A recent study comparing how mothers in the U.K. and Uganda soothe their crying babies found something surprising: Ugandan babies calm down faster, even though their moms take longer to respond.



On the surface, this flips the script on common Western parenting advice. We often hear that faster is better when it comes to calming a crying infant. But this research suggests that the manner in which a mother comforts her baby matters more than how quickly she does it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-touch-versus-talk-to-calm-babies">Touch versus talk to calm babies</h2>



Researchers observed 147 real-life moments of distress in 82 infants across both countries. They focused on what mothers did in those moments, not just how quickly they reacted.



In both places, faster responses did help babies settle down. But here’s the twist: even though U.K. mothers typically responded more quickly, Ugandan babies calmed faster overall. That wasn’t random. The difference came down to the way mothers soothed their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conscious-awareness-when-does-our-sense-of-purpose-emerge/">infants</a>.



In Uganda, moms often used touch - holding, carrying, or <a href="https://www.afro.who.int/countries/uganda/news/safe-space-nourish-who-uganda-champions-breastfeeding-workplace" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breastfeeding</a> - as their main method of comfort, even with older babies. In the U.K., mothers started with physical comfort when babies were young, but switched to using more words and less touch as their infants grew.



That shift in strategy seems to make a difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-culture-shapes-our-parenting">Culture shapes our parenting</h2>



The study was led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.dipf.de/en/frontpage" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DIPF Leibniz Institute</a> in Germany, and Durham University in the U.K.. They wanted to understand how caregiving works in real life - outside of labs or parenting books - and across very different environments.



“Our findings show that maternal responsiveness is universally important. But how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-can-use-singing-to-engage-with-infants/">mothers</a> respond, and the effectiveness of their strategies, varies in meaningful ways between cultures,” said Dr. Carlo Vreden of the DIPF Leibniz Institute for Research and Information in Education.



“Importantly, we are not making value judgments about which approach is better. Rather, we are highlighting that caregiving strategies are shaped by culture. It is not just about how quickly the mothers respond to their babies, but also the type of maternal soothing response which plays a crucial role in infant emotion regulation.”



In the U.K., many parenting norms are based on studies done in Western countries, often under very controlled conditions. But this doesn’t reflect the full picture of how most babies are raised around the world.



Professor Zanna Clay explained, “Most of what we know about babies’ early emotional development is based on studies conducted in Europe and North America. But of course, these Western settings don’t reflect the caregiving environments experienced by the majority of infants around the world, nor how they may have been historically.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-babies-stay-calm-despite-slower-responses">Babies stay calm despite slower responses</h2>



One principal reason why Ugandan mothers would take longer to reply is plain: they’re frequently engaged in manual labor, such as working in the fields or taking care of household chores outside. In contrast to high-income environments, mothers in rural Uganda typically cannot abandon everything the instant their baby begins crying.



“Uganda is an interesting place to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/child-care-quality-has-direct-impact-on-later-success-in-science-and-math/">caregiving</a>,” Clay said, “as infants are typically cared for by multiple different caregivers and their styles of caregiving culturally differ, such as prioritising more physical contact with their babies.”



Even with slower response times, Ugandan mothers’ reliance on touch - especially breastfeeding - seemed to have a calming effect. The babies got comforted in a way that worked well for them, even if it wasn’t immediate.



Professor Clay added, “Our study also highlights the balance between responding to your baby while also having to manage daily tasks, which can be more challenging in rural low-resource settings.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-parenting-advice">Rethinking parenting advice</h2>



This research challenges the idea that there’s only one right way to raise emotionally healthy kids. It shows that parenting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parenting-may-help-keep-the-brain-younger/">strategies</a> can look different in different places - and still be effective.



“We’ve shown that Western ideas about optimal parenting don’t always apply in other settings,” said Dr. Vreden. “Even though the U.K. mums do seem to follow this sort of gold standard of responding as soon as possible, it's the Ugandan children, who don't get that quicker response, who actually recovered faster.”



“This emphasises the complexity of different strategies working in different ways and in different settings.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calm-babies-in-real-life">Calm babies in real life</h2>



By watching what happens in real-life settings - not just in labs - researchers can get a clearer picture of what helps babies <a href="https://www.eccpct.com/Resources/Child/Tips-for-Tots/Help-Young-Children-Regulate-Their-Emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regulate</a> their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-expressions-arent-enough-to-understand-human-emotions/">emotions</a>. This matters for building parenting support programs that fit the realities of people’s lives, no matter where they live.



Future research may explore how these early caregiving approaches affect children as they grow and how parenting differs across even more cultures.



In the end, it’s not just about being fast - it’s about being effective. And effectiveness can look very different, depending on where you are.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2026-56898-001.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Developmental Psychology</a>.



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How, or how fast? Study examines fascinating cultural differences in how babies are calmed

A recent study comparing how mothers in the U.K. and Uganda soothe their crying babies found something surprising: Ugandan babies calm down faster, even though their moms take longer to respond. On the surface, this flips the script on common Western parenting advice. We often hear that faster is better when it comes to calming a crying infant. But this research suggests that the manner in which a mother comforts her baby matters more than how quickly she does it. Touch versus talk to calm babies Researchers...

In the global climate crisis, some effects shout louder than others - rising sea levels, scorched forests, and lost biodiversity dominate headlines. Yet beneath these urgent visuals lies a quieter devastation: education disrupted by tropical cyclones. 



For many children in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), the storm does not end when the winds die down.



A new Stanford-led study reveals that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-takes-a-major-toll-on-childrens-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate events</a> are quietly but deeply damaging schooling, especially for young girls.



Published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the study investigates the connection between exposure to tropical cyclones and decreased likelihood of attending school. 



The researchers examined over 5.4 million individual schooling records across 13 LMICs, covering five decades of data. The conclusions are alarming: children who face tropical cyclones at an early age are significantly less likely to start school at all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-cyclone-exposure-alters-lifelong-outcomes">Early cyclone exposure alters lifelong outcomes</h2>



Tropical cyclones - storms known for violent winds and torrential rain - bring more than temporary ruin. They destroy homes and schools, block roads, and force families into survival mode.



In this environment, schooling is often pushed aside, particularly for children at the most critical stages of education. The study found that exposure at preschool age - around 5 or 6 years old - leads to a 2.5% increased risk of never attending school. After strong storms, this risk rises to as much as 8.8 percent.



“There’s a sweet spot - or maybe I should say a sour spot - where cyclones are intense enough but also rare enough to wreak havoc that causes children to lose out on the opportunity to attend school,” said study senior author Eran Bendavid, a professor of medicine and health policy at Stanford.



While some communities have learned to prepare for such disasters, others remain vulnerable due to infrequent exposure. These communities often lack the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resources</a> or infrastructure to recover quickly. 



Children, especially girls, are pulled from school to support household needs or because school buildings no longer exist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-girls-face-greater-educational-losses">Girls face greater educational losses</h2>



The impact of cyclones is not evenly distributed. Girls bear a disproportionate burden. 



When disasters strike, cultural and economic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">norms</a> often require girls to stay home, care for younger siblings, or help rebuild. The study reveals that girls experience a 0.6 percentage point increase in the likelihood of never attending school, compared to 0.3 for boys.



These findings reflect deeply embedded gender inequalities, especially in communities where education is already undervalued. In places with low baseline schooling rates, the losses are more severe. This creates a layered crisis: natural disasters compound existing disparities, making it even harder for girls to access education.



“Education is key to personal development, but tropical cyclones are depriving vulnerable populations of the opportunity to go to school,” said study lead author Renzhi Jing, a postdoctoral scholar at <a href="https://med.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford School of Medicine</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-which-communities-suffer-most">Which communities suffer most?</h2>



Interestingly, the research highlights that areas regularly hit by cyclones often experience fewer educational disruptions. 



Communities exposed to frequent storms may have adapted through stronger infrastructure or improved social resilience. They may rebuild schools faster or have systems to support displaced students. In contrast, areas with little past exposure suffer more because they have no such defenses.



The study classified exposure by frequency using “return periods.” Communities with a return period greater than 20 years - meaning storms happen rarely - were the most affected.



In these regions, cyclones increased the likelihood of no schooling by 0.7 percentage points. Communities with frequent exposure showed little or no impact, suggesting adaptation helps reduce educational loss.



In practical terms, this means that storms hurt the most where people least expect or prepare for them. As climate change alters weather <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-climate-change-is-impacting-infant-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a>, more regions may move into this dangerous “sour spot” of infrequent but severe cyclone exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cyclones-and-lost-years-of-education">Cyclones and lost years of education</h2>



The setbacks are not limited to whether a child starts school. The study examined long-term educational outcomes and found cascading consequences. 



Children exposed to tropical cyclones at preschool age were less likely to complete primary school or begin secondary education. Even among those who did enroll, storm exposure led to lower total years of schooling.



These trends show that even when families manage to get children back into school, the learning journey remains hindered. The effects do not fade with time. 



This has lifelong implications, not just for individual development but also for economic and health outcomes. Communities where education falters tend to remain trapped in poverty, reinforcing a cycle that’s difficult to break.



From 2000 to 2020, the researchers estimated that in the 13 study countries, cyclones prevented 79,000 children from starting school. The total loss amounted to 1.1 million years of education. If expanded to all LMICs, that loss could exceed 1.5 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regions-with-the-greatest-losses">Regions with the greatest losses</h2>



The greatest absolute losses occurred in countries with large populations and high cyclone exposure. India, Bangladesh, and Madagascar topped the list. 



India alone accounted for about 22,000 children missing school, followed by 17,000 in Bangladesh and 14,000 in Madagascar. These countries also saw the highest total years of schooling lost.



Girls in these regions were particularly vulnerable. The researchers found that in most countries, more girls were affected than boys, by a factor of 0.9 to 6.2. These gendered outcomes suggest that any education-focused disaster response must address existing inequalities to be effective.



Interestingly, countries like the Philippines, despite frequent storms, showed smaller educational losses. High baseline enrollment and better adaptation may explain this resilience. Frequent exposure, when met with proper response strategies, may reduce long-term harm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-start-of-school-matters-most">Why the start of school matters most</h2>



The preschool years, the researchers argue, are a pivotal window. Disruptions during this phase can set a child back permanently. 



Once behind, children rarely catch up. Even if they later enroll, they face challenges in attendance, performance, and grade completion. The data show no clear evidence that children eventually recover the lost schooling, even in adulthood.



In addition to school buildings and materials, children’s emotional readiness and family stability are often impacted by storms. The study speculates that without long-term social and financial help, children never regain the momentum needed to succeed academically.



The authors also noted that tropical cyclones have both direct and indirect effects. Immediate physical destruction is only part of the story. Displacement, increased domestic work, and household financial stress all contribute to reduced schooling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-future-cyclones">Preparing for future cyclones</h2>



This research signals a critical need for targeted interventions. Disaster preparedness should go beyond food and shelter. It must include plans to maintain or restore access to education quickly. Girls need special attention, with policies that protect their right to return to school and thrive there.



The researchers argue that schools must be built to withstand storms, and communities must be educated on the importance of keeping children - especially girls - in school after disasters.



Government and international agencies need to invest in early recovery programs that prioritize education alongside physical reconstruction.



As climate change continues to increase the strength of tropical cyclones, the problem will grow. Without a shift in priorities, we risk raising a generation denied the right to learn - not by choice, but by storm.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2413962122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Tropical cyclones are preventing children from starting school

In the global climate crisis, some effects shout louder than...

Over the years, dogs have been the go-to choice for animal-assisted support. Now a rising interest in therapy cats has sparked fresh questions about how well our feline friends adapt to these roles.



Belgian researcher Joni Delanoeije from <a href="https://www.kuleuven.be/english/kuleuven" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KU Leuven</a> has been examining how cats compare to their canine counterparts in structured animal-assisted services.



The <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/15/1/33" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> suggests that while some cats can be calm and social in unpredictable settings, the story is not so simple.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-therapy-cats-can-adapt-to-loud-and-unfamiliar-places">Therapy cats can adapt to loud and unfamiliar places</h2>



Most cats prefer stable territory. They rely on scent markers and predictable surroundings to feel safe.



Clinical settings, care homes, or prison environments can be hectic, loud, and filled with unfamiliar faces.



Some felines cope better than expected under these conditions. A 2021 study found that nearly half of 42 cats tested showed a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38224845/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">secure base effect</a>, which eased their stress when they reconnected with their caregiver.



The trait that sets these cats apart appears to be confidence in social contact. Experts also note that strong bonds with handlers might help cats endure noisy or disruptive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/therapy-dogs-on-campus-help-students-manage-stress-and-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scenarios</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-good-therapy-cats-are-sociable-and-tolerant">Good therapy cats are sociable and tolerant</h2>



In the 2025 <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/15/1/33" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> involving 474 cats, researchers found that therapy cats shared several behavioral traits. These included higher sociability, increased attention-seeking, and a greater willingness to tolerate being held or restrained.&nbsp;



They were also more likely to get along with other cats and showed stronger predatory behavior, which could be linked to confidence or curiosity. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/petting-a-dog-might-be-the-easiest-way-to-reduce-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a> might help the cats stay calm and alert in unfamiliar places, making them better suited for animal-assisted work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-cats-handle-stress-better">Some cats handle stress better</h2>



Researchers say personal temperament matters. Findings suggest that therapy-ready felines tend to be more sociable, open to restraint, and unafraid of new faces.



These preferences may help explain why therapy cats work well with people who fear dogs. Cats are smaller, calm, and less likely to spark anxiety for those uneasy around large animals.



It also seems that highly interactive cats enjoy one-on-one attention. They can form trusting relationships, which is key in any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-that-like-attention-can-soothe-people-during-therapy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therapy</a> setting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-therapy-cats-for-people-who-dislike-dogs">Therapy cats for people who dislike dogs</h2>



Dogs often charm participants with a wagging tail and enthusiastic greeting. Cats, though, offer something different for people who see themselves as cat people.



Dog people often crave group interaction and lively play, while cat fans prefer quieter settings. A cozy purr can be just as comforting as canine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-puppy-day-2025-where-happiness-meets-responsibility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">companionship</a>.



Therapy cats might work best with individuals who dislike bustling social settings or have less tolerance for a dog’s bounding energy. Handlers say that felines can also lift moods and reduce isolation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-personality-types-affect-animal-choice">How personality types affect animal choice</h2>



People who choose cats often share certain personality traits. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364514082_Personality_Differences_between_Dog_People_and_Cat_People" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> suggest cat lovers tend to be more introspective, creative, and open to experience compared to those who prefer dogs.



This could influence the kind of emotional support they seek. A reserved person might find comfort in a quiet animal that respects boundaries, while a more outgoing individual could thrive with an excitable, affectionate dog.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cat-purrs-may-help-reduce-stress">Cat purrs may help reduce stress</h2>



A 2001 <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272259095_The_felid_purr_A_healing_mechanism" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> found that domestic cats purr at frequencies that are tied to healing in humans. Some caregivers have observed that these soothing vibrations can help reduce tension. 



Although research in this area is still limited, many cat owners have reported that purrs are a key part of the calming effect.



Dogs might excel at physical, hands-on support. Cats, however, offer a gentler approach that can comfort those uneasy with bigger animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-therapy-cats-need-strong-bonds-nbsp">Future therapy cats need strong bonds&nbsp;</h2>



The newest <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/15/1/33" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> shows that cats in animal-assisted services have different behavior profiles than household pets.&nbsp;



This work highlights sociability, attention-seeking, and tolerance of handling as reasons certain cats fit this role well. Yet even the friendliest cat may need breaks from crowded places or frequent travel.



Experts say it’s crucial to respect each cat’s comfort zone. A strong bond with the handler also seems vital to successful therapy cat work.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/15/1/33" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animals</a>.



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Why some cats make excellent therapy animals

Over the years, dogs have been the go-to choice for...

Volunteering can appear simple, but it turns out that personality plays a role. Two people may join the same community program, yet only one stays committed for months.



After reviewing nearly 90,000 participants across 29 international studies, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40244970/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> identified noticeable links between certain personality <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-affection-shapes-a-childs-personality-into-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a> and a person’s willingness to do charitable work or give money. 



Professor Wiebke Bleidorn, professor of psychology at the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>, led an investigation into how factors like sociability and assertiveness might affect everyday kindness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personality-affects-the-choice-to-volunteer">Personality affects the choice to volunteer</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-has-a-profound-influence-on-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">People</a> engage in philanthropy for many reasons. Some may give their time or money because they value fairness and empathy, while others might act from a sense of social expectation. 



Scientists have long <a href="https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/2839164/BekkersR-Traditional-2006.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studied</a> these motivations, and some have found patterns that help explain why certain individuals volunteer for local causes more often than their peers.



Many of these patterns center around the <a href="https://bigfive-test.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Five</a> personality traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247167023_The_Interplay_of_Traits_and_Motives_on_Volunteering_Agreeableness_Extraversion_and_Prosocial_Value_Motivation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> use these five broad categories to describe subtle differences in how people react to events, plan their days, or connect with others.&nbsp;



One of the main findings in this new work was that individuals high in extraversion tend to prefer activities that involve personal interaction, which appears to align well with volunteer work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-certain-personality-traits-drive-volunteering">Certain personality traits drive volunteering</h2>



“Our findings confirm that individual differences in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-type-can-accurately-predict-your-relationship-status/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">personality</a> play a role in whether and how much people engage in prosocial behavior,” said Professor Bleidorn.



This result suggests that the more outgoing and assertive a person is, the more likely they are to help, but it also points to how caring attitudes might encourage people to donate money.



Agreeableness stood out when it came to financial contributions. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27401167/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> noticed that individuals who are more trusting and considerate of others are more prone to support charities with monetary gifts. 



Meanwhile, those who score higher in conscientiousness sometimes show varying behavior, which indicates that being organized and dutiful does not necessarily guarantee more volunteer hours or larger donations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotions-affect-helping-behavior">Emotions affect helping behavior</h2>



Emotional stability can matter, too. People with higher levels of neuroticism often struggle with stress, and their personality may limit how much time or energy they give to volunteer projects. However, findings on neuroticism were not consistent across the studies. Some participants who reported anxious feelings still took part in community events, showing that circumstances outside of personality also influence these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/split-personality-of-mars-revealed-in-its-striking-features/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decisions</a>.



Those with high openness sometimes seek new experiences, so they might be drawn to novel volunteering opportunities. Yet in many studies, this trait did not form a clear pattern and sometimes showed no link to prosocial engagement. 



No one trait can entirely predict how someone chooses to help, which highlights the varied nature of personal motivation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-organizations-can-adjust-strategies">How organizations can adjust strategies</h2>



“This knowledge can be used to develop more targeted strategies aimed at promoting volunteering and charitable giving,” said Christopher J. Hopwood, a professor of personality psychology at the University of Zurich.



Nonprofits and policymakers might benefit by paying attention to the personality styles of their volunteers or donors, since different approaches could resonate with different groups.



For those who are more outgoing, activities with team interaction may spark interest. Those who value warmth and compassion might respond better to direct stories about the impact of donations. 



A better match between individual preferences and volunteer opportunities may lead to longer-term involvement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matching-volunteer-roles-to-personality">Matching volunteer roles to personality </h2>



Organizations can tailor recruitment messages and volunteer roles in a way that feels natural to individuals from all walks of life. This can encourage sustainable volunteer programs rather than one-off efforts. 



People who enjoy group activities might be interested in local workshops or public fundraising events, while those driven by empathy might engage more in direct support for charitable campaigns.



Such adaptable methods recognize each person’s distinct strengths. When supporters feel their style is appreciated, they tend to stick around and invite others to join. As a result, communities can gain a broader base of involvement, leading to more positive outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-view-of-volunteering">Broader view of volunteering</h2>



Insights on personality and charitable action also add to ongoing discussions about the science of prosocial behavior. Many <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2006-08776-011" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> indicate that volunteering and donating can improve not only community welfare but also personal well-being.



This does not mean only certain personalities should give their time or money, but it highlights how self-awareness might boost satisfaction and effectiveness.



People who are aware of their preferences can look for opportunities that resonate with their social style. Feeling comfortable often leads to more consistent prosocial engagement. 



Instead of expecting every volunteer to respond the same way, a personality-based invitation can spark greater enthusiasm.



The study is published in the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40244970/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</a>.



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Personality traits linked to willingness to volunteer or donate

Volunteering can appear simple, but it turns out that personality...

Why do some individuals rush to help, while others hesitate? A new study led by Dr. Inbal Bartal of Tel Aviv University digs deep into this question using rats. The findings highlight the strong influence of social experience and brain chemistry on prosocial behavior and willingness to help.



The team used a helping behavior task where rats could free a distressed peer trapped in a restrainer. Rats that had previous positive interactions were more likely to help. 



These "helper rats" also showed more brain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-increases-feelings-of-hope-happiness-and-gratitude/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a> in areas linked to empathy and motivation compared to their less helpful counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-bonds-drive-helping">Social bonds drive helping </h2>



Helper rats exhibited stronger activation in the anterior cingulate cortex, somatosensory cortex, and other empathy-related areas. This activity pattern suggests that not just feeling another’s distress, but having a social bond, is crucial for helping.



Interestingly, oxytocin - the hormone involved in bonding - played a key role. Rats that consistently helped had higher oxytocin receptor expression in the nucleus accumbens, a major reward center in the brain. 



Blocking oxytocin signaling did not completely erase helping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/who-is-happier-being-single-men-or-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> but did reduce the rats’ social tendencies. According to the researchers, caring about others appears more important than simply sensing their distress.



“We appear to live in an increasingly polarized society where there is a gap in empathy towards others," said Dr. Bartal, a faculty member in the Psychology Department and School of Neuroscience at <a href="http://tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel-Aviv University</a>.



"This work helps us understand prosocial, or helpful, acts better. We see others in distress all the time but tend to help only certain individuals. The similarity between human and rat brains helps us understand the way our brain mediates prosocial decisions."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helpful-rats-socialize-more">Helpful rats socialize more</h2>



The study found that rats who became "helpers" showed greater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-expressions-arent-enough-to-understand-human-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social</a> affiliation even before the helping task began. Before any rat was trapped, these rats spent more time interacting, lying together, and engaging in affiliative behaviors with their cagemates.



The frequency of social interactions predicted how quickly rats would later act to free a distressed peer. Rats that interacted more often on the first day were faster to help across testing days. 



This link between early social behavior and later helping actions offers new insights into how prosocial tendencies develop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helpers-had-more-oxytocin-receptors">Helpers had more oxytocin receptors</h2>



Gene expression studies revealed that helper rats had significantly higher oxytocin receptor (Oxtr) levels specifically in the nucleus accumbens. They also showed greater activity of genes related to social reward and emotional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coping-with-eco-anxiety-turning-climate-worry-into-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regulation</a>.



Importantly, genes tied to stress responses were downregulated in helper rats. This suggests that lower stress reactivity could promote a readiness to help others. Brain-wide analyses also showed that helper rats had more active networks in sensory and empathy-related brain regions.



When the researchers blocked oxytocin signaling in the brain’s paraventricular nucleus, rats showed fewer social behaviors. This reduced sociality hints that oxytocin may strengthen social bonds in the brain, which in turn could drive helping actions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-brains-are-motivated-to-help">Social brains are motivated to help</h2>



Helper rats demonstrated a widespread activation of the brain’s prosocial network. Critical areas included the anterior cingulate cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, and insular cortex. Many of these regions overlap with known human empathy and reward circuits.



Moreover, the orbitofrontal cortex stood out as playing a major role. This area, known for evaluating rewards and decisions, showed the strongest difference between helpers and non-helpers.



Social interaction frequency correlated strongly with brain activity in these regions. Rats who were more socially engaged early on had higher brain activation related to empathy later, even days after initial testing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-society">Implications for human society</h2>



The research suggests that social connectedness and neurochemical factors together shape helping behavior. The results support the idea that empathy alone does not always lead to action - social bonds and emotional rewards are key motivators.



Understanding how oxytocin and social affiliation drive prosocial behavior could help us better support empathy in increasingly divided societies. Strengthening social bonds might be more effective than simply raising awareness about others' distress.



Dr. Bartal and colleagues have illuminated the biological roots of kindness in a way that could one day inform how we nurture empathy in humans.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2025/04/17/JNEUROSCI.0845-24.2025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Neuroscience</a>.



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Acts of kindness: Social brains are wired to help

Why do some individuals rush to help, while others hesitate?...

Beautiful,Young,Woman,Near,Beige,Glass,Molecules.,Over,Blue,Background.

Mammals range from tiny creatures that last just a few years to whales that sail through life for more than a century, raising questions about how aging shapes such differences and what forces keep some animals healthy for so long.



Experts have long suspected that variations in the microscopic machinery inside cells might be at play. An emerging study now suggests that certain tiny adjustments in our proteins could hold the secret to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-scientific-review-analyzes-the-potential-and-limitations-of-nmn-for-slowing-down-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">living better</a>, not just longer.



Recent work from <a href="https://www.biu.ac.il/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bar-Ilan University</a> points to specific post-translational modifications in proteins that could be linked to a healthier lifespan. 



Led by Professor Haim Cohen of the Sagol Healthy Human Longevity Center at Bar-Ilan University’s Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, the team used a new computational tool to examine how these protein tweaks show up in species with impressive lifespans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-to-aging-and-longevity">Clues to aging and longevity </h2>



Nature has been running a grand experiment for millions of years, offering clues about what helps certain species thrive. 



Researchers noticed that whales, elephants, and even some human populations seem to manage serious threats like cancer better than expected.



By comparing these animals to their shorter-lived counterparts, scientists discovered key patterns in the proteins responsible for cell maintenance. Each finding hints that certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecular changes</a> support a more resilient physiology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-patterns-linked-to-healthy-aging">Protein patterns linked to healthy aging</h2>



To uncover these patterns, the team developed a tool called PHARAOH, short for Positive posttranslational Modifications Regulator of Healthspan. It analyzed protein sequences in 107 different mammal species and looked for changes tied to lifespan.



By using evolutionary data, PHARAOH was able to pinpoint which protein tweaks stuck around in long-lived animals. This let scientists identify specific <a href="https://www.cellsignal.com/pathways/chromatin-acetylation-pathway?srsltid=AfmBOooAw_ZHb32yoec5mQmODkYrVWiqcwg8d-bk5wjwW8T4ndTyT8W8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acetylation sites</a> that might support healthier aging across generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-protein-changes-matter">How do protein changes matter?</h2>



Proteins are the molecules that build tissues, run chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/random-dna-mutations-shape-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a>, and keep our bodies functional during aging. they undergo acetylation, a process that adds or removes small chemical tags, which is one example of a posttranslational modification.



These tags shape how proteins fold, interact, and support different parts of our metabolism. One <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9038119/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> showed that adjusting the function of proteins tied to DNA repair and energy production can extend life in model organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-reveal-secrets-to-long-life-nbsp">Whales reveal secrets to long life&nbsp;</h2>



Whales offer a fascinating case study in healthy longevity. Despite having trillions more cells than humans and living for over 100 years, they rarely develop cancer. This phenomenon, known as <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3060950/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peto’s Paradox</a>, has <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2422861122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">puzzled</a> researchers for decades.



The new study sheds light on this mystery. It found that whales and other long-lived mammals share unique patterns in protein modifications that likely help suppress tumor growth. 



These consistent tweaks in their molecular biology may act as built-in defenses against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age-related</a> disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-tweaks-may-prevent-diseases">Protein tweaks may prevent diseases</h2>



This new research suggests that tweaking proteins might explain why large mammals rarely suffer from runaway cancer despite having far more cells. 



A lower incidence of some cancers could emerge from strategic molecular shifts in the proteins that keep cell division under control.



“Our findings offer a promising path toward understanding how protein modifications can protect against age-related diseases and promote longer, healthier lives,” said Professor Cohen. 



We could see more methods for shielding humans from age-related conditions if these changes prove adaptable through future therapies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fighting-aging-through-protein-changes">Fighting aging through protein changes</h2>



Scientists hope that tapping into these protein modifications will eventually curb conditions like diabetes and neurodegeneration. One <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7165364/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigation</a> found that boosting the action of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/51548" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SIRT6</a> helps mice live longer, pointing to a potential strategy for improving health in older age.



As more labs piece together how these modifications appear across species, new ideas for medicines may follow. Clarity on these processes might open ways to slow some effects of aging and give people <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">better years</a> later in life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-could-mean-for-medicine">What this could mean for medicine</h2>



If researchers can figure out how to mimic these protective protein changes in humans, it could change how we approach aging-related treatments. 



Instead of targeting single diseases like cancer or Alzheimer’s, doctors might one day adjust the body’s protein regulation to guard against multiple conditions at once.



Drugs that fine-tune acetylation - the specific type of protein modification linked to longevity in this study - are already being explored. But this research provides clearer targets and stronger biological backing, which could speed up progress in designing future therapies.



Experts believe that continued work in this field could lead to ways of delaying aging and several chronic conditions at once. looking deeper into these molecular changes may hold a key to not just extending life, but ensuring more vitality along the way.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-58762-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Protein changes discovered that protect humans and mammals from aging and disease

Mammals range from tiny creatures that last just a few...

The world’s largest companies have collectively caused an estimated $28 trillion in climate-related damage, according to a groundbreaking study designed to help governments and communities more easily seek financial redress, similar to the lawsuits once brought against the tobacco industry.



The new analysis highlights the role of major carbon-emitting firms in driving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a> and offers a clearer scientific framework for attributing economic harm directly to specific polluters.



A research team from <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dartmouth College</a> calculated the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/companies-gain-trust-and-lower-costs-through-climate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental toll</a> caused by 111 major companies, finding that more than half of the total damages stemmed from just ten fossil fuel producers: Saudi Aramco, Gazprom, Chevron, ExxonMobil, BP, Shell, National Iranian Oil Co., Pemex, Coal India, and the British Coal Corporation.



For perspective, $28 trillion nearly equals the total output of the United States economy in 2023. At the top of the liability list, Saudi Aramco and Gazprom were each responsible for more than $2 trillion in damages from heat-related impacts alone, the researchers reported.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-emissions-and-damage">Climate change: Emissions and damage</h2>



Lead author Christopher Callahan, who conducted the work at Dartmouth before moving to <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>, said the goal was to determine “the causal linkages that underlie many of these theories of accountability.”



His team estimated that each 1% share of greenhouse gases added to the atmosphere since 1990 has generated about $502 billion in damages from heat-related effects, without even counting the additional costs from climate-fueled disasters like hurricanes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">floods</a>, or droughts.



“Everybody's asking the same question: What can we actually claim about who has caused this?” said co-author Justin Mankin, a climate scientist at Dartmouth. “And that really comes down to a thermodynamic question of can we trace climate hazards and/or their damages back to particular emitters?”



The researchers say their findings leave little room for doubt. The answer is yes, Callahan and Mankin confirmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-calculating-corporate-climate-damage">Calculating corporate climate damage</h2>



The researchers began by compiling the historical emissions tied to each company's production, such as the burning of gasoline or coal-derived electricity. They traced these records as far back as 137 years ago, acknowledging that carbon dioxide emissions linger in the atmosphere for centuries. 



Using 1,000 different computer simulations, they compared the real-world warming effects of these emissions to hypothetical scenarios where a company's products had never been used. Through this process, they determined that Chevron's pollution alone raised Earth’s average surface temperature by approximately 0.045 degrees Fahrenheit (0.025 degrees Celsius).



To connect emissions to economic harm, the researchers also analyzed the companies' impact on the five hottest days of the year using another 80 simulations. By applying models that relate heat intensity to drops in economic productivity, they could directly link emissions to real-world financial losses.



This technique follows methodologies already widely accepted in the scientific community, such as the attribution models used to connect specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather events</a>, like the devastating 2021 Pacific Northwest heat wave, to human-caused climate change.



Mankin emphasized how their work advances accountability. “Who's to say that it's my molecule of CO2 that's contributed to these damages versus any other one?” he said. “We can actually trace harms back to major emitters.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-the-legal-landscape">Changing the legal landscape </h2>



Some of the major companies implicated - Shell, Aramco, Gazprom, Chevron, ExxonMobil, and BP - either declined to comment or did not respond to media inquiries.



Outside experts have praised the study’s methodology. “All methods they use are quite robust,” said Friederike Otto, a climate scientist at <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a> who leads the <a href="https://www.worldweatherattribution.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Weather Attribution</a> initiative. She emphasized the importance of replicating this approach. 



“It would be good in my view if this approach would be taken up more by different groups. As with event attribution, the more groups do it, the better the science gets and the better we know what makes a difference and what does not.”



At this point, no major lawsuit against a fossil fuel company for climate damages has succeeded. However, Otto believes the mounting weight of scientific evidence could shift outcomes: showing how overwhelmingly strong the scientific evidence is may change the legal landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-numbers-an-underestimated-crisis"><a></a>Beyond the numbers: An underestimated crisis</h2>



Callahan acknowledged that earlier efforts to tie specific damages to individual companies were hampered by data limitations. 



Previously, damage caused by individual companies was lost in the noise of data, and it could not be calculated. Today, however, the crisis is so severe that even a single company's emissions cause tangible, massive economic harm. 



“We have now reached a point in the climate crisis where the total damages are so immense that the contributions of a single company's product can amount to tens of billions of dollars a year,” said Chris Field, a Stanford University climate scientist unaffiliated with the study.



Still, some researchers caution that even this striking $28 trillion figure may be a significant underestimate. Michael Mann, a climate scientist at the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pennsylvania</a>, argued that the true costs are likely even higher, given the complex and interconnected impacts of global warming not fully captured by the models used.



The Dartmouth team’s findings sharpen the scientific basis for demanding financial accountability from corporate polluters - and suggest that future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australia-has-become-a-hotspot-for-climate-lawsuits-as-the-crisis-escalates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lawsuits</a> could be fought with increasingly precise evidence.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08751-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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World’s top polluters linked to $28 trillion in climate damages

The world’s largest companies have collectively caused an estimated $28...

In a world increasingly shaped by virtual reality, the way humans interact is changing. Avatars have quickly become vital players in online communication, from professional meetings to shopping experiences. 



Yet, how deeply they influence our thoughts and decisions is still being uncovered. One critical aspect now gaining attention is how avatars affect risk-taking behavior.



Recent research led by Dr. Toshiko Tanaka and Dr. Masahiko Haruno at the National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (<a href="https://www.nict.go.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NICT</a>) reveals that avatars play a powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-avatars-are-making-people-take-more-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">role</a> in shaping human behavior. 



The study, published in PLOS Biology, offers fresh insights into how expecting feedback from an avatar can encourage people to take greater risks compared to feedback from real human faces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avatars-make-humans-take-more-risks">Avatars make humans take more risks</h2>



The study by Tanaka and Haruno highlights an important psychological shift. Participants showed an increased tendency toward risky behavior when interacting with avatars rather than real people. 



The key mechanism behind this shift lies in how the brain’s amygdala <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-adults-often-understand-emojis-but-hesitate-to-use-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a> uncertainty in feedback from avatars.



"Participants were more likely to take risks when facial expressions (such as admiration or contempt) were displayed by avatars than when the same expressions were shown on real human faces," the authors noted.



Their work fills a critical gap. Previous research mainly focused on how using one's own avatar impacts behavior. Few studies addressed how a communication partner appearing as an avatar might alter decision-making. 



With avatar-based communication expanding rapidly across industries, these insights arrive at an essential time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-avatar-and-human-reactions">Testing avatar and human reactions</h2>



To explore these dynamics, the researchers designed a task where participants engaged in a gambling game. 



Participants received dynamic facial-expression feedback either from an observer's real face or their avatar representation after each trial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sending-the-right-message-emojis-can-be-misinterpreted/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outcome</a>. This creative setup allowed the team to alternate between avatar and human interactions in a natural and controlled way.



A total of 28 individuals participated in behavioral experiments, while 51 individuals underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanning. 



During the task, participants faced decisions between a guaranteed small reward and a larger, riskier reward. Each time they made a choice, their communication partner's expression reflected success or failure, either through a real human face or an avatar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avatar-feedback-leads-to-more-risk-taking">Avatar feedback leads to more risk-taking</h2>



Results from the experiments revealed something striking. When participants anticipated receiving feedback from an avatar, they chose the riskier option more frequently. This trend held true both in behavioral studies and during fMRI scans.



“We found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-has-a-profound-influence-on-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">people</a> tend to take more risks when their partner responds through an avatar rather than showing their real face. This seems to be driven by a change in how they process uncertainty - and interestingly, that change is reflected in the amygdala,” noted co-author Masahiko Haruno.



The fMRI data supported these behavioral observations. It showed that expecting avatar feedback created changes in how the amygdala responded to uncertainty. When interacting with avatars, participants viewed uncertain feedback more favorably, making them more willing to gamble.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication-partners-and-brain-function">Communication partners and brain function </h2>



The computational modeling revealed that the increased gambling behavior was directly linked to an altered valuation of uncertainty. 



Specifically, a negative amygdala response to feedback uncertainty facilitated this heightened risk-taking. This brain-based response occurred both in avatar and human conditions but had a stronger effect when avatars were involved.



This finding highlights the amygdala’s importance not only in emotional reactions but also in decision-making during virtual interactions. It reveals that even subtle differences in how we perceive communication partners - avatars versus humans - can significantly alter brain function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personality-and-risk-sensitivity">Personality and risk sensitivity</h2>



Another fascinating discovery from the study was the link between personality traits and sensitivity to feedback uncertainty. Individual differences in emotional consideration for others predicted variations in both behavioral and neural responses to avatar interactions.



Those with stronger interpersonal emotional sensitivity exhibited different amygdala activity patterns. They were also more prone to changing their risk-taking behavior depending on whether they faced an avatar or a human.



Study co-author Toshiko Tanaka elaborated on the complexity of the experiments: “Using the same confederate and having them pass as just another participant every time wasn’t easy - it took a lot of effort to keep things feeling real for each new person.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-for-virtual-society">Broader implications for virtual society</h2>



As avatars continue to blend into our professional, educational, and social lives, understanding their psychological effects becomes crucial. The research provides evidence that avatars are not neutral mediums. They can actively shape how people assess risks and rewards, driven by deep neural processes.



With virtual environments becoming more realistic and immersive, the line between real and virtual communication partners will keep blurring. Designing systems that acknowledge these psychological impacts could lead to better, safer virtual interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-studies-on-avatars-and-humans">Future studies on avatars and humans</h2>



The study opens new avenues for research. Tanaka and Haruno plan to explore how other factors, like avatar gender and age or the type of decision-making task, influence outcomes. 



The experts aim to investigate how avatars can support informed decision-making in real-world applications, such as education, counseling, and commerce.



Understanding these influences will be critical for creating healthy digital environments. It will also help avoid unintended consequences where avatar-based interactions encourage reckless decisions.



This research was supported by the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.jst.go.jp/moonshot/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JST Moonshot R&amp;D Program</a>, the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.jst.go.jp/kisoken/crest/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JST CREST Program</a>, and a&nbsp;<a href="https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-grants/grants01.html">Grant-in-Aid for Transformative Research Areas</a>.​<a href="https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-grants/grants01.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Japan Social Security Agency</a>.​



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://plos.io/43MGr63" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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People take more risks when talking to avatars

In a world increasingly shaped by virtual reality, the way...

Every few decades, technology reshapes how humanity understands itself. The AI revolution, unfolding rapidly over the last three years, stands as one of those pivotal moments. Now, it is not just words, but the speech and melody behind them that technology is beginning to uncover and understand.



With large language models like ChatGPT gaining prominence, it has become clear that machines can mimic human communication impressively well. Yet, a deeper layer of interaction has remained untouched - one that is not found in words alone.



A recent study from Professor Elisha Moses's lab at the <a href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/pages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weizmann Institute of Science</a> is now bringing this missing dimension into focus. 



The research reveals that the melody of speech - known as prosody - is a structured, independent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-people-are-born-to-enjoy-music-more-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language</a> in its own right. It has vocabulary, semantics, and syntax, waiting to be deciphered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speech-is-more-than-words">Speech is more than words</h2>



In everyday life, words form only a part of human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-hear-far-more-speech-at-home-than-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interaction</a>. Prosody - the music of speech - encompasses pitch changes, variations in loudness, tempo shifts, and tonal quality.



This expressive toolkit adds emotional and functional depth to communication, influencing meaning even when the words remain the same.



This is not a recent development. Studies show that both chimpanzees and whales use prosodic structures in their communication, suggesting that prosody predates language itself. In humans, a pause can change meaning dramatically. 



A subtle rise in tone can signal curiosity or challenge. Speech without prosody, as in robotic voices, sounds unnatural and flat.



"Our study lays the foundation for an automated system to compile a 'dictionary' of prosody for every human language and for different speaker populations," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-language-of-speech-melodies">The hidden language of speech melodies</h2>



Dr. Nadav Matalon and Dr. Eyal Weinreb, leading the research from Moses’s lab, decided to study prosody like an unknown language. 



The experts turned to vast databases of spontaneous English conversations: the CallHome Corpus and the Santa Barbara Corpus. Instead of relying on written or rehearsed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-reveal-how-music-can-heal-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">speech</a>, they sought the chaotic beauty of real-life conversations.



The team's method involved breaking speech into Intonation Units (IUs). Each IU usually consists of one to four words, marked by coherent melody and rhythm. This structure allowed the team to represent each IU as a pitch-intensity vector and to cluster similar melodies without any prior assumptions.



"When the University of Oxford was tasked with compiling one, it asked the public to help with the workload by sending quotes showing the historical changes in the meaning of words," explained the researchers.



"One of the main contributors was a prisoner who spent more than 20 years reading books and sending quotes. In our study, instead of collecting information by ourselves over the course of decades, we analyzed massive collections of audio recordings, using AI."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-basic-speech-melody-patterns">Basic speech melody patterns</h2>



From this clustering, the researchers uncovered roughly 200 distinct prosodic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/upright-walking-may-have-sparked-human-creativity-and-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a>. This number stands in stark contrast to the thousands of words in the core verbal vocabulary of English. Each prosodic pattern, lasting around a second, acted like a "word" in the hidden language of melody.



Despite the differences in individual voices, these melodic shapes appeared consistently across spontaneous conversations. Each shape could have several linguistic functions depending on context, yet typically expressed a dominant emotional attitude such as enthusiasm, skepticism, or curiosity.



"We discovered that each pattern has several linguistic functions," explained Matalon. "For example, depending on the context, a pattern can define whether someone is asking a question or making a statement." 



"However, each pattern typically conveys one specific attitude of the speaker - such as curiosity, surprise or confusion - toward what's being said."



Understanding these prosodic patterns offers more than simple emotional coloring. It hints at a deeper, structured system where the melody itself carries grammatical-like information.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speech-melodies-follow-simple-rules">Speech melodies follow simple rules</h2>



Beyond identifying basic prosodic "words," the researchers discovered rules for how these melodic units combine. They found that certain prosodic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-triggers-unique-prediction-zones-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> tend to appear in pairs, with one IU predicting the next through simple, memory-friendly rules resembling a Markov process.



"We noticed that there are patterns that tend to appear next to each other, in pairs, in spontaneous speech," explained Weinreb.



"It's a simple statistical system, in which the correct choice of the next unit in a sequence depends solely on the previous one. This system works well for spontaneous conversation because it requires planning only a few seconds ahead, which is just as long as short-term memory lasts."



Unlike written grammar, where sentences unfold over multiple clauses and ideas, spoken language often plans just one or two seconds ahead. This dynamic allows humans to communicate flexibly in real time, yet still follow an underlying structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spontaneous-speech-vs-scripted-speech">Spontaneous speech vs. scripted speech</h2>



One of the study’s more striking findings is the contrast between spontaneous and scripted speech. When the researchers analyzed professional audiobooks, they found that scripted speech lacked the natural prosodic pairings common in conversation.



While spontaneous speech relied on short IU pairs to build meaning, audiobooks showed longer, more rigid melodic sequences. Even amateur audiobook readings had more dynamic prosody than polished professional recordings.



These differences underscore the need to study real-world conversations, not just polished texts, to understand human communication fully. It also suggests that if AI systems are trained only on written or scripted language, they will miss essential elements of how humans really talk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-ai-could-hear-feelings">Future AI could hear feelings</h2>



Teaching AI to grasp prosody could profoundly change how machines interact with people. The researchers envision future systems that not only process words but also pick up emotional cues from the melodies in speech.



"Imagine if Siri could understand from the melody of your voice how you feel about a certain subject, what's important to you or whether you think you know better than her, and that she could adapt her response to make it sound enthusiastic or sad," said Weinreb.



"We already have brain implants that convert neural activity into speech for people who can't speak. If we can teach prosody to a computer model, we'll be adding a significant layer of human expression that robotic systems currently lack."



Prosody may even enhance brain-computer interfaces, making synthetic speech generated from neural activity sound more human and emotionally rich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-future-directions">Challenges and future directions</h2>



The study acknowledges that human speech carries intrinsic noise. Everyday conversation is filled with interruptions, repairs, and overlapping voices. Clustering prosodic patterns must navigate this chaos, and perfect separation of prosodic "words" remains elusive.



Still, the researchers are optimistic. Expanding datasets, refining clustering methods, and integrating prosodic and textual data may allow future models to predict both what is said and how it is meant. 



They also see opportunities to apply their methods to other languages, cultures, and special groups like children or elderly speakers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-speech-secrets">Unlocking speech secrets</h2>



This work was made possible by a collaborative team including Dr. Dominik Freche, Dr. Erez Volk from NeuraLight Inc., Dr. Tirza Biron, and Professor David Biron from the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>. 



Together, they combined expertise in physics, linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science to unveil this hidden dimension of language.



Their collective effort now points to a future where machines might not just understand words but truly hear human beings - emotion, intent, and all.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2403262122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Our speech is full of melodies that create language-like patterns

Every few decades, technology reshapes how humanity understands itself. The...

Human beings have always relied on more than speech to communicate. Thankfully, we can understand a person's intention from their gaze with just a look. Long before the first spoken word, our ancestors navigated danger, formed bonds, and shared meaning through glances and gestures. 



Among these silent exchanges, eye contact holds a unique power. A single look can connect minds, signal warning, or offer comfort. But how much can we really know from someone’s gaze?



A recent study from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> brings science closer to answering this age-old question. The findings suggest that intentional eye movements - those chosen freely by a person - send out subtle signals that others can sense and interpret rapidly.



These tiny, often imperceptible differences <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-affection-shapes-a-childs-personality-into-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influence</a> how quickly we respond to what someone else is looking at. In a world that often relies on words, this study reminds us that silence can still speak volumes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-read-intent-through-eyes">We read intent through eyes</h2>



In human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-has-a-profound-influence-on-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>, silence could mean survival. Making a sound might have alerted predators, but eyes offered a way to share information without speaking. As groups grew more complex, humans became increasingly skilled at reading facial cues, especially those from the eyes.



“Humans have a long history of living in complex groups and social situations. It has been theorized that this has led our brains to develop a heightened ability to focus on social cues from faces, and especially from eyes,” said Jelena Ristic, a professor in McGill’s psychology department.



“It’s a system that has evolved to support very quick exchanges of complex social information.”



This insight ties into something we experience every day. Whether in conversation, walking down a street, or sitting in a room, our eyes constantly seek out the gaze of others to determine their intention. 



We look where they look. We try to see what they see. And even infants - just months old - follow the gaze of their caregivers.



“Gaze-following is thought to provide a foundation for our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-have-unique-personalities-that-determine-whether-they-sting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social development</a> and behavior. It helps us to understand what others are thinking, looking or wanting, as well as to connect with them mentally, so we follow where others are looking quickly and spontaneously. Even young human infants and primates do it,” said Ristic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-eye-movements">Different eye movements</h2>



To better understand how gaze reveals intention, researchers at McGill created a unique experimental setup. Participants viewed videos where people looked either to the left or right. 



In some clips, the on-screen individuals decided for themselves where to look. In others, they were directed by a computer. The twist? Observers didn’t know whether the gaze was chosen or instructed.



Videos paused just before the eye movement began. Participants were then asked to guess the direction the person would look next. 



What the researchers found was compelling: when the gaze was self-chosen, participants responded faster - even if their guesses weren’t always more accurate. This suggests that people subconsciously picked up on something in the eyes before the gaze shift occurred.



This phenomenon became the focus of three detailed experiments led by Florence Mayrand, Sarah D. McCrackin, and Jelena Ristic. The results confirm that we are quicker to respond when we sense the intention behind a glance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-react-faster-to-an-intentional-gaze">We react faster to an intentional gaze</h2>



The first experiment measured how fast participants could predict gaze direction. In the second and third experiments, the researchers explored whether the gaze also affected how quickly people responded to targets appearing in the gazed-at direction. 



The answer was yes - targets that matched the direction of an intentional gaze prompted faster responses. Importantly, this was not just about where the eyes moved. It was about how they moved. 



A detailed analysis using optical flow techniques revealed more subtle motion in the eye region when the gaze was intentional. These small changes, although nearly invisible to the naked eye, were enough to affect how people responded.



“The speed of the observers’ responses suggests that they implicitly recognize and respond more quickly to intentional eye movements. It also told us how sensitive we are to information about the mental state and intentions conveyed by the eyes,” Mayrand explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-of-seeing-intention-through-gaze">Science of seeing intention through gaze</h2>



This sensitivity doesn’t seem to stem from deliberate thought. Instead, it appears automatic - something wired into our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-type-can-accurately-predict-your-relationship-status/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biology</a>. Experiment 1 showed that people respond faster to intentional looks even before any visible shift occurs. 



This supports the theory that mental state information is conveyed through the eyes, and that others pick up on it before movement is complete. Subsequent experiments explored the timing of gaze-related cues.



In Experiment 3, the researchers varied the delay between the moment the eyes moved and when the target appeared. They found that the effect of intentional gaze was strongest when participants had time to process the cue - suggesting that even subtle signals need a short moment to influence behavior.



Interestingly, while directionality affected how quickly people noticed targets, it did not significantly interact with the perception of intent. This indicates that the brain may process where someone is looking and why they are looking there using different systems, possibly in parallel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-eye-motions-speak-volumes">Tiny eye motions speak volumes</h2>



In their analysis, the researchers measured the motion around the eyes in self-chosen versus instructed trials. They found that even before the actual gaze shift, intentional eye movements created slightly more motion in the eye region.



These micro-movements may be the signals that observers unknowingly detect and respond to. This motion pattern is so subtle that it’s not consciously visible, yet it still changes behavior. 



The study used Optical Flow Analysis to measure these movements, offering a new method for understanding how gaze communicates mental states. The results open up possibilities for future research using high-speed eye tracking or neuroimaging to examine this phenomenon more closely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaze-shapes-how-we-connect">Gaze shapes how we connect</h2>



The findings have broader relevance. In real life, we often make quick judgments based on a look. These split-second decisions might be influenced by motion cues we don’t even realize we’re seeing. 



This also explains why some people appear more expressive than others - even when they don’t speak. The research team now hopes to explore how these cues function across different populations.



Can people with autism or ADHD pick up on the same signals? How do different gazer identities influence observer response? And does gender affect the perception of intention?



In future studies, researchers aim to test more diverse gazers and contexts. They may examine how intention detection works in natural settings, such as live conversations or social environments. They also plan to investigate how auditory cues or timing instructions affect our ability to recognize intentions behind a person's gaze.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eyes-as-messengers-of-the-mind">Eyes as messengers of the mind</h2>



This study confirms what poets, artists, and parents have known for centuries: our eyes carry meaning far beyond sight. The research shows that even the smallest eye movement can transmit intent, emotion, and attention. 



What’s new is the scientific understanding of how, when, and why that happens. At its core, this work redefines what it means to “see” someone. 



A look is never just a look - it’s a signal. And now, thanks to this research, we know that signal is not only visible but measurable. In a noisy world, the quiet power of a glance still speaks the loudest.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44271-024-00137-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Psychology</a>.



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Gaze and intention: The unspoken language of survival

Human beings have always relied on more than speech to...

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A 16,000-year-old canine skeleton was recently uncovered in southern France. Experts say this is a rare find that sheds light on how Stone Age humans interacted with dogs at a time when both species were figuring out how to live together.



This animal’s remains, first discovered in 2021 by a group of spelunkers in the Baume Traucade cave, offer a window into a past where trust and conflict might have existed in the same breath. 



The lead author, <a href="https://naturalsciences-be.academia.edu/MietjeGermonpr%C3%A9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Mietje Germonpré</a> from the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, has studied early canid remains for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-ancient-bonds">Uncovering ancient bonds</h2>



The nearly complete skeleton belonged to a type known as Palaeolithic dogs. Researchers determined it was about 24 inches (61 centimeters) tall at the shoulder and weighed an estimated 57 pounds (26 kilograms).



This size, along with other skeletal measurements, indicates that the animal was an adult female that was old enough to have experienced at least one year of maturity. The physical traits of the animal were closer to those of ancient dogs than to wolves. 



Experts analyzing these bones suspect the animal was part of a growing connection between humans and canids, which may have involved shared shelter, food sources, or protection. 



Some <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305440314000478" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remains</a> from other sites in Western Europe hint that these creatures may have provided practical help, including hunting assistance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-puzzle-of-injuries">A puzzle of injuries</h2>



Evidence of trauma is written on the skeleton in the form of impact marks. Researchers say this indicates human involvement shortly before the dog’s death. 



“It is feasible that the individual obtained [its] injuries from being beaten or struck by people,” said Loukas Koungoulos from the University of Western Australia, who was not part of this analysis.



There is also evidence that humans might have cared for the dog during its life, as the skeleton’s condition suggests it may not have been fending for itself outdoors. This would indicate a possible early attempt at domestication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-the-cave">Clues from the cave</h2>



Baume Traucade is located about 525 feet (160 meters) below the surface on a slope shaped by rocky cliffs. This cave is in a region with numerous archaeological sites that show a long history of human use. 



The canid skeleton’s position in the cave implies it wasn’t dragged in by large predators or moved by floodwaters.



The dog’s remains were buried under layers of sediment that preserved the bones for millennia. Researchers believe it died inside the cave, though they remain unsure whether it was led there intentionally or wandered in. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-domestication">Implications for domestication</h2>



This discovery holds significance for our understanding of how early dogs might have been welcomed into human groups. 



Ancient people could have been exploring ways to benefit from these animals’ natural instincts. Some dogs may have earned a spot near the fire, while others might have ended up in conflict with their keepers.



Researchers have long debated when and how grey wolves began evolving into domestic companions. Genetic <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004016" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> suggest that dog domestication might have begun during or before the Last Glacial Maximum, though not all lineages survived to the present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-care-and-aggression">Balancing care and aggression</h2>



Further examination points to a complicated picture of cooperation and aggression. This canid may have been nurtured for certain tasks before meeting a violent end. It’s possible that humans valued the dog’s loyalty but also resorted to lethal force if they viewed it as a threat.



Such complexities are not surprising given the harsh environment of the late Pleistocene. Food shortages, harsh weather, and competition from other predators might have influenced how people treated animals. 



These dynamics represent the start of a long and varied journey for the species we now see snoozing on our couches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparisons-with-other-sites">Comparisons with other sites</h2>



Similar Palaeolithic dogs have emerged at sites in Germany, Spain, and Belgium. The 14,000-year-old remains at <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284720121_Street_M_Napierala_H_Janssens_L_2015_The_late_Palaeolithic_dog_from_Bonn-Oberkassel_in_context_In_The_Late_Glacial_Burial_from_Oberkassel_Revisited_L_Giemsch_R_W_Schmitz_eds_Rheinische_Ausgrabungen_72" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bonn-Oberkassel</a>, for instance, included a partial skeleton that was buried with humans. Each find contributes fresh details about the earliest efforts to shape wolf-like creatures into domestic dogs.



Though many remains are incomplete fragments, the Baume Traucade skeleton is almost intact. This allowed for thorough measurements of skull, jaw, and limbs. The bones were then compared to fossil wolves, modern canids, and other prehistoric samples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lingering-questions">Lingering questions</h2>



One of the biggest challenges is pinpointing when domestication began. Some researchers argue that earlier finds might represent wolves with slight shifts in size or shape, and not true dogs. 



<a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110512-135813" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Others</a> maintain that selective breeding and human cohabitation can alter an animal’s features much faster than we realize.



These debates will continue as new discoveries surface. Each site reveals small pieces of a larger puzzle about how humans shaped, and were shaped by, the dogs they invited into their encampments. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead">Looking ahead</h2>



Researchers plan to conduct further genetic work on the remains. This may confirm ancestral connections or illuminate distinct lineages that have subsequently vanished. Understanding those lineages can help unravel the broader story of dog evolution.



As more ancient skeletons come to light, knowledge of their wounds, diets, and living patterns may reveal how people managed these animals. Over thousands of years, our relationship with dogs has become more peaceful and rewarding, but the road to this point might have been rocky.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379125001088" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quaternary Science Reviews</a>.



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A 16,000-year-old dog skeleton has been found, showing the first link between humans and dogs

A 16,000-year-old canine skeleton was recently uncovered in southern France....

Everyone dreams of staying healthy well into old age, but few realize just how much the health of our immune system shapes that journey. 



Recent findings reveal that a our immune defenses need to be well-tuned before we reach our late 60's if we wish to remain strong against infections and chronic diseases as we age further.



At age 40, individuals with poor immune resilience face a 9.7-fold higher risk of dying prematurely than those who maintain a robust defense. This gap is just one alarming finding from new research that focuses on <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK435854/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salutogenesis</a>, or the active process of promoting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-scientific-review-analyzes-the-potential-and-limitations-of-nmn-for-slowing-down-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health</a>.&nbsp;



Led by Dr. Sunil K. Ahuja of <a href="https://uthscsa.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UT Health San Antonio</a> and the <a href="https://www.va.gov/south-texas-health-care/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South Texas Veterans Health Care System</a>, the study shines a spotlight on a protective mechanism that appears to keep the immune system vital across much of adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immune-resilience-is-key-to-healthy-aging">Immune resilience is key to healthy aging</h2>



Aging isn’t simply about adding more candles to the birthday cake. It also involves increasing susceptibility to disease, driven by three major factors: chronic inflammation, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/immunosenescence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immunosenescence</a> (gradual immune decline), and cell death.



Experts say each factor plays a part in undermining health as time goes on, but there is also a positive force known as immune <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-38238-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a> that helps curb these threats.



“While most aging research focuses on disease mechanisms and the biology of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a>, our work highlights how immune resilience sustains salutogenesis - actively promoting health,” said Dr. Ahuja. 



The research team found that one gene, <a href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=TCF7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TCF7</a>, appears essential for preserving an immune boost that wards off illnesses throughout life. TCF7 is linked to T-cells and helps them remain functional for longer, according to additional research that shows its importance in preventing T-cell exhaustion.



Midlife stands out as a window of opportunity. Investigators saw that maintaining a strong immune profile between 40 and 70 years of age lowered mortality by 69%, which points to an ideal time for reinforcing healthy habits and seeking medical guidance.&nbsp;



Experts have noted similar patterns before, suggesting that positive health strategies in midlife can significantly improve outcomes later on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-good-immune-resilience-matters">Why good immune resilience matters</h2>



Beyond avoiding infections, strong immunity appears to reduce the burden of heart trouble, Alzheimer’s disease, and severe illnesses. 



One reason might be that a balanced defense can respond to harmful events while keeping damaging inflammation under control. Scientists say it’s like having a security system that wards off intruders without wrecking the house in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">process</a>.



Immune resilience may also preserve vital brain structures by limiting harmful inflammatory signals. <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9698256/">Research</a> points to a link between chronic inflammation and neurodegenerative problems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-t-cells-help-you-age-better">How T-cells help you age better</h2>



T-cells are a type of white blood cell that can adapt and remember threats. These cells tend to wear down in older adults, but the new study found that certain people preserve youthful T-cell <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/random-dna-mutations-shape-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> for decades. 



They also seem to generate strong responses when given vaccines, highlighting how beneficial it is to look after the immune system well before reaching old age.



When T-cells lose their vigor, everyday infections can linger, and vaccines might fail to work as intended. Scientists stress that better immune monitoring - especially in the 40–70 bracket - could guide targeted interventions.



This approach also aligns with broader <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22224726/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigations</a> into ways in which to prevent age-related decline rather than only treating diseases once they arise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-midlife-habits-that-boost-immunity">Midlife habits that boost immunity</h2>



The research team highlights midlife interventions as a powerful preventive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">route</a>. Lifestyle changes, controlling blood pressure, and managing early signs of chronic ailments are among practical measures that may help keep immune resilience in good shape. 



Some anti-inflammatory therapies also appear promising in slowing down the harmful cascade caused by chronic inflammation.



Early detection matters. If you wait until problems become severe, potential benefits might be reduced after the age of 70, when the lines of mortality risk seem to converge. For many experts, this emphasizes why mid-adulthood checkups and healthy routines are more important than ever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-ways-to-boost-immune-strength">Future ways to boost immune strength</h2>



Future work could delve deeper into how different interventions - like certain biologics - might raise low immune resilience up to more youthful levels.



Researchers also want to see whether new therapies can sustain TCF7 activity and keep T-cells strong for a longer span of life. They believe this approach might translate into fewer infections, better vaccine responses, and delayed onset of degenerative diseases.



Scientists propose that these findings redefine how we think about aging. It’s no longer just a race against time, but a chance to preserve the active elements of an immune system that quietly defends the body each day.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acel.70063" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aging Cell</a>.



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Strong immune resilience in midlife reduces risk of early death

Everyone dreams of staying healthy well into old age, but...

Melatonin is commonly found on drugstore shelves in the United States and is well known for its link to better sleep. Scientists recently explored this supplement's impact on oxidative DNA damage, which occurs when daily cellular processes form harmful byproducts that can disrupt genetic material.



This <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2001037019304209" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new research</a> focused on those who work during late hours, who often face reduced production of melatonin at night. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Umaimah-Zanif-2215395467" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Umaimah Zanif</a>, from Occupational and Environmental Medicine in Canada, led the team and evaluated whether adding an inexpensive over-the-counter melatonin supplement to daytime rest could improve the body’s natural ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/everyday-dna-damage-requires-constant-repair-by-cells-to-prevent-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">repair</a> DNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-repair-matters-and-supplements-needed">DNA repair matters and supplements needed</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-isnt-only-stored-in-our-brains-other-cells-can-remember-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cells</a> need a way to fix ongoing wear and tear so that harmful changes do not take hold. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-079X.2005.00261.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have long suspected that alterations in circadian rhythms can affect many bodily functions, including the repair of genetic material.



Those who work during traditional sleeping hours often have higher amounts of circulating melatonin, which can offer some antioxidant protection. 



When that level drops in individuals on night shifts, it may become harder for their bodies to handle daily oxidative strain.



Scientists in this field believe that disruptions in the melatonin supplement can interfere with enzymes needed to remove damaged DNA. 



By targeting this link between hormone levels and cellular maintenance, researchers hope to improve long-term well-being among people with unusual schedules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-melatonin-trial-was-organized">How the melatonin trial was organized</h2>



In this study, a group of adults who regularly handled work during normal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-quality-could-be-the-key-to-better-metabolic-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleeping</a> hours were randomly assigned to take a melatonin supplement or a placebo. Over several weeks, the team measured how well each participant’s system cleared out broken bits of DNA.



Some participants took the supplement before sleeping in the daytime, when their bodies would normally produce very little melatonin. The researchers used standard techniques to analyze nighttime and daytime urine for biochemical markers linked to DNA repair.



With this approach, the scientists could see whether the supplement made a real difference in how effectively the body removed potentially harmful byproducts. They noted a clear improvement during daytime rest in those who used melatonin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-snapshot-of-the-key-findings">A snapshot of the key findings</h2>



“Our randomized placebo-controlled trial suggested melatonin supplementation may improve oxidative DNA damage repair capacity among night shift workers,” said Dr. Zanif. The data showed that supplement users excreted higher levels of a specific repair marker after their day shift ended.&nbsp;



The improvement was not observed once they went back to overnight work. This makes sense to experts, given that melatonin levels typically sink during late hours if a person is exposed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bright-light-instantly-enhances-brain-function-alertness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bright environments</a>.



When participants continued taking the same amount of melatonin for weeks, the effect on daytime rest persisted. Researchers say this finding backs the idea that targeted timing and dose may be needed for best results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-effects-and-considerations">Other effects and considerations</h2>



Some participants also recorded how rested they felt while using the supplement. In general, melatonin has been linked to slightly better daytime sleep, though results vary from person to person.



Those behind the trial say that mixing the supplement with changes in exposure to light could yield even bigger benefits. 



Small shifts, such as avoiding bright rays after a night shift, may increase melatonin naturally and lessen the need for synthetic help.



Individuals with rotating schedules might consider discussing safe supplement use with a doctor. This conversation can help account for personal factors like overall health, work routines, and consistent patterns of rest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-melatonin-possibilities-for-future-research">More melatonin: Possibilities for future research</h2>



“Our findings warrant future larger-scale studies that examine varying doses of melatonin supplements and longer-term impacts of melatonin use,” noted Dr. Zanif. 



Because this was a smaller study, the authors believe larger projects would confirm whether the benefit truly lasts over many months or even years. 



They are interested in identifying any long-term changes in overall health that might stem from better DNA repair. This includes possible links to various serious diseases that have been associated with disrupted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-color-has-no-impact-on-our-internal-clocks-or-sleep-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep cycles</a>.



As more data comes in, there may be recommendations for how workers can schedule melatonin to align with their specific job demands. Careful planning around daily tasks could be a simple way to maintain more robust cellular upkeep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-for-those-on-late-hours">Hope for those on late hours</h2>



Night shift employees often struggle to regulate the hormones that most people release naturally in darkness. An affordable supplement capsule that supports DNA repair may eventually become part of regular self-care if upcoming results confirm what this pilot project suggests.



At the same time, experts urge caution for anyone experimenting on their own, since every supplement has potential side effects and unique interactions with medications. For most, well-timed use and standard safety checks could offer a manageable route to feeling better equipped for upside-down schedules.



Some professionals may use these findings to shape workplace guidelines. Even small policy changes, such as offering dimmer lighting in post-shift break areas, could reinforce the body’s natural cycles while saving employees from unwanted risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-final-thoughts">Final thoughts</h2>



This trial opens a fresh dialogue about whether an easy-to-buy supplement can benefit people who rest while the sun is out. Next steps include detailed research to see if melatonin’s influence on DNA repair translates into broader health advantages in demanding shift-work settings.



If investigations show solid advantages, then the everyday supplement aisle might hold a remarkable ally for the modern worker who seldom follows a 9-to-5 routine. Until then, experts lean on caution and suggest that individuals remain aware of how any supplement can influence sleep and general well-being.



The study is published in <a href="https://oem.bmj.com/content/82/1/1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Occupational and Environmental Medicine</a>.



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Healthier DNA thanks to an inexpensive, over-the-counter supplement

Melatonin is commonly found on drugstore shelves in the United...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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