Forests have always been symbols of resilience and endurance. Towering trees stand tall for centuries, forming ecosystems that nurture countless species. They inspire awe, acting as natural archives of Earth’s long history. Yet, today’s rapidly shifting climate is testing this strength like never before.



Scientists now warn that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traditional-forest-farming-is-an-overlooked-climate-solution/">forests</a> might struggle to keep pace with the speed of current climate change. This concern isn’t new, but recent research puts into perspective just how slow forest responses can be.



Long before industrial activities fueled modern warming, forests adapted gradually to changes. Over thousands of years, tree populations shifted according to cooling and warming periods. 



During glacial advances, they migrated southward, following milder climates. When the Earth warmed again, they moved north. This dance of migration was a slow process, unfolding over centuries.



But today, the world faces climate shifts at an alarming rate. Forests are locked in place, unable to shift swiftly enough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-struggle-with-climate-change">Forests struggle with climate change</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creating-forests-cant-realistically-cancel-out-fossil-fuel-emissions/">Trees</a> cannot migrate quickly. They grow slowly, and their seeds disperse over limited distances, despite help from wind and animals. Mature trees may live for hundreds of years, meaning populations shift at a glacial pace.



Current climate change, driven by human activities, is happening faster than many forests can adapt. This creates a worrying gap between the pace of warming and the ability of forests to respond.



A recent study published in the journal Science has brought this issue into sharper focus. Led by David Fastovich, a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.syracuse.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Syracuse University</a>, the study provides concrete evidence of how slowly forests react to climate changes.



Fastovich works in the Paleoclimate Dynamics Lab under Tripti Bhattacharya, the Thonis Family Professor of Paleoclimate Dynamics. Their team examined pollen records from lake sediments, revealing tree population shifts over hundreds of thousands of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-adjusting-to-climate-shifts">Forests adjusting to climate shifts</h2>



The study focused on mapping the time required for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-forests-helps-birds-and-humans-in-many-ways/">forests</a> to adjust to climate shifts. Some of the sediment cores analyzed date back up to 600,000 years, capturing long-term changes in forest composition.



“We’ve known these time lags have existed, but no one could put a firm number on them,” said Fastovich. 



“We can intuit how long a tree lives. We can count the rings on a tree and estimate from there. But now we know that after one to two centuries, very close to how long a tree lives on average, entire forest ecosystems begin to turnover as trees die and are replaced in response to climate.”



The results emphasize the deep disconnect between the rapid pace of modern climate change and the natural rhythms of forest migration and replacement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revealing-forest-patterns">Revealing forest patterns</h2>



To study these long-term changes, the researchers turned to spectral analysis. This statistical method is common in physics and engineering. It allowed the team to compare the relationship between tree populations and climate shifts across varying time scales, from decades to millennia.



The analysis focused on three key aspects: migration patterns, tree mortality, and disturbances like forest fires. By observing these factors together, the team uncovered how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-carbon-credits-are-failing-so-what-needs-to-change/">forests</a> change over both short and long timescales.



Spectral analysis provided a way to create a unified view of forest dynamics. This approach helped bridge the gap between different disciplines that study forests.



“This gives us a common language for people who observe forest change, ecologists, paleoecologists and paleobiologists, to talk to one another about those changes no matter if we study forests on annual or millennial timescales,” said Fastovich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-shift-but-bigger-changes-emerge">Forests shift but bigger changes emerge</h2>



The research showed that, over the span of a few years or decades, forests change slowly. Small adjustments occur gradually, often unnoticed in the short term. However, significant changes begin to emerge over longer periods.



After about eight centuries, the study found that forest shifts tend to grow more dramatic. These larger changes often align with natural fluctuations in the planet’s climate.



“With this new technique, we can think about ecological processes on any timescale and how they are connected,” said Fastovich. “We can understand how dispersal and population changes interact and cause a forest to change from decades to centuries, and even longer timescales. That hasn’t been done before.”



This insight shows that while forests may appear stable, they are slowly shifting in response to deeper climate rhythms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-human-help">Urgent need for human help</h2>



One of the study’s most important findings points to the need for human intervention. Forests are unlikely to adjust fast enough on their own to survive the rapid pace of modern warming.



One promising approach is assisted migration. This method involves deliberately planting tree species from warmer climates into cooler regions. The goal is to help forests adapt by jumpstarting their natural migration processes.



Fastovich emphasized that this kind of intervention is far from simple. Forest adaptation is a slow, complicated process that demands careful, long-term planning.



“There’s a mismatch between the timescales at which forests naturally change to what’s happening today with climate change,” said Fastovich. 



“Population-level changes aren’t going to be fast enough to keep the forests that we care about around. Assisted migration is one tool of many to keep cherished forests around for longer.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reminder-of-the-challenges-ahead">Reminder of the challenges ahead</h2>



The research serves as a stark reminder of the challenges ahead. Forests are not static. They are ancient, slow-moving communities shaped by time and climate. While their changes might seem imperceptible over a human lifespan, they remain in constant motion.



Now, humanity must make tough choices. Without careful action, many forests may not survive the speed of climate change. 



The tools we choose, whether assisted migration, conservation efforts, or other interventions, will shape the forests of the future. Their survival depends not only on nature’s resilience but also on human responsibility.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adr6700" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



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Forests are lagging centuries behind in climate adaptation

Forests have always been symbols of resilience and endurance. Towering trees stand tall for centuries, forming ecosystems that nurture countless species. They inspire awe, acting as natural archives of Earth’s long history. Yet, today’s rapidly shifting climate is testing this strength like never before. Scientists now warn that forests might struggle to keep pace with the speed of current climate change. This concern isn’t new, but recent research puts into perspective just how slow forest responses can be. Long before industrial activities fueled modern warming, forests adapted...

<div>

Even small offshore oil spills put seabirds at risk. Seabirds exposed to even a dime-sized amount of oil can die of hypothermia in cold-water regions, but despite repeated requests by Environment Canada, offshore oil operators are failing when it comes to self-monitoring of small oil spills, says new research out of York University.

Chronic pollution from many small offshore oil spills may have greater population-level impacts on seabirds than a single large spill, suggest researchers Gail Fraser and Vincent Racine of York U's Faculty of Environmental Studies. However, seabirds are rarely considered in the monitoring of small spills from offshore oil production projects in Newfoundland and Labrador even though Environment Canada has asked that they be included.

In an article published in the international journal, Marine Pollution Bulletin, Fraser and Racine looked at how offshore oil operators monitored and responded to small spills (less than 1,000 litres) for three production projects off the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador.

In three high-profile environmental assessments Environment Canada repeatedly requested that impacts on seabirds be monitored following small spills, but this has not happened.

"Industry self-monitoring of spills has failed to collect information that would allow researchers to understand the impact of chronic oil spills on seabirds," said Fraser, who along with Racine is calling for independent observers on the offshore platforms. "Many seabird populations are declining and understanding sources of mortality is critical to their conservation." Even small offshore oil spills put seabirds at risk

Fraser and Racine looked at reporting and monitoring of spills between 1997 and 2010. The researchers obtained operator spill reports under an Access to Information request. They found there were 220 daytime spills. Reporting on the presence or absence of seabirds was done in only 11 (five per cent) of the cases. The Canadian Wildlife Service's seabird survey protocol should be followed when a spill occurs, but none of the reports showed evidence of that. The time it takes for a small spill to dissipate was also not in the spill reports and this information is required to estimate possible interactions of oil spilled with seabirds. "The lack of information on seabirds during oil spills indicates a need for third-party observers," said Fraser.

The joint federal and provincial Newfoundland &amp; Labrador the Canada-Newfoundland Labrador Offshore Petroleum Board (C-NLOPB) is responsible for administering environmental assessment follow-up procedures, including monitoring and responses to oil spills. The C-NLOPB has repeatedly rejected calls for independent, third party observers on platforms while seemingly being incapable of enforcing Environment Canada's recommendations.

However, during the White Rose environmental assessment process the C-NLOPB publicly acknowledged "that should such circumstances arise, it is fully prepared to adopt a different regulatory approach, including consideration of full-time on-site oversight of the operations concerned." While the circumstances were not defined, Fraser argues that "A failure to collect information on seabirds during oil spills for 13 years is sufficient to demand the regulatory approach be changed to include third-party observers."
###
*Note: High res photos available, including the following.

<a href="http://news.yorku.ca/files/Oiled-Thick-billed-Murre-Cripple-Cove-Nfld-Nov.-28-2004.-Photo-credit-Ian-L.-Jones.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">http://news. yorku. ca/ files/ Oiled-Thick-billed-Murre-Cripple-Cove-Nfld-Nov. -28-2004. -Photo-credit-Ian-L. -Jones. jpg</a>

<a href="http://news.yorku.ca/files/Oiled-Thick-billed-Murre-Cripple-Cove-near-Cape-Race-Newfoundland-November-28-2004.-Photo-by-Ian-L.-Jones.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">http://news. yorku. ca/ files/ Oiled-Thick-billed-Murre-Cripple-Cove-near-Cape-Race-Newfoundland-November-28-2004. -Photo-by-Ian-L. -Jones. jpg</a>

<a href="http://news.yorku.ca/files/Oiled-Thick-Billed-Murre-Cape-Shore-Newfoundland-4-December-2004.-Photo-by-Bill-Montevecchi.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">http://news. yorku. ca/ files/ Oiled-Thick-Billed-Murre-Cape-Shore-Newfoundland-4-December-2004. -Photo-by-Bill-Montevecchi. jpg</a>

<a href="http://news.yorku.ca/files/Oiled-Common-Murre-Cape-Shore-Newfoundland-4-December-2004.-Photo-by-Bill-Montevecchi.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">http://news. yorku. ca/ files/ Oiled-Common-Murre-Cape-Shore-Newfoundland-4-December-2004. -Photo-by-Bill-Montevecchi. jpg</a>

York University is known for championing new ways of thinking that drive teaching and research excellence. Our 52,000 students receive the education they need to create big ideas that make an impact on the world. Meaningful and sometimes unexpected careers result from cross-discipline programming, innovative course design and diverse experiential learning opportunities. York students and graduates push limits, achieve goals and find solutions to the world's most pressing social challenges, empowered by a strong community that opens minds. York U is an internationally recognized research university - our 11 faculties and 24 research centres have partnerships with 200+ leading universities worldwide.

Media Contact:

Sandra McLean, York University Media Relations, 416-736-2100 ext. 22097 / <a href="mailto:sandramc@yorku.ca">sandramc@yorku.ca</a>

</div>

Even small offshore oil spills put seabirds at risk

Even small offshore oil spills put seabirds at risk. Seabirds...

Exxon and Chevron reject climate change resolutions. Shareholders at Exxon Mobil and Chevron rejected climate change resolutions backed by environmentalists that would have pushed the companies to take stronger stands in favor of limiting climate change.
Environmentalists took solace, however, that some of their ideas gained considerable support.
At Chevron Corp., a resolution asking for an annual report each year on how climate-change policies will affect the company received 41 percent of the vote. A similar resolution at Exxon got 38 percent.
Also, Exxon Mobil Corp. shareholders voted to ask directors to adopt a proxy-access rule, which would make it easier for shareholders to propose their own board candidates. Backers including the <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=new+york&amp;cvid=0b568deee1ee4d528f3fc616d4b0fd3a&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">New York</a> City comptroller said it could result in the election of independent directors who could help the company address risks like climate change.
The meetings Wednesday - Exxon's in Dallas, Chevron's in San Ramon, California - came as the companies are trying to dig out from the collapse in crude prices that began in mid-2014. Exxon earned $16.15 billion last year, its smallest profit since 2002. Chevron's annual profit plunged 76 percent to $4.59 billion and included the company's first money-losing quarter since 2002.
Crude prices have rebounded since February, boosting the shares of the top two U.S. oil companies, but they remain about half of what they were at their last peak.
Exxon is also dealing with investigations by officials in several states into what the company knew and allegedly didn't disclose about oil's role in climate change.
The company's shareholders rejected resolutions to put a climate expert on the board and support the goal of a UN meeting in Paris last year to limit global warming to 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. Exxon and Chevron reject climate change resolutions
Patricia Daley, a Dominican sister from New Jersey and sponsor of one of the resolutions, said Exxon lacked "moral leadership."
"Our company has chosen to disregard the consensus of the scientific community, the will of the 195 nations that signed the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/inconsistent-paris-agreement-pledges/">Paris</a> agreement," religious leaders and even other oil companies, Daley said.
Exxon CEO Rex Tillerson said his company has long recognized that climate change is a serious risk and might require action. But, he said, any policies should be implemented evenly across the world, allow market prices to pick solutions, and be flexible enough to respond to economic ups and downs and "breakthroughs in climate science."
Exxon forecasts that oil and gas will make up 60 percent of the world's energy supply in 2040 - about the same share it holds today. Its CEO said the company was balancing the need to produce more energy for growing world demand with environmental considerations.
Tillerson said there is no alternative source that can replace the ubiquity of fossil fuels. He expressed confidence that technology will provide the key to limiting carbon emissions.
"We've got to have some technological breakthroughs," he said, "but until we achieve those, to just say turn the taps off is not acceptable to humanity," he said.
The shareholders responded with robust applause.
Across the street from the meeting hall, about 60 protesters gathered and urged large shareholders such as pension funds to divest their shares. Many held signs with slogans such as "Exxon Liar Liar Earth on Fire." The mood was sedate, however, perhaps owing to the warm, muggy weather.
Exxon shares rose 59 cents to $90.26, and Chevron shares gained $1.60 to $101.79.
---
This story has been corrected to note that the climate-change resolution won 38 percent support, instead of a maximum of 25 percent support.
© 2016 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. Learn more about our Privacy Policy and Terms of Use.

Exxon and Chevron reject climate change resolutions

Exxon and Chevron reject climate change resolutions. Shareholders at Exxon...

Spring snowpack becoming more vulnerable to climate change. Spring snowpack, relied on by ski resorts and water managers throughout the Western United States, may be more vulnerable to a warming climate in coming decades, according to a new University of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=utah&amp;form=EDGEAR&amp;qs=PF&amp;cvid=1afc1cfdc8b748ad86c69db28d7ec0d9&amp;cc=US&amp;setlang=en-US&amp;elv=AY3%21uAY7tbNNZGZ2yiGNjfOY30fClOq9osfcI6T5oj*hE6t5rxobamX30NRQjBmy*OP9iLS3k4wiq6hva%215doRmj9DfIWHLG9gu65Xi7ZK5Q&amp;plvar=0&amp;PC=HCTS">Utah</a> study.

The study, accepted for publication in Geophysical Research Letters, models the year-to-year variability in precipitation and temperature in Utah's Wasatch Mountains and other ranges in the West. Jason Scalzitti, a graduate student in atmospheric sciences, and professors Court Strong and Adam Kochanski found that above a threshold elevation, the amount of spring snowpack is dependent more on the amount of precipitation in a year than the temperature. In other words, whether a year is wet matters more than if it's warm. But below that threshold, temperature matters more. By the end of the century, according to the study, that threshold will move uphill by around 800 feet in the Wasatch and more in the Sierra Nevada, Cascades and parts of the Rocky Mountains.

"In the past we've thought mainly about total precipitation as an indicator of how good the ski season's going to be," says Strong. "As we move into the future, especially at elevations below the threshold, temperature increases in importance." Spring snowpack becoming more vulnerable to climate change

Zooming in on the Wasatch

Strong and his colleagues based their work on a high-resolution, regional-scale climate model called the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. Conventional climate models make calculations on grids 62 miles (100 km) on a side. For reference, less than 20 miles separate Salt Lake City, west of the Wasatch, and Park City, Utah, on the east. "You can't even see the Wasatch Range at that resolution," Strong says. Although the coarser grid of global climate models works well in flat topography, such as the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/great-plains-rain-plow/">Great Plains</a>, the complex terrain of the Intermountain West requires a finer resolution.

The researchers employed a technique called "dynamical downscaling," telescoping the model grid into smaller and smaller grid cells in order to capture fine-scale atmospheric processes affecting local climate. In the team's final simulations, the Wasatch Range was modeled at a resolution of about 2.5 miles (4 km) to realistically capture impacts of the range's slopes, canyons, and peaks on the local precipitation pattern. They further accounted for future temperature changes in the Great Salt Lake and evaporation from urban irrigation, both of which contribute moisture to the air. The team projected regional future climate forward to the year 2100 using a business-as-usual carbon emissions scenario that assumes greenhouse gas emissions will continue to increase at the same rate as today.

Crossing the threshold

They found that at high elevations, temperatures remain cold enough throughout the spring to turn precipitation to snow and to keep the snow on the ground from melting. Amount of precipitation is the main factor determining how much snow is on the ground during the critical spring months. Going down toward the valley floors, however, temperatures rise, and even in years with high precipitation, the slopes experience more rain and more melting. Temperature becomes the primary driver of the depth of spring snowpack.

The threshold elevation between precipitation-controlled and temperature-controlled snowpack, currently sits at about 6500 feet (1980 meters) in the Wasatch, near the base elevation of the ski resorts in Park City. In future projections, however, the threshold elevation rises to 7300 feet (2230 meters).

In the simulations, modeled threshold elevations rose in mountain ranges all over the West - by about 800 feet (250 meters) in Colorado's Rockies, about 980 feet (300 meters) in California's Sierra Nevada and Washington's Cascades and more than 1400 feet (432 meters) in the middle Rockies of Idaho and Wyoming.

Impacts in peaks and valleys

Four Wasatch ski resorts, Solitude, Snowbird, Alta, and Brighton, sit well above the end-of-century 7300 foot threshold. But the rest, including venues from the 2002 Winter Olympics, sit at base elevations between 5500 and 7200 feet. The peak elevations of all resorts except one, Nordic Valley, extend up above the 7300 foot future threshold.

An overall warming trend doesn't mean that every year will be a bad year for low-elevation resorts. But below the threshold elevation, resorts will more susceptible to warm years. "Let's say we get the same amount of storms every year," says study co-author Kochanski. "Above the threshold, the resorts will probably be fine. For the others, even if we have the same precipitation, they may be in trouble because they could get more rain instead of snow, and the snowpack will diminish faster."

Although impacts to ski resorts could affect Utah's economy, another implication of diminished snowpack affects nearly all Utahns - shrinking water resources. Melting spring snowpack fills reservoirs, providing water for the residents of the Salt Lake Valley. Spring snowpack amounts are a key indicator for water managers of how much water they'll have available in reservoirs for the coming year.

"They look at that as how much water is available in the form of snow to melt and capture in the reservoirs," Strong says. "That will be down in the future. Even if we have the same amount of water coming into the system, it will be melting earlier and faster. If we want to supply that to a growing population, then we need increased storage capacity."

Strong and Kochanski say they can now use their model as a framework to continue exploring questions about future climate and snowpack variation, both by exploring the impacts of different carbon emissions scenarios and by looking at mountain ranges around the world, such as the Himalayas.
###
This work was funded by the National Science Foundation.

This release and accompanying images are available at <a href="http://unews.utah.edu/spring-snow-a-no-go/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">http://unews. utah. edu/ spring-snow-a-no-go/ </a>

The full study, which has been accepted for publication and undergone full peer review but has not been through the copyediting, typesetting, pagination and proofreading process, can be found here: <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2016GL068798/full" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">http://onlinelibrary. wiley. com/ doi/ 10. 1002/ 2016GL068798/ full</a>

Spring snowpack becoming more vulnerable to climate change

Spring snowpack becoming more vulnerable to climate change. Spring snowpack,...

<div>

Study examines the drought vulnerability of maize and wheat. Researchers led by Lixin Wang, assistant professor of earth sciences in the School of Science at <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/indiana-jones-search-lost-ark/">Indiana</a> University-Purdue University Indianapolis, have identified critical information about the environmental variables and agronomic factors that determine the drought vulnerability of maize and wheat production.

The study, "Global Synthesis of Drought Effects on Maize and Wheat Production," was published today in the journal PLOS ONE.Study examines the drought vulnerability of maize and wheat

"Our food source depends heavily on cereals, yet their agricultural production is greatly affected by drought," Wang said. "Ultimately, this information can be used to guide agricultural planning and minimize crop loss due to drought."

Together, maize and wheat contributed more than 50 percent of global cereal production in 2013, or equal to about 1,016 and 713 million tons of grain production, respectively. These numbers need to be increased by 60 percent to 110 percent by 2050 to meet the increasing needs of humans and meat- and dairy-producing animals, as well as the biofuel industry, according to statistics cited by the researchers.

But with droughts projected to intensify in most parts of Asia and beyond, it is more important than ever to fully understand how drought affects the vulnerability of maize and wheat production, in combination with other factors such as the life cycle of the cereals and soil texture, according to Wang.

Using a data-synthesis approach, the researchers collected data from peer-reviewed publications dated between 1980 and 2015 that examined maize and wheat yield responses to drought.

Based on the meta-analysis of all of the available literature data, the study results show that maize and wheat have a significantly different yield response to drought.

"Overall, we found that maize tended to experience greater yield loss due to drought, partly because maize originated from a wetter region," Wang said.

According to the study, wheat has a lower yield reduction, 20.6 percent, compared to 39.3 percent for maize at approximately 40 percent water reduction.

Maize is also highly sensitive during its reproductive phase, the researchers found. Although wheat has similar sensitivity to drought during vegetative and reproductive phases, it is considerably lower than that of maize.

The higher yield reduction in response to drought in maize is surprising, given that plants with C4 photosynthetic pathways (e.g., maize) usually have higher water-use efficiency than C3 plants (e.g., wheat) and therefore are considered less sensitive to drought due to their ability to efficiently make use of carbon dioxide and water. Higher sensitivity during the reproductive phase for maize could contribute to these unexpected results, Wang said.

Another finding was that maize is equally sensitive to drought in dryland and non-dryland regions. While no yield difference was observed among regions or in different soil texture, it was found that wheat cultivation in dryland regions is more prone to yield loss than in the non-dryland regions.

The study's results may be used as the basis to model the interactions between agronomic inputs, to quantify productivity gains and production costs for maize and wheat, and to determine optimum irrigation scheduling during critical growth periods, Wang said.

The lead author of this research is Stefani Daryanto, a postdoctoral researcher working with Wang. The other author of the paper is Pierre-Andre Jacinthe, an earth sciences associate professor in the School of Science at IUPUI.


</div>
<div></div>

Study examines the drought vulnerability of maize and wheat

Study examines the drought vulnerability of maize and wheat. Researchers...

Summer forecast: Well above average temperatures. Most of the continental United States is facing elevated chances of well above average temperatures this summer, according to the <a id="anch_49" href="http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/predictions/long_range/fxus05.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">latest outlook</a> from NOAA’s Climate Prediction Center.

Colored areas on the map at right show which parts of the country have the highest odds (darkest red) for well above average warmth for the June-August period. For the seasonal forecasts, “well above average” means temperatures in the warmest third of all summers in the current climatological record (1981-2010). (Larger versions as well as precipitation maps are available via links below image to the right. A separate forecast discussion for Hawaii is available <a id="anch_50" href="https://www.google.com/url?q=http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/predictions/long_range/fxhw40.html">here</a>.)

Nationwide, Alaska’s Aleutian <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/nutrients-in-seabird-poop-transformed-the-falkland-islands/">Islands</a> have the highest chances of an unusually warm summer, with probabilities between 60-70 percent. For the contiguous United States (i.e, the “Lower 48”), the chances for top-tier warmth are greatest in the West and the Northeast (50-60 percent), and smallest in the heart of the Great Plains, where the odds of well above average temperatures are the same as the odds of near-average or well below average temperatures (33 percent each). Summer forecast: Well above average temperatures

(For math fans, a more detailed discussion of forecast probabilities is available at the end of the post.)

Darker colors mean greater chances of a hot summer, not how much hotter it’s projected to be. In other words, we’re not predicting that summer temperatures in Maine will be farther above average than temperatures in Florida; we’re predicting that the chances for an unusually hot summer are greater in Maine than they are in Florida.

Although the tropical Pacific appears to be in the middle of a transition between El Niño and La Niña, neither phase of <a id="anch_51" href="https://www.climate.gov/enso">ENSO</a> has a significant influence on summer climate. Instead, the summer outlook is more influenced by short- and long-term ocean and atmospheric trends as well as mid-latitude sea surface temperatures in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans.

For public health and welfare agencies or employers with outdoor laborers, summer temperature outlooks can provide advance warning of an elevated risk of dangerous summer heat. As part of the interagency <a id="anch_52" href="https://toolkit.climate.gov/nihhis">National Integrated Heat Health Information System</a> (NIHHIS), NOAA the CDC, and many other partners are providing quick online access to temperature outlooks and other heat health information and tools.  <a id="anch_53" href="http://toolkit.climate.gov/nihhis">NIHHIS</a> is built on the <a id="anch_54" href="https://toolkit.climate.gov/">U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit</a>, an interagency website devoted to helping U.S. communities and businesses become more resilient to climate variability and change.
<h3>Fun for math fans</h3>
NOAA’s seasonal forecasts start with the assumption that for any random summer or winter, there are three possible climate outcomes--temperature or precipitation that is well above normal (upper third of the climatological record), near normal (middle third), or below normal (lower third)--and they are each equally likely. Together, all probabilities must add up to 100%, so the “default” probability for each outcome is 33.3%.

The goal of the forecast is to estimate how the actual conditions in the weeks or months before the season--like the presence of El Niño--tilt the odds toward or away from “equal chances” for all categories. If models predict that the chances of well above average temperatures are 60%, then the chances for the other two outcomes (near-average and well below average temperatures) must be split between the remaining 40% (100-60=40).

How do we divvy up the remaining fraction? Physically speaking, it makes sense to say that if the odds have tilted toward one climate outcome (say, unusual warmth) by a given amount, they’ve tilted away from the opposite outcome by an equal amount. So, by convention, forecasters divvy up the remaining fraction by holding the chances for near-normal conditions at the “default” 33.3%, and subtracting it from the remainder. What’s left (6.7%) is the probability of the least favored category.

When the odds of one climate outcome are so high (70 percent or more) that the remaining fraction is smaller than 33.3 percent, forecasters set a minimum 3.3 percent chance for the opposite outcome, and give the larger portion of the remainder to the near-normal outcome. (Otherwise, the least favored category would wind up with a negative probability, which doesn’t make mathematical or physical sense.) The Climate Prediction Center <a id="anch_55" href="http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/predictions/multi_season/13_seasonal_outlooks/color/shortlegend.gif">has a chart </a>showing all the possible combinations, and <a id="anch_56" href="http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/predictions/long_range/seasonal_info.php">their own description</a> of the forecast format.

Since only one color can be assigned to any location on the map, the most favored category decides the color, but the other categories are still possible. So, in this summer’s season outlook for the Northeast and the West Coast, for example, the full suite of probabilities is 50-60% chance of well above normal temperatures, 33.3% chance of near-normal temperatures, and 6.7-16.7% chance of well below normal temperatures.

Maps by NOAA Climate.gov team, based on data from the Climate Prediction Center. Monthly outlook maps in a variety of re-usable formats are available via the<a id="anch_57" href="http://www.climate.gov/maps-data/data-snapshots/start"> Data Snapshots</a> section of Climate.gov.

Summer forecast: Well above average temperatures

Summer forecast: Well above average temperatures. Most of the continental...

<div>

With climate change already close to an irreversible tipping point, urgent action is needed to reduce not only our mean (carbon) footprints but also the "number of feet" - that is, the growing population either already creating large footprints or aspiring to do so, argues a leading physician and environmentalist in The BMJ today. Expert urges voluntary family planning to mitigate climate change

Yet John Guillebaud, Emeritus Professor of Family Planning and Reproductive <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mental-health-benefits-of-nature-cannot-be-prescribed/">Health</a> at University College London, says most climate change discussions focus only on technology and consumption.

He points out that 45% of the world lives in areas where total fertility rates range from 2.1 to 5, and 9% where they exceed 5. In the 48 countries designated by the United Nations as least developed, population is projected to triple by 2100.

The UN's latest median world population projection of 11.2 billion by 2100 is predicated on continuing reductions in fertility rate, he adds. Without them, the constant fertility variant projects to roughly 28 billion by 2100.

Studies invariably show that family planning is highly cost effective compared with other emission abatement strategies, he explains.

For instance, simply by having one less child, an American woman would reduce her "carbon legacy" (the summed emissions of herself and her descendants weighted by relatedness) by 9441 tonnes, he writes. This is around 20-fold (10-fold in the United Kingdom) more than would be saved by other eco-actions.

He calls on health professionals to "advocate for voluntary family planning" and says "action on population growth as well as technology and consumption is essential to ensure that climate mayhem is both minimised and mitigated."

On Sunday, 5th June, Professor Guillebaud will be involved in celebrations for the ecotimecapsule project. Initiated in 1994 at botanic gardens in Kew and Ness, the Seychelles, New South Wales, Mexico and South Africa, it aims to make a decent, truly sustainable future a reality for our grandchildren - and for all the wild species in Nature that humankind so threatens. <a href="http://www.ecotimecapsule.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">http://www. ecotimecapsule. com</a>
###
Note to Editors

Analysis: Voluntary family planning to minimise and mitigate climate change

Journal: The BMJ

Link to full article: <a href="http://press.psprings.co.uk/bmj/may/familyplanning.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">http://press. psprings. co. uk/ bmj/ may/ familyplanning. pdf</a>

BMJ is a healthcare knowledge provider that aims to advance healthcare worldwide by sharing knowledge and expertise to improve experiences, outcomes and value. For a full list of BMJ products and services, please visit bmj.com

</div>

Expert urges voluntary family planning to mitigate climate change

With climate change already close to an irreversible tipping point,...

Climate negotiators concerned about US and UK elections. Climate negotiators ended their first talks after last year's landmark Paris Agreement on Thursday with some delegates expressing concern about the potential impact of upcoming votes in the U.S. and Britain.
Britons will decide next month whether to remain in the European Union while Americans will elect a new president in November.
The 28-member EU has vowed to reduce greenhouse emissions by at least 40 percent by 2030 compared to 1990, but it's unclear what happens to that target if <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-cause-abrupt-shifts-in-great-britains-vegetation/">Britain</a>, the bloc's second biggest emitter, leaves the EU.
"I'm sure there will be some parties saying 'without the UK can we still reach the at least 40 percent?'" Netherlands climate envoy Michel Rentenaar said at the U.N. talks in Bonn. "I think we can, but that would be decided by the remaining 27 member states."
Elina Bardram, the EU's chief negotiator, declined to speculate on how a British exit would affect the bloc's climate policy.
"We are ... confident that the British public will vote to remain in the EU," she said.
The Paris Agreement in December requires countries to submit plans for reducing or curbing their emissions and update them every five years.
Ajmad Abdulla, chief negotiator for small island nations at risk of rising seas, said he was confident the EU would "stick with their target" regardless of the outcome in the referendum.
A bigger unknown is what happens if Donald Trump, who has expressed skepticism about man-made climate change, wins the U.S. election. In 2012, he tweeted that "the concept of global warming was created by and for the Chinese in order to make U.S. manufacturing non-competitive."
The Obama administration has pledged to slash U.S. emissions by 26-28 percent by 2025, compared to 2005 levels. Climate negotiators concerned about US and UK elections
Mohamed Adow, a climate policy expert at Christian Aid, a Britain-based charity, said for the U.S. to backtrack on its Paris pledges would be "insulting," since key elements of the deal were designed to accommodate U.S. negotiators.
For example, the EU and others dropped demands for the targets to be legally binding so that the Obama administration could approve the deal without turning to Congress.
Nick Nuttall, a spokesman for the U.N. climate secretariat, said he couldn't imagine that any U.S. president would roll back efforts to cut emissions.
"In any political election there is a lot of talk but the reality of being in office is very different so I think we'll have to watch that space," Nuttall said.
© 2016 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. Learn more about our Privacy Policy and Terms of Use.

Climate negotiators concerned about US and UK elections

Climate negotiators concerned about US and UK elections. Climate negotiators...

<div>

Underwater grass beds have ability to protect and maintain their own health. An expansive bed of underwater grass at the mouth of the Susquehanna River has proven it is able to "take a licking and keep on ticking." A recent study has found that the submersed aquatic vegetation (SAV) bed at Susquehanna Flats, which only recently made a comeback in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/rockfish-leave-chesapeake-bay-at-a-specific-length/">Chesapeake Bay</a>, was not only able to survive a barrage of rough storms and flooding, but it has proven a natural ability to protect and maintain itself.

"It's proof that restored SAV beds have the capability to be resilient," said study author Cassie Gurbisz of the <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=university+of+maryland&amp;cvid=4f035ff36c6941da97000f632dbc50c8&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">University of Maryland</a> Center for Environmental Science's Horn Point Laboratory. "They can stick around for a while if you give them the right conditions." Underwater grass beds have ability to protect and maintain their own health

Some 40 years ago, Tropical Storm Agnes wiped out the Susquehanna Flats SAV bed, which had already been weakened by decades of nutrient pollution. In recent years, however, the bed made an incredible comeback, and today it is one of the biggest and healthiest in the Bay, spanning some 20 square miles.

It has been projected that climate change will bring increases in the frequency and intensity of extreme storm events, which leads to the question of whether or not these ecosystems can withstand or rebound from such events. Scientists studied how the bed at Susquehanna Flats responded to the one-two punch of major storms in 2011 (Hurricane Irene and the remnants of Tropical Storm Lee) to find how resilient the underwater grasses are in the upper Chesapeake.

Sea grasses are essential to the Bay ecosystem. They pull harmful nutrients out of the water, cause sediments to settle to the bottom so sunlight can reach plants, protect the shoreline by reducing the impact of waves and currents, and provide habitat and food for a host of important organisms, including baby crabs.

The team of scientists looked at time series datasets to explore how extreme events impacted the Susquehanna Flats and to understand the factors that drove loss and resilience in this large, dense and continuous meadow of grasses. They found that the storms in 2011 did some damage to the bed at Susquehanna Flats because the rush of the water from the Susquehanna River tore up plants around the edge of the bed and deposited sediment that blocked the sunlight, limiting photosynthesis.

However, the bed was able to reduce the force of high flows sufficiently to prevent plant erosion at its inner core. In addition, although the floodwaters dumped a lot of sediment onto the SAV bed, it also dampened the waves driven by the winds. This decreased the amount of sediment that was later churned up and, as a result, increased water clarity. In fact, clear water spilled over into adjacent regions during ebb tide, further improving the bed's capacity for renewal by creating more favorable growing conditions in areas where plant loss had occurred.

"Although there was substantial SAV loss in response to a major flood event, the system was also remarkably resilient, apparently owing to strong biophysical feedback processes carried out by a large, dense, healthy SAV bed," said Gurbisz.

It's called a positive feedback process. The plant beds alter physical conditions in ways that enhance their own growth - and it may help plant beds absorb the harmful impacts of storms. For instance, the plants create clear water in the middle of the bed, which promotes more plant growth, further improving water clarity, and so on. When that clear water spills out of the plant bed into the surrounding water, more light is available for new plants to grow. Together, these processes create conditions that allow the bed to resist damage and recover more quickly from the rush of water and sediments from storms.

"The SAV bed modifies its environment in ways that improve its own growth and likely serve as mechanisms of SAV resilience to flood events," said Gurbisz.
###
The study, "Mechanisms of storm-related loss and resilience in a large submersed plant bed" by Cassie Gurbisz, Michael Kemp, and Larry Sanford of the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science and Robert Orth of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science was published in Estuaries and Coasts.

UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND CENTER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

For 90 years, the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science has led the way toward better management of Maryland's natural resources and the protection and restoration of the Chesapeake Bay. From a network laboratories located across the state, UMCES scientists provide sound advice to help state and national leaders manage the environment, and prepare future scientists to meet the global challenges of the 21st century.

</div>

Underwater grass beds have ability to protect and maintain their own health

Underwater grass beds have ability to protect and maintain their...

<div>

Arctic Ocean methane does not reach the atmosphere. 250 methane flares release the climate gas methane from the seabed and into the Arctic Ocean. During the summer months this leads to an increased Arctic Ocean methane concentration. But surprisingly, very little of the climate gas rising up through the sea reaches the atmosphere.

"Our results are exciting and controversial", says senior scientist Cathrine Lund Myhre from NILU - Norwegian Institute for Air Research, who is cooperating with CAGE through MOCA project.

The results were published in Geophysical Research Letters.

The scientist performed simultaneous measurements close to seabed, in the ocean and in the atmosphere during an extensive ship and air campaign offshore Svalbard Archipelago in summer 2014. As of today, three independent models employing the marine and atmospheric measurements show that the methane emissions from the sea bed in the area did not significantly affect the atmosphere.

"This is an important message to bring to the debate on the state of the ocean and atmospheric system in the Arctic. It is also important to emphasize that the Arctic has in recent years experienced major changes and average temperatures well above normal values. A thorough description of the present state of the Arctic environment, possible only with adequate measurements, is essential to the detection of future changes of potentially global significance." says Lund Myhre.

Methane increase since 2006

Levels of methane in the atmosphere have risen by an average of 6 parts per billion (ppb) globally per year since 2006, and slightly more over the Arctic and Norway. Since methane is the most important greenhouse gas after CO2, it is very important to explore why.

Vast quantities of methane gas are stored under the seabed in ice-like substances called methane hydrates. One possible explanation for the increased methane concentration in the atmosphere is that these hydrates dissolve as the oceans become warmer. <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/methane-emissions-from-lakes-are-higher-during-the-day/">Methane</a> gas leaks from the methane hydrates under the seabed, and rises through the water. The scientists want to find out if these emissions are increasing, and just how much methane is reaching the atmosphere.

"Estimates on how much methane gas is stored beneath the seabed as hydrates vary enormously. A recent calculation suggests that we are talking about 74 000 gigatonnes, and one gigatonne is a billion tonnes", says professor Jürgen Mienert, director at CAGE. Arctic Ocean methane does not reach the atmosphere

If any of the methane stored in the Arctic hydrate reservoirs is released into the atmosphere as a result of climate change, this could have a global impact in terms of further climate warming, in addition to what human activities are already contributing.

Why is methane not released to the atmosphere?

Sea ice, the obvious obstacle to such emissions, is not found here in the summer. So what is stopping the methane? Emissions from the sea bed are after all clearly visible both on the seabed and in the water column.

"We are talking about 250 active methane seeps found at relatively shallow depths: 90 to 150 meters" says oceanographer Benedicte Ferré from CAGE.

According to her, it is the sea itself that adds obstacles to methane emissions to the atmosphere in the summer. The weather is generally calm during summer, with little wind. This leads to stratification of the water column whereby layers of different density form, much like oil over water.

This means there is no or low exchange of water masses between the surface layer and the layers below. A natural barrier occurs, acting as a ceiling, preventing the methane from reaching the surface.But this condition does not last forever: wind blowing over the ocean can mix these layers, causing this natural barrier to disappear. Thus the methane may break the surface and enter the atmosphere.

"There is still a lot we do not know about seasonal variations. The methane can also be transported by water masses, or dissolve and be eaten by bacteria in the ocean. Thus long term observations are necessary to understand the emissions throughout the year. The only way to obtain these measurements are to use observatories that remain on the seabed for a long time", says Benedicte Ferré.

CAGE set out two such observatories last year, which have been retrieved in May with data waiting to be analysed.

Unique research collaboration

To determine if methane from these subsea sources actually reach the atmosphere, a unique Norwegian cooperation was established in 2013. Scientists from NILU, CAGE and CICERO made extensive studies of gas emissions from the seabed west of Svalbard in the period June to August 2014, and modelling the fluxes.

- To investigate the methane emissions and their fate, we performed observations on the seabed, in the water column, on the ocean surface, and in the atmosphere from ships, aircraft and land-based stations, says Cathrine Lund Myhre.

Through cooperation with partners from the universities of Cambridge and Manchester, the scientists got access to one of the world's best-equipped research aircrafts. The scientists then used different models to calculate the highest possible methane emissions from the area, and estimate the maximum possible methane release consistent with observations.


</div>
<div></div>

Arctic Ocean methane does not reach the atmosphere

Arctic Ocean methane does not reach the atmosphere. 250 methane...

Study: Oil sands operations a major source of air pollution. A new study finds that oil sands operations, a major source of oil production in the last several years, emit very high levels of a critical class of air pollutants and pose risks to health and climate.

Working with scientists from Canada, a team of researchers in Yale’s Department of Chemical &amp; Environmental Engineering found that oil sands operations in Alberta, Canada are among North America’s biggest producers of human-caused secondary organic aerosols (SOA). The results are published in the May 25 edition of the journal Nature.

“The magnitude of the SOA is significantly larger than the sum of other sources of air pollution in many other major urban areas,” said Yale assistant professor Drew Gentner, a co-author of the study, noting that the levels of air pollution from oil sands operations are similar to what’s found in densely populated cities such as Houston, Paris, or <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-may-have-arrived-in-los-angeles-last-year/">Los Angeles</a>.

SOA is part of a category of air pollution known as PM 2.5 — fine particles 2.5 microns in diameter or smaller, connected to millions of deaths each year. Unlike primary organic aerosols (such as car exhaust), which form during combustion, SOA is a collection of particles that form as a result of oxidation in the air. The significant role they play in air pollution has been known only in the past two decades.

The researchers noted that since the oil sands are in a sparsely populated region of northern Alberta, direct human health effects are less than what they would be in a metropolitan area. They could have a major impact on climate, however, say the scientists, since highly oxidized organic aerosols reflect incoming solar radiation.

Yale assistant professor Desiree Plata, another co-author, said the findings raise additional questions about oil sands operations.

“What other exposure routes exist during the processing steps, such as transfer to air, water waste, or solid residues?” Plata said. “And how does oil sands extraction compare to any other fossil technology?”

The study is a result of lab experiments, field observations from a study run by Environment Canada, and the creation of a simplified model to examine how SOA concentrations might change as they move downwind. Brian Drollette, a Yale Ph.D. student, also made key contributions to the study.

The researchers said a closer look is needed at the methods used to extract and refine oil sands, especially since they’re less established than those of traditional gas and oil operations.

--

<a href="http://www.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Yale University</a>

Study: Oil sands operations a major source of air pollution

Study: Oil sands operations a major source of air pollution....

California Drought

Trump: There is no drought in California. Presumptive Republican presidential nominee Donald Trump told California voters Friday that he can solve their water crisis, declaring that: "There is no drought."

Speaking at a rally in Fresno, Calif., Trump accused state officials of denying water to Central Valley farmers so they can send it out to sea "to protect a certain kind of three-inch fish."

"We're going to solve your water problem. You have a water problem that is so insane. It is so ridiculous where they're taking the water and shoving it out to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/slow-living-animals-could-be-the-source-of-more-diseases/">sea</a>," Trump said to cheers at a rally that drew thousands.

Trump said he spent 30 minutes before the rally meeting with more than 50 farmers who complained to him about their struggles.

"They don't understand - nobody understands it," he said, adding that, "There is no drought."

Trump appeared to be referring to water that runs naturally from the Sacramento River to the San Francisco Bay and then to the ocean. Some farmers want more of that flow captured and diverted to them. The three-inch Delta smelt is a native California fish on the brink of extinction. The smelt has become an emblem in the state's battles over environmental laws and water distribution.

Politically influential rural water districts and well-off corporate farmers in and around California's Central Valley have been pushing back against longstanding federal laws protecting endangered fish and other species, saying federal efforts to make sure endangered native fish have enough water is short-changing farmers of the water they want and need for crops.

Water authorities say they can't do it because of the water rights of those upstream of the farmers, and because of the minimum-water allowances needed by endangered species in the bay and by wildlife in general.

The farm lobby, a heavyweight player in California's water wars, also is seeking federal and state approval for billions of dollars in new water tunnels, dams, water distribution plans, and other projects.

Trump says that, "If I win, believe me, we're going to start opening up the water so that you can have your farmers survive."

California is the country's No. 1 agriculture producer. The state's five-year drought is raising the stakes in water disputes among farmers, cities and towns, and environmental interests. California last year marked the driest four-year period in its history, with record low rainfall and snow.

Trump's appearance drew several hundred protesters who marched around the arena where he was speaking.

Trump is also scheduled to appear Friday at a rally in San Diego, where police are also taking precautions to prevent the kind of violence that has occurred at previous protests against the billionaire businessman-turned-politician.

A count by The Associated Press found Thursday that Trump has reached the required number of delegates to officially clinch the Republican nomination.

--

Knickmeyer contributed from San Francisco. Associated Press writer Scott Smith contributed to this report.

© 2016 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. Learn more about our Privacy Policy and Terms of Use.

Trump: There is no drought in California

Trump: There is no drought in California. Presumptive Republican presidential...

<div>

NASA looks at winds in developing tropical cyclone System 91L. The low pressure area located between Bermuda and the Bahamas, designated as System 91L became a little better defined today. NASA's RapidScat analyzed the system's winds, and NOAA's GOES-East satellite provided a visible look at the developing system.

RapidScat is a scatterometer instrument that flies aboard the International Space Station. It measures surface wind speeds and direction over open waters of oceans. On May 26 at 0100 UTC (May 25 at 9 p.m. EDT) RapidScat saw strongest sustained surface winds northeast of the center in System 91L, the developing tropical <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cyclones-impact-coral-reefs-as-far-as-1000-kilometers-away/">cyclone,</a> at a rate near 21 meters per second (46.9 mph/75.6 kph). Images from RapidScat data are made into images at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California where the mission is managed.

At 7:45 a.m. EDT on Friday, May 27, 2016, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) noted that the shower activity was showing signs of organization, and the circulation had become a little better defined overnight. NHC noted "Environmental conditions are generally conducive for a tropical or subtropical cyclone to form later today or Saturday while this system moves west-northwestward to northwestward toward the southeastern United States coast.

NOAA's GOES-East satellite captured a daytime (visible) view of developing System 91L between the Bahamas and Bermuda on Friday, May 27 at 1430 UTC (10:30 a.m. EDT). The image showed the circulation of the low with thunderstorms wrapping around from the northern to the southeastern quadrant. NOAA manages the GOES-East satellite and the NASA/NOAA GOES Project at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland uses the satellite data to create images and animations.

Over the Memorial Day weekend, the NHC cautioned that all interests along the southeast coast from Georgia through North Carolina should monitor the progress of this low pressure area.

NHC noted that System 91L has a high chance, 90 percent, of becoming a tropical depression. When it does it would be designated Tropical Depression 2, since the first depression of the season actually formed in January and grew into Hurricane Alex. If System 91L strengthens enough to become a tropical storm, it would be named Bonnie.
###
For updated forecasts, visit: <a href="http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">http://www. nhc. noaa. gov</a>.

</div>

NASA looks at winds in developing tropical cyclone System 91L

NASA looks at winds in developing tropical cyclone System 91L....

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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