings.



The study builds upon two earlier findings from Meuti's lab, including the discovery that circadian clock genes differ between diapausing and non-diapausing mosquitoes, strongly indicating that day length determines the onset of diapause. More recently, research led by Fyie revealed that female mosquitoes exposed to dim light at night averted diapause and became reproductively active, even when shorter days suggested they should be dormant.



<h2 id="h-what-triggers-mosquitoes-to-start-biting">What triggers mosquitoes to start biting</h2>



In a recent study led by Wolkoff, researchers have discovered that artificial light at night has a significant impact on mosquito behavior and nutrient accumulation. The findings, which could have implications for both humans and mosquito populations, shed new light on the complex relationship between insects and their environment.



To explore this relationship, the research team studied mosquitoes in two different laboratory settings: one simulating long days, which correspond to the insects' active season, and another with short days, inducing a period of dormancy called diapause. In each condition, mosquitoes were exposed to artificial light at night.



The study uncovered further evidence linking mosquito behavior to circadian patterns. During diapause, the insects' activity levels decreased, but their circadian rhythmicity remained consistent. This finding suggests that even in periods of dormancy, mosquitoes maintain a predictable pattern of activity.



However, the introduction of artificial light at night disrupted these patterns and influenced the mosquitoes' ability to accumulate nutrient reserves, which are crucial for surviving winter temperatures. For example, exposure to light pollution reduced the amount of water-soluble carbohydrates - a vital food source during winter - accumulated by mosquitoes in both long- and short-day conditions.



<h2 id="h-other-factors-that-trigger-mosquito-bites">Other factors that trigger mosquito bites</h2>



Additionally, the researchers found that the accumulation of glycogen, a type of sugar, was altered by exposure to artificial light at night. Under normal conditions, non-dormant mosquitoes had high levels of glycogen, while diapausing mosquitoes did not. But when subjected to light pollution, long-day mosquitoes accumulated less glycogen, and short-day mosquitoes saw an increase in glycogen accumulation.



In terms of activity, the researchers observed consistent trends when mosquitoes were exposed to artificial light at night. Dormant mosquitoes exhibited a slight increase in activity, while long-day mosquitoes showed slightly suppressed activity. Although these results were not statistically significant, Wolkoff believes the combined observations suggest that light pollution may disrupt diapause in mosquitoes by interfering with signals from their circadian clock.



"This could be bad for mammals in the short term because mosquitoes are potentially biting us later in the season, but it could also be bad for mosquitoes in the long term because they might be failing to fully engage in preparatory activities they need to survive the winter during diapause, and that might reduce their survival rate," explained Wolkoff.



The findings highlight the need for further research to better understand the complex relationship between urban light pollution, mosquito behavior, and the transmission of West Nile virus. Developing strategies to mitigate the potential risks associated with disrupted diapause could prove essential in protecting public health from the spread of mosquito-borne diseases like West Nile virus.



To confirm the validity of these lab results, the research team plans to conduct field studies to examine the effects of artificial light at night on mosquitoes in their natural environment. Such studies could provide valuable insights into the role of light pollution in altering mosquito behavior and survival, potentially impacting ecosystems and human health.



<h2 id="h-other-recent-advances-in-the-war-against-mosquitoes">Other recent advances in the war against mosquitoes</h2>



Over the years, researchers have made significant progress in understanding mosquito behavior, biology, and disease transmission, which has led to the development of various innovative strategies to prevent the spread of mosquito-borne diseases. Some notable advances include:



<ol>
<li>Genetic modification: Scientists have developed genetically modified mosquitoes that can either suppress the population or reduce their ability to transmit diseases. For example, the release of genetically modified male mosquitoes carrying a self-limiting gene can result in offspring that do not survive to adulthood, eventually leading to a decline in the mosquito population.</li>



<li>Wolbachia bacteria: Introducing Wolbachia, a naturally occurring bacterium, into mosquito populations has shown promise in reducing disease transmission. Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes have a reduced ability to transmit viruses such as dengue, Zika, and chikungunya. The bacterium can be passed on to future generations, making it a sustainable approach to controlling disease spread.</li>



<li>Insecticide-treated bed nets: Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) are an effective method for preventing mosquito bites and reducing the transmission of malaria. These nets are treated with insecticides that repel or kill mosquitoes on contact, providing a physical and chemical barrier for individuals sleeping under them.</li>



<li>Spatial repellents: Researchers are developing spatial repellents, which can be used indoors or outdoors to create an area where mosquitoes are less likely to bite humans. These repellents typically contain chemicals that affect the mosquitoes' olfactory or gustatory systems, making it harder for them to locate human hosts.</li>



<li>Larval source management: This approach involves targeting mosquito larvae and reducing their breeding sites. Methods include environmental management, such as eliminating stagnant water sources or introducing predators that feed on mosquito larvae, and larviciding, which involves applying chemical or biological agents to kill larvae.</li>



<li>Vaccine development: Scientists are actively working on developing vaccines for mosquito-borne diseases, such as malaria and dengue. Although progress has been made, vaccine development remains challenging due to the complex life cycles of these pathogens and their ability to evade the human immune system.</li>



<li>Improved surveillance and early warning systems: Advances in technology have enabled better monitoring of mosquito populations and disease outbreaks, allowing for early interventions and more targeted control measures. This includes the use of satellite data, drones, and machine learning algorithms to predict and track mosquito-borne disease outbreaks.</li>
</ol>



These advances, along with continued research and collaboration between scientists, policymakers, and communities, have the potential to significantly reduce the impact of mosquito-borne diseases on global public health.



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Mosquito biting season extended by light pollution

A recent study conducted by researchers at The Ohio State...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic pollution.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-threat-in-urban-air">Invisible threat in urban air</h2>



City dwellers face an unseen danger with every breath. New findings from Emory University researchers suggest that fine particulate matter from <a href="http://earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicle emissions may significantly elevate the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease</a>. The study examined brain tissue samples from 224 individuals who had confirmed diagnoses and volunteered their brains for scientific research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disturbing-connections-emerge">Disturbing connections emerge</h2>



Scientists analyzed neuritic plaques — protein clusters that characterize Alzheimer's — while mapping each participant's exposure to PM2.5 particles based on residential location and surrounding traffic density. The correlation proved more alarming than anticipated. Individuals experiencing higher pollution exposure showed nearly double the likelihood of elevated plaque accumulation in brain tissue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-matters">Timing matters</h2>



The research team discovered that pollution exposure during the final year before death demonstrated the strongest association with brain changes. This timeline suggests relatively rapid impacts from environmental toxins on neural health. The connection remained robust even after accounting for various demographic and health factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-vulnerability-patterns">Genetic vulnerability patterns</h2>



Perhaps most concerning, people lacking the APOE gene—which naturally predisposes individuals to Alzheimer's — exhibited more than twice the susceptibility to pollution-related brain damage. Study author Dr. Anke Huels noted this indicates environmental elements like air contamination could trigger the disease in cases where hereditary factors don't explain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-implications">Public health implications</h2>



These findings, published in <a href="https://www.neurology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a>, underscore the critical importance of air quality regulations in urban planning. The research suggests that implementing stricter emission controls and promoting alternative transportation could serve as powerful tools in Alzheimer's prevention.



As cities worldwide grapple with growing traffic congestion and aging populations, this study highlights an urgent need for comprehensive approaches to environmental health that protect both our lungs and our minds.



—–



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Traffic fumes may trigger Alzheimer's

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-earth-became-a-frozen-wasteland">When Earth became a frozen wasteland</h2>



Imagine Earth as a giant snowball, frozen solid from the North Pole to the equator. This wasn't the plot of a science fiction movie – it was our planet's reality 700 million years ago during an extreme ice age that has puzzled scientists for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery">The discovery</h2>



Australian researchers from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> have finally cracked one of geology's greatest mysteries: what caused the Sturtian glaciation and why it persisted for an unprecedented 57 million years. This period occurred long before dinosaurs roamed the Earth, when no complex plants or multicellular animals existed.



Dr. Adriana Dutkiewicz, the study's lead author, describes a world completely unlike today's climate. "Imagine the Earth almost completely frozen over," she explained. "The planet was blanketed in ice from poles to equator, and temperatures plunged."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-combination-of-climate-factors">The combination of climate factors</h2>



The research team discovered that this massive freeze resulted from a "double whammy" of geological events. First, plate tectonic activity reduced volcanic carbon dioxide emissions to historically low levels. Volcanic activity typically releases CO2 into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that keeps Earth warm.



Simultaneously, weathering of volcanic rocks in what is now Canada actively absorbed atmospheric CO2, further reducing greenhouse gas concentrations. When atmospheric carbon dioxide levels dropped below 200 parts per million – less than half of today's levels – glaciation engulfed the entire planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-climate-implications">Modern climate implications</h2>



Published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a>, this research provides crucial insights into Earth's climate system. While geological climate changes occur over millions of years, the study emphasizes that human-induced climate change is happening at a pace ten times faster than previously observed natural changes, highlighting the urgent need to understand our planet's delicate climate balance.



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What caused the planet's longest ice age

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY 57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.



The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.



The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.



The full study was recently published in <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.



Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.



Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents". In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively. MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.



MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization. The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.



Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.



A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.



This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.



PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.



In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.



As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.



The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.



For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.



The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.



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MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a>



Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.



The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Saturn,-,High,Resolution,3d,Images,Presents,Planets,Of,The

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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