Scientists have proposed a new explanation for dark matter and how the elusive substance that anchors galaxies might have taken shape in the newborn universe.



The scenario begins with weightless particles zipping through the cosmic furnace and ends with a chill population of massive pairs that could still be drifting through space today.



The work - carried out by physicists at <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dartmouth College</a> - offers predictions that astronomers can check against existing observations of the Cosmic Microwave Background, the after-glow of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-the-big-bang-theory-is-correct-what-exactly-happened/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-particles-after-the-big-bang">Particles after the Big Bang </h2>



“Dark matter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/existence-of-dark-matter-confirmed-by-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">started its life</a> as near-massless relativistic particles, almost like light,” said Robert Caldwell, senior author of the study. “That’s totally antithetical to what dark matter is thought to be - it is cold lumps that give galaxies their mass.”



In the model designed by Caldwell and undergraduate researcher Guanming Liang, countless high-energy quanta filled the universe just after the Big Bang. These particles, similar to the photons that carry light, hurtled about at near-light speed.



Under certain conditions, two such quanta could lock together because their spins pointed in opposite directions, rather like the attraction between the north and south poles of tiny magnets. 



The moment they bonded, the new entity’s energy plummeted and its inertia skyrocketed. Within a flash it went from a racing ray to a hefty relic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-sudden-drop-in-energy"><a></a>A sudden drop in energy</h2>



“The most unexpected part of our mathematical model was the energy plummet that bridges the high-density energy and the lumpy low energy,” Liang explained.



The researchers liken the transformation to steam condensing into water - a hot, diffuse gas suddenly collapses into a cooler, denser phase.



“At that stage, it's like these pairs were getting ready to become dark matter,” Caldwell said. “This phase transition helps explain the abundance of dark matter we can detect today. It sprang from the high-density cluster of extremely energetic particles that was the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-planets-formed-in-the-harsh-early-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early universe</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooper-pairs-as-a-clue"><a></a>Cooper pairs as a clue</h2>



The paper introduces a brand-new particle to trigger the shift, yet the authors argue that nature already provides a parallel. In certain superconducting metals, two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massless-dirac-electrons-seen-moving-in-four-dimensions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electrons</a> with opposite spins form so-called Cooper pairs that glide without electrical resistance.



“We looked toward superconductivity for clues as to whether a certain interaction could cause energy to drop so suddenly,” Caldwell noted. “Cooper pairs prove that the mechanism exists.”



If the analogy holds, the relic pairs born in the cosmic dawn would have cooled into a nearly pressure-free state - a key hallmark of the unseen matter whose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/theory-gravity-exists-without-mass-so-dark-matter-does-not-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity</a> sculpts galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-simple-model-for-dark-matter">A simple model for dark matter</h2>



Dark matter accounts for roughly eighty-five percent of all mass, yet the universe’s overall energy density has fallen dramatically since its first moments.



Liang points out that the new theory addresses both facts at once: “Structures get their mass due to the density of cold dark matter, but there also has to be a mechanism wherein energy density drops to close to what we see today.”



The abrupt condensation of massless quanta into massive pairs drains energy from the radiation budget while boosting the matter budget, squaring theory with observation.



“The mathematical model of our theory is really beautiful because it's rather simplistic - you don't need to build a lot of things into the system for it to work,” said Liang. “It builds on concepts and timelines we know exist.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-signature-written-in-ancient-light">A signature written in ancient light</h2>



Because the transition would have left the paired particles almost motionless, the team predicts a distinctive imprint on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universe-more-complicated-less-clumpy-than-it-should-be-cosmic-microwave-background-cmb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic microwave background</a>.



The CMB has already been mapped by satellites and ground-based projects, and more precise surveys are under way at the Simons Observatory in Chile and in planned CMB Stage-4 experiments.



“It's exciting,” Caldwell said. “We're presenting a new approach to thinking about and possibly identifying dark matter.”



The researchers emphasize that their proposal is testable: if future CMB data reveal the subtle pattern predicted by their equations, the case for heavy pairs born from light-like quanta will strengthen. If not, the idea will need revision or replacement - exactly how science should proceed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-dark-matter-research">Future of dark matter research</h2>



For now the paper stakes out a middle ground between theoretical elegance and observational reach. 



Upcoming missions will either expose the predicted CMB trace or tighten the limits on how dark matter could have formed. Either outcome will refine our view of the invisible framework that holds the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-big-bang-may-explain-cosmic-expansion-without-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmos</a> together.



Should the ancient sky bear the scar of those primordial pairings, physicists might finally glimpse how ghostly matter traded light speed for lasting weight - and reshaped the universe in the process.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.134.191004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA and M. Montes (University of New South Wales)



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Where did dark matter come from? The answer may be surprisingly simple

Scientists have proposed a new explanation for dark matter and how the elusive substance that anchors galaxies might have taken shape in the newborn universe. The scenario begins with weightless particles zipping through the cosmic furnace and ends with a chill population of massive pairs that could still be drifting through space today. The work - carried out by physicists at Dartmouth College - offers predictions that astronomers can check against existing observations of the Cosmic Microwave Background, the after-glow of the Big Bang. Particles after the...

Noncognitive skills contribute to personal success just as much as cognitive skills, according to a new study led by <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a>. An international team of researchers has investigated how cognitive skills influence educational attainment as well as life outcomes. 

Noncognitive skills, or "soft skills," are associated with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dog-personality-traits-change-over-time-but-not-at-the-same-pace/">personality</a> and temperament. These skills are related to inherent traits such as integrity, motivation, and perseverance.  

"There has been much debate about what noncognitive skills are and how best to measure them. Motivation, persistence, grit, curiosity, self-control, growth mindset - these are just a few of the things that people have suggested are important noncognitive skills," said Professor Paige Harden.

The research supports the idea that inherited genes that affect things other than cognitive ability make an important difference in life outcomes, including educational attainment.

"Genetic studies of educational attainment were initiated with the goal of identifying genes that influenced cognitive abilities. They've had some success in doing that. But it turns out they've also identified genetics that influence a range of other skills and characteristics.," said Dr. Daniel Belsky. 

"What was most surprising to me about our results was that these noncognitive skills contributed just as much to the heritability of educational attainment as cognitive ability." 

Of the total genetic influence on educational attainment, cognitive abilities accounted for 43 percent and noncognitive skills accounted for 57 percent.

The genetics of noncognitive skills were linked to achievements beyond school, including more prestigious jobs, higher incomes, and longer lifespan. Furthermore, genes associated with noncognitive skills had relationships with these life outcomes that were as strong or stronger than the relationships seen with cognitive genetics. 

"These results were important proof of concept," said Dr. Belsky. "They showed us that noncognitive skills genetics have implications for economics and public health similar to the genetics of cognitive abilities."

Noncognitive skills are behaviors and abilities that are not measured by traditional IQ tests but are believed to promote personal success throughout life. The researchers measured these skills using a method called a genome-wide association study (GWAS). The team also applied a new statistical technique to examine the significance of noncognitive skills versus cognitive ability.

"Borrowing a strategy from economists who studied people with the same cognitive ability but different years of education enabled us to associate the variations in how far people go in school above and beyond their association with cognitive test performance. We were able to conduct this type of analysis using a new method we developed called Genomic Structural Equation Modeling, which is a way of combining data from multiple GWASs at the same time," said Professor Michel Nivard.

"This approach allows us to leverage the power of giant genetic databases like UK Biobank to study the genetics of traits and behaviors that were not directly measured in the research participants." 

The researchers used the novel technique to conduct a GWAS of noncognitive skills in data from hundreds of thousands of individuals.

"Our GWAS identified 157 different locations in the human genome that related to noncognitive skills," said study co-lead author Perline Demange. "Our GWAS identified signals from genes that are disproportionately active in brain tissues, similar to what has been found for the genetics of cognitive abilities."

Overall, the genetics of noncognitive skills were associated with a higher tolerance of risks, greater willingness to forego immediate gratification, less unhealthy behavior, and delayed fertility. Noncognitive skill genetics were also linked with personality traits associated with success in relationships and at work, such as being eager to learn, emotionally stable, and more industrious and orderly.

"Genetic influence must always be understood through the lens of history and social structures," said Professor Harden. "These results tell us about what is, not what could be. Nothing about our study should discourage investments in ensuring that all children reach their maximum potential."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ng">Nature Genetics</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Noncognitive skills contribute as much to success as cognitive ability

Noncognitive skills contribute to personal success just as much as...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">UC Santa Cruz</a>, experts have discovered that groundwater has a much greater impact on ocean chemistry than what was expected. Even though groundwater flows into <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-icebergs-affect-seawater-and-ocean-currents-far-from-the-continent/">seawater</a> along coastlines all over the world, its contribution to the chemical properties of the ocean has been largely overlooked. 

The findings have implications for global models of biogeochemical cycles and for the interpretation of isotope records of Earth's climate history.

"It's really hard to characterize groundwater discharge, so it has been a source of uncertainty in the modeling of global cycles," said study first author Kimberley Mayfield. "It took a large effort by researchers around the world who came together to make this happen."

The investigation was focused on five key elements including lithium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, and barium. The researchers measured the concentrations and isotope ratios in coastal groundwater at 20 sites around the world, and used previously published data from additional sites.

"Those elements are important because they come from the weathering of rocks, and weathering of silicate rocks accounts for a huge uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere over long time scales," explained Mayfield.

According to study co-author Adina Paytan, a research professor in UCSC's Institute of Marine Sciences, groundwater is an important source of inputs to the oceans, but has been easy to ignore because it is unseen and hard to measure.

"This is the first global assessment of groundwater discharge for most of these elements," said Professor Paytan. "This information is useful for our understanding of how weathering of rock is related to climate, not only in the present but also in the past."

The researchers estimated that up to 16 percent of these elements are entering the sea through groundwater. The results also showed that the isotopic composition of groundwater discharge can be different from that of rivers.

"The composition of groundwater discharge is very dependent on coastal geology, whereas river water is more influenced by the interiors of continents," said Mayfield. "It's important to recognize that groundwater makes a difference globally, and now that we have this large data set, people can keep improving it with more sampling and develop better models of global groundwater discharge."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Groundwater has a larger impact on ocean chemistry than expected

In a new study from UC Santa Cruz, experts have...

While it is known that sleep is critical for healthy <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/research-confirms-that-covid-19-enters-the-brain/">brain</a> function, it is not known when animals started to require sleep. A surprising new study from <a href="https://www.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/">Kyushu University</a> suggests that animals needed sleep before they even had brains. 

The investigation was focused on hydras - tiny freshwater organisms that lack a central nervous system. The researchers discovered that not only do hydras show signs of a sleep-like state despite having no brain, but also respond to molecules associated with sleep in more evolved animals.

"We now have strong evidence that animals must have acquired the need to sleep before acquiring a brain," said study lead author Professor Taichi Q. Itoh.

Three years ago, scientists at Caltech were the first to document sleeping behavior in a brainless animal, the Cassiopea jellyfish, a relative of hydras that is also known as the upside-down jellyfish.

In collaboration with experts at the Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology in Korea, the Kyushu team found that several chemicals which cause drowsiness even in humans had similar effects on the species Hydra vulgaris.

"Based on our findings and previous reports regarding jellyfish, we can say that sleep evolution is independent of brain evolution," said Professor Itoh.

"Many questions still remain regarding how sleep emerged in animals, but hydras provide an easy-to-handle creature for further investigating the detailed mechanisms producing sleep in brainless animals to help possibly one day answer these questions."

To monitor resting behavior among hydras, the researchers used a video system to track their movement and determine when hydras they were in a sleep-like state. 

The hydras displayed four-hour cycles of active and sleep-like states. The researchers uncovered many aspects of sleep regulation that were similar to that of animals who do possess a brain on a molecular and genetic level.

Melatonin moderately increased the amount and frequency of sleep among hydras, while the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA greatly increased sleeping activity.

When the hydras were exposed to dopamine, they also slept more. In humans and other animals, dopamine typically causes arousal. "While some sleep mechanisms appear to have been conserved, others may have switched function during evolution of the brain," explained Professor Itoh.

The researchers used vibrations and temperature changes to disturb the hydras' sleep and induce signs of sleep deprivation. This caused the hydras to sleep longer during the following day and even suppressed cell proliferation.

Upon further analysis, the experts found that sleep deprivation led to changes in the expression of 212 genes. One of these genes in particular is related to PRKG, a protein involved in sleep regulation in a wide range of animals.

"Taken all together, these experiments provide strong evidence that animals acquired sleep-related mechanisms before the evolutional development of the central nervous system and that many of these mechanisms were conserved as brains evolved," said Professor Itoh.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Animals needed sleep before they even had brains

While it is known that sleep is critical for healthy...

Why have crocodiles changed so little over the last 200 million years? Crocodiles today look very similar to those that lived during the Jurassic period alongside the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/when-the-dinosaurs-vanished-forests-expanded-and-thrived/">dinosaurs</a>, and they have also not diversified much since that time. 

In a new study from the University of Bristol, scientists have determined that a "stop-start" pattern of evolution, governed by environmental change, may explain why crocodiles have changed so little over millions of years. 

There are only 25 species of crocodiles alive today. Other animals, like birds and lizards, have branched off into thousands of species in the same time frame. 

The researchers pointed out that there were also types of ancient crocodiles that vanished, including giants as big as dinosaurs, plant-eaters, fast runners, and serpentine forms that lived in the sea. 

In their study, the scientists explain how crocodiles follow a pattern of evolution known as "punctuated equilibrium." This means that they evolve slowly, but this rate picks up speed occasionally due to environmental changes.

In particular, the researchers found that the evolution of crocodiles is accelerated in a warmer climate, and their body size increases. 

"Our analysis used a machine learning algorithm to estimate rates of evolution. Evolutionary rate is the amount of change that has taken place over a given amount of time, which we can work out by comparing measurements from fossils and taking into account how old they are," said study lead author Dr. Max Stockdale.

"For our study we measured body size, which is important because it interacts with how fast animals grow, how much food they need, how big their populations are and how likely they are to become extinct."

The findings show that a slow rate of evolution is responsible for the limited diversity of crocodiles. It seems that the crocodiles arrived at a body plan that was very efficient and versatile enough that they did not need to change it in order to survive.

Such versatility could explained how crocodiles survived the meteor impact and subsequent environmental changes that killed the dinosaurs. 

Crocodiles cannot control their body temperature and require warmth from the environment. The climate during the Jurassic period was warmer than it is today, which likely supported the diverse types of crocs that no longer exist. 

"It is fascinating to see how intricate a relationship exists between the Earth and the living things we share it with," said Dr. Stockdale. "The crocodiles landed upon a lifestyle that was versatile enough to adapt to the enormous environmental changes that have taken place since the dinosaurs were around."

Next, the Bristol team will investigate why some types of prehistoric crocodile died out, while others persisted.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsbio">Communications Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Crocodiles have not changed much in 200 million years

Why have crocodiles changed so little over the last 200...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://iiasa.ac.at/">International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis</a>, human activities are transforming grasslands from a natural carbon sink into a source of greenhouse gas emissions. The researchers describe how grasslands used by humans have changed our <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mangrove-forests-in-oman-were-wiped-out-by-climate-change/">climate</a> over the last centuries.

Grasslands absorb and release carbon dioxide (CO2), and emit methane (CH4) from grazing livestock. They also emit nitrous oxide (N2O) from soils, and these emissions increase when manure or mineral fertilizers are introduced. 

Despite their significance, however, little is known about how the fluxes of these three greenhouse gases have contributed to climate change in the past. The researchers also wanted to compare the gas cycling and climate effects of managed pastures to that of natural grasslands.

To investigate, the experts quantified the changes in carbon storage and greenhouse gas fluxes in natural and managed grasslands between 1750 and 2012. 

The findings illustrate the important climate cooling service provided by sparsely grazed areas, as well as the growing contribution to climate warming from continuously grazed areas. These intensively exploited grasslands are associated with more CH4 and N2O emissions.

"We built and applied a new spatially explicit global grassland model that includes mechanisms of soil organic matter and plant productivity changes driven by historical shifts in livestock and the reduction of wild grazers in each region," said study lead author Jinfeng Chang. "This model is one of the first to simulate the regional details of land use change and degradation from livestock overload."

"We also looked at the effect of fires, and soil carbon losses by water erosion; CH4 emissions from animals; N2O emissions from animal excrement, manure, and mineral fertilizer applications; and atmospheric nitrogen deposition."

The study revealed that CH4 and N2O emissions from grasslands increased by a factor of 2.5 since 1750. This is due to higher emissions from livestock that have more than compensated for reduced emissions from the shrinking number of wild grazers. 

The ability of grasslands to absorb carbon has grown over the last century over sparsely grazed and natural grasslands, but these gains are outweighed by emissions from managed pastures. Over the last decade, grasslands intensively managed by humans have become a net source of greenhouse gas emissions.

"Our results show that the different human activities that have affected grasslands have shifted the balance of greenhouse gas removals and emissions more towards warming in intensively exploited pastures, and more towards cooling in natural and semi-natural systems," explained study co-author Thomas Gasser. "Coincidently, until recently the two types of grasslands have almost been canceling each other out."

"However, the recent trends we see towards the expansion of pasture land and higher livestock numbers lead us to expect that global grasslands will accelerate climate warming if better policies are not put in place to favor soil carbon increases, stop deforestation for ranching, and develop climate-smart livestock production systems."

"In the context of low-warming climate targets, the mitigating or amplifying role of grasslands will depend on a number of aspects," concluded study co-author Philippe Ciais. "This includes future changes in grass-fed livestock numbers; the stability of accumulated soil carbon in grasslands; and whether carbon storage can be further increased over time or if it will saturate, as observed in long-term experiments."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Grasslands are turning into a source of harmful emissions

According to a new study led by the International Institute...

Scientists at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">CU Boulder</a> have discovered that cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, may have a lot in common with organisms that fundamentally transformed the planet billions of years ago. 

Cyanobacteria are single-celled, photosynthetic organisms that can be found in almost any large body of water today. More than two billion years ago, these microscopic organisms played a major role in the history of life on Earth during a period known as the Great Oxidation Event. At this time, cyanobacteria generated a major surge in oxygen throughout the shallow ocean.

"We see this total shift in the chemistry of the oceans and the atmosphere, which changed the evolution of life, as well," said study lead author Sarah Hurley. "Today, all higher animals need oxygen to survive."

It remains a mystery to scientists what cyanobacteria looked like, where they lived, or what triggered them to suddenly and dramatically oxygenate the ocean. 

But now, Hurley and her colleagues have begun to unravel this mystery. After analyzing studies of naturally-occurring and genetically-engineered cyanobacteria, the researchers propose that these ancient microbes may have floated freely in an open ocean and resembled a modern form of life called beta-cyanobacteria.

According to the researchers, studying these ancient microorganisms offers a window into a time when single-celled organisms ruled the Earth.

"This research gave us the unique opportunity to form and test hypotheses of what the ancient Earth might have looked like, and what these ancient organisms could have been," said study co-author Professor Jeffrey Cameron.

Hurley noted that cyanobacteria currently produce about a quarter of the oxygen that comes from the world's oceans.

"We think that cyanobacteria were around billions of years ago," said Hurley. "Now, we can get at what they were doing and where they were living at that time because we have a record of their metabolism."

The team studied two different types of cyanobacteria, including beta-cyanobacteria, which are common in the oceans today. The researchers also attempted to bring an ancient cyanobacterium back from the dead. 

"We had the ability to do what was essentially a physiological resurrection in the lab," said study co-author Professor Boswell Wing.

When the researchers studied the metabolism of their cultures, they found something surprising. The zombie cyanobacterium did not seem to produce a chemical signature that aligned with the carbon isotope signatures that scientists had previously seen in the rock record. It turned out that the best fit for those ancient signatures were the beta-cyanobacteria the are still alive today. 

In other words, the team may have just stumbled on a living fossil that was hiding in plain sight. 

"That modern organisms could resemble these ancient cyanobacteria - that was really counterintuitive," said Professor Wing.

According to the researchers, the study now provides scientists with a much better idea of what ancient cyanobacteria looked like and where they lived. This means they can begin running experiments to dig deeper into what life was like in the two billion-year-old ocean.

"Here is hard evidence from the geological record and a model organism that can shed new light on life on ancient Earth," said Professor Cameron.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cyanobacteria may shed new light on the history of life on Earth

Scientists at CU Boulder have discovered that cyanobacteria, also known...

Over most of the last decade, sea star populations worldwide have been nearly wiped out by a mysterious ailment known as sea star wasting disease. Some starfish species may have suffered irreversible losses, and are now threatened with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-oak-tree-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/">extinction</a>.

In a new study led by <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>, researchers have found evidence to suggest that the victims of sea star wasting disease (SSWD) may actually be in respiratory distress. The experts report that afflicted starfish appear to be literally "drowning" in their own environment due to a heat-related increase in microbial activity that deprives the creatures of their ability to breathe.

"As humans, we breathe, we ventilate, we bring air into our lungs and we exhale," said study co-author Professor Ian Hewson. "Sea stars diffuse oxygen over their outer surface through little structures called papulae, or skin gills. If there is not enough oxygen surrounding the papulae, the starfish can't breathe."

According to Professor Hewson, warmer ocean conditions lead to the production of unusual amounts of organic material, which he said prompts bacteria to thrive. The bacteria deplete oxygen in the water as they consume the organic matter. This creates a low-oxygen environment that causes the starfish "wasting" characterized by deflation, discoloration, puffiness, and limb twisting.

"It's a cascade of problems that starts with changes in the environment," said Professor Hewson, noting that most of the organic matter comes from microscopic algae discharge, zooplankton excretion, and from decaying animal carcasses. He explained that this stimulates a group of bacteria called copiotrophs, which survive on carbon and rapidly consume organic matter.

The copiotrophs respire, so while absorbing the organic matter, they deplete oxygen in the sea star's watery space, explained Professor Hewson.

"It's organic matter concentrations in the water. If you have a dead and rotting starfish next to starfish that are healthy, all of that dead one's organic matter drifts and fuels the bacteria, creating a hypoxic environment. It looks like disease is being transmitted."

"This reframes the discussion about marine disease ecology, which has focused on pathogenic disease. We should now include microorganisms that don't directly cause the pathology, since they may hold a key to affecting sea star health."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/microbiology">Frontiers in Microbiology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sea stars are drowning in their own environment

Over most of the last decade, sea star populations worldwide...

The westerly winds have an effect on the weather and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mangrove-forests-in-oman-were-wiped-out-by-climate-change/">climate</a> both locally and globally. These winds influence precipitation patterns, ocean circulation, and tropical cyclones. For this reason, it is critical for scientists to gain a better understanding of how the westerly winds may be altered by climate change.

The westerlies typically blow from west to east across the middle latitudes, but experts have noticed in recent decades that these winds have begun migrating toward the poles. While research suggests that this shift is caused by climate change, scientists have debated whether the winds will continue to migrate as atmospheric CO2 and temperatures rise. 

Prior to this study, little was known about the behavior of the westerly winds during past warm climates. Experts at Columbia University's Earth Institute have developed a method to track the history of the winds, which will provide clues as to what will happen in today's warming world. The researchers found evidence to suggest that atmospheric circulation patterns will change with climate warming.

The experts used dust in deep sea sediments to reconstruct wind patterns that occurred three to five million years ago. The sediment cores examined for the study were from the North Pacific Ocean, which is downwind from Eastern Asia, one of the largest dust sources for the past several million years. 

By measuring the dust in cores from two different sites that were thousands of kilometers apart, the researchers were able to map changes in dust and in the westerly winds.

"We could immediately see the patterns. The data are so clear. Our work is consistent with modern observations, and suggests that wind patterns will change with climate warming," said study lead author Jordan Abell.

During the warm spells of the Pliocene three to five million years ago, the Earth was about two to four degrees Celsius warmer than it is today, yet had approximately the same concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. The study revealed that, at this time in history, the westerly winds were located closer towards the poles than during the colder intervals afterwards.

"By using the Pliocene as an analogue for modern global warming, it seems likely that the movement of the westerlies towards the poles observed in the modern era will continue with further human-induced warming," explained study co-author Gisela Winckler.

Storm systems and precipitation patterns will be enormously impacted by the movement of these winds. Although the research does not indicate exactly which regions of the world will be affected most in the coming decades, it confirms that the wind and precipitation patterns will change with climate warming.

"In the Earth history record, tracking down movements of wind and how they've changed, that's been elusive because we didn't have a tracer for it," said Winckler. "Now we do."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

 ---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The westerly winds are changing, and the consequences are unknown

The westerly winds have an effect on the weather and...

Children with self-control are more likely to grow up to be healthier <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/many-young-adults-do-not-know-common-stroke-symptoms/">adults</a> with younger brains and bodies, according to a new study from <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a>. The researchers tracked 1,000 individuals from birth to age 45 and found that people who had higher levels of self-control as children were aging more slowly than their peers. 

Self-control is the ability to control one's own emotions and behaviors, even when faced with difficult situations. Interviews with the study participants indicated that those in the higher self-control group were better equipped to handle health, financial, and social challenges later in life. 

Furthermore, individuals who had more self control in childhood expressed more positive views of aging and felt more satisfied with life in middle age.

"Our population is growing older, and living longer with age-related diseases," said study first author Professor Leah Richmond-Rakerd. "It's important to identify ways to help individuals prepare successfully for later-life challenges, and live more years free of disability. We found that self-control in early life may help set people up for healthy aging."

The researchers emphasized that childhood is not destiny, and that some study participants had shifted their self-control levels as adults and had better health outcomes than their childhood assessments would have predicted.

Self-control can be taught, and the experts propose that a societal investment in such training could improve life span and quality of life, not only in childhood, but also perhaps in midlife. A growing collection of evidence suggests that changing behaviors in midlife, such as quitting smoking or taking up exercise, can lead to improved outcomes.

"Everyone fears an old age that's sickly, poor, and lonely, so aging well requires us to get prepared, physically, financially, and socially," said study co-author Professor Terrie Moffitt. "We found people who have used self-control since childhood are far more prepared for aging than their same-age peers."

The Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study, based in New Zealand, has tracked the individuals since they were born in 1972 and 1973. The participants were assessed using a variety of psychological and health assessments at regular intervals, most recently at age 45.

Childhood self-control was assessed by teachers, parents, and the children themselves from the ages of three to 11. The experts measured factors such as impulsive aggression, over-activity, perseverance, and inattention.

From ages 26 to 45, the participants were measured for physiological signs of aging in several organ systems, including the brain. Across all of these measures, higher self-control in childhood was associated with slower aging. In addition, the people with the highest self-control were found to walk faster and have younger-looking faces at age 45.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Self-control in childhood linked to slower aging

Children with self-control are more likely to grow up to...

About 6,000 years ago, most of the mangrove forests on the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/toxic-algal-blooms-will-become-more-frequent-off-the-u-s-west-coast/">coast</a> of Oman mysteriously vanished. A new study from the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/the-university">University of Bonn</a> suggests that the collapse of these coastal ecosystems was caused by climatic changes.

The experts report that the mangroves went extinct at an extremely fast rate, and most of the forests were lost within a few decades. The researchers found no evidence that falling sea levels or human disturbances contributed to the extinctions. 

Mangrove forests grow in coastal areas that are under water at high tide, yet dry at low tide. They depend on a warm climate, and most species need sea surface temperatures of at least 75 degrees Fahrenheit. Mangroves are also sensitive to water salinity, and their tolerance limit varies among species. 

"This is why we find them nowadays mostly in regions where enough rain falls to reduce salinization of the soil," explained study lead author Valeska Decker, an expert at the Institute for Geosciences at Bonn.

Fossil remains show that there were once many mangrove lagoons on the coast of Oman that mostly disappeared. Over the past few years, Decker has compiled numerous geochemical, sedimentological, and archaeological findings into an overall picture. "From our point of view, everything suggests that the collapse of these ecosystems has climatic reasons."

Just over 6,000 years ago, a low-pressure trough known as the Intertropical Convergence Zone moved to the south, but it is not entirely clear why and how fast the zone shifted. 

"That this was the case has been well documented for several years," explained Decker. "Our results now indicate that this climate change had two effects: On the one hand, it caused salinization of the soil, which put the mangroves under extreme stress. On the other hand, the vegetation cover in the affected areas decreased in general due to the greater drought." 

As erosion increased, the wind carried large amounts of barren soil into the lagoons that dried up the mangrove forests. According to Decker, the ecosystems probably disappeared within a few decades.

Previous studies suggest that the environmental changes were gradual, and the mangrove forests struggled up until a certain threshold was reached and then collapsed very quickly. Today, mangroves are only found in a few places in Oman.

"Archaeological findings also speak against a man-made ecological catastrophe. It is true that there were humans living in the coastal regions who used the mangroves as firewood. However, they were nomads who did not build permanent settlements. This meant that their need for wood was relatively low - low enough to rule out overuse as a cause."

Decker and her colleagues plan to investigate further, and their findings could be particularly relevant today as the climate is changing in many regions of the world at a very rapid pace. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/quaternary-research">Quaternary Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mangrove forests in Oman were wiped out by climate change

About 6,000 years ago, most of the mangrove forests on...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">UC Boulder</a> have investigated the air quality of gyms, specifically focusing on the impacts of high bodily <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/long-term-emissions-cuts-are-needed-to-slow-ocean-acidification/">emissions</a> during workouts, which are intensified by chemical reactions with cleaners. The experts report that one exercising individual emits as many chemicals from their body as up to five sedentary people.

The study shows that human emissions, including amino acids from sweat or acetone from breath, react with bleach cleaners to form new airborne chemicals with unknown impacts to indoor air quality.

"Humans are a large source of indoor emissions," said study lead author and CIRES research scientist Zachary Finewax. "And chemicals in indoor air, whether from our bodies or cleaning products, don't just disappear, they linger and travel around spaces like gyms, reacting with other chemicals."

In 2018, the CU Boulder team set up equipment to sample air quality in a weight room in the Dal Ward Athletic Center, a campus facility for university student athletes. The instruments measured a range of airborne chemicals before, during, and after athletic workouts. 

The analysis revealed that the athletes' bodies produced 3 to 5 times the emissions during a workout compared to when they were at rest.

"Using our state-of-the-art equipment, this was the first time indoor air analysis in a gym was done with this high level of sophistication. We were able to capture emissions in real time to see exactly how many chemicals the athletes were emitting, and at what rate," said study co-author Demetrios Pagonis.

Many gym facilities use chlorine bleach-based products to sanitize equipment on a frequent basis. When the cleaning products combine with emissions from sweat, they create a new cocktail of chemicals.

The researchers found that chemicals called N-chloraldimines were produced in the gym air from the mixing of bleach products and amino acids. This means that chlorine from bleach cleaner sprayed onto equipment was reacting with the amino acids released from sweating bodies, explained the study authors.

Further research is needed to determine the specific impacts that these compounds may have on indoor air quality. Compounds that are chemically similar, which form from the reaction of ammonia mixing with bleach, are known to be harmful to human health.

"Since people spend about 90 percent of our time indoors, it's critical we understand how chemicals behave in the spaces we occupy," said study co-author Professor Joost de Gouw. 

While all of the data was collected for this study prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the experts say that a modern gym with low occupancy and good ventilation may still be relatively safe for a workout, especially if masks are used.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/16000668">Indoor Air</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gym air quality is impacted by reactions of sweat and bleach

Researchers at UC Boulder have investigated the air quality of...

Nitrogen is considered to be the most essential nutrient for <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-develop-resistance-to-potentially-deadly-pathogens/">plant</a> growth. In a new study focused on the small flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana, scientists have discovered that plants have a strategy for finding their preferred nutrients by adjusting their root growth.

Plants including maize, beans, and Arabidopsis prefer nitrogen in the form of nitrate, and grow better on soil that is rich in nitrate. Other plants, such as rice, prefer nitrogen in the form of ammonium. If the type of nitrogen that is available in the soil fluctuates, plants have to adjust as quickly as possible to achieve optimal growth. 

Study co-author Professor Eva Benková is a developmental biologist and a professor at the <a href="https://ist.ac.at/en/home/">Institute of Science and Technology (IST) Austria</a>. She explained that one of the most important questions is understanding the role of plant hormones in adaptation to the nitrogen availability. "How do the machineries within a plant cope with their changing environment?" 

To investigate, the researchers compared how Arabidopsis seedlings that were grown exclusively on ammonium reacted once they were transferred to soil containing either ammonium or nitrate.

When living in suboptimal soil, a plant will try to maintain its root growth as long as possible to reach a more suitable form of nitrogen. The processes used to maintain the root growth are the cell proliferation in the meristem, a plant tissue consisting of undifferentiated cells, and the cell expansion. A plant must strike a good balance between these two processes for healthy growth.

The study revealed that when Arabidopsis was provided with ammonium, its less preferred form of nitrogen, the meristem produced fewer cells. Instead, the cells very quickly expanded and elongated.  

"Once we moved the plants to the nitrate, suddenly the meristem became bigger, more cells were produced and there was a different kinetics in cell expansion," explained Professor Benková. "Now Arabidopsis could afford to put more energy into cell division and optimized its root growth differently."

A plant hormone called auxin determines whether a plant will invest more energy in cell proliferation or cell elongation. Auxin, which is essential for all developmental processes, is transported in a very controlled way from one cell to the next.

Species proteins known as efflux carriers control the transport of auxin out of the cells. These proteins regulate the flow of auxin depending on where they are located within the cell.

Professor Benková and her team were particularly interested in the auxin transporter PIN2, which mediates the flow of auxin at the very tip of the root. The researchers determined that PIN2 primarily controls the balance between cell division and cell elongation. "We observed that once we moved plants onto the nitrate, the localization of PIN2 changes. Thereby, it changes the distribution of auxin."

The study also revealed that the behavior of PIN2 is influenced by its phosphorylation status. "What really surprised us was that one modification, the phosphorylation of such a big protein like an efflux carrier, can have such an important impact on the root behavior," noted Professor Benková. 

Phosphorylation targets an amino acid of PIN2 that is present in many different plant species, which indicates that PIN2 could be universally involved in plant adaption strategies to changing nitrogen sources. Next, the researchers will investigate the mechanisms which control the change of the phosphorylation status.

The study is published in <a href="https://www.embopress.org/journal/14602075">The EMBO Journal</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants adjust roots to reach their preferred form of nitrogen

Nitrogen is considered to be the most essential nutrient for...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

News coming your way