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Scientists have long mapped separate brain areas for sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. Yet new research reveals that when we focus sharply on any of those senses, signals converge on the same two structures buried deep in the brain - the midbrain reticular formation and the central thalamus.



This finding highlights a shared neural pathway that sustains <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-stops-paying-attention-to-repeated-distractions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attention</a> and wakefulness and could inspire therapies for coma, epilepsy, and attention-deficit disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-senses-in-a-single-brain-region">Senses in a single brain region</h2>



Research over the past century has shown that visual scenes activate the occipital cortex, melodies light up the temporal lobes, and so forth.



“We were expecting to find activity on shared networks, but when we saw all the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-sense-of-smell-and-different-odors-can-influence-how-we-see-colors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">senses</a> light up the same central brain regions while a test subject was focusing, it was really astonishing,” said Aya Khalaf, a postdoctoral associate in neurology at <a href="https://medicine.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale School of Medicine</a> and lead author of the study.



Those two regions - the reticular formation, a mesh of neurons in the upper brainstem, and the intralaminar and mediodorsal nuclei of the thalamus - form part of the so-called subcortical arousal system, a set of circuits long suspected to regulate alertness and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consciousness-may-stem-from-unseen-dimensions-beyond-our-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consciousness</a>.



Previous work had linked these hubs to vigilance by studying patients emerging from coma or experiencing absence seizures. But most of those experiments examined responses to a single type of stimulus, for example flashing lights or chirping sounds.



Khalaf and colleagues asked the broader question: do different senses share the same arousal circuitry when people deliberately pay attention?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-massive-data-mine">A massive data mine</h2>



To answer that, the team turned to the publicly available <a href="https://www.humanconnectome.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human Connectome Project</a> and other repositories, assembling functional MRI scans from 1,561 healthy adults.



Across 11 tasks, participants viewed moving shapes, listened to spoken stories, sampled liquid tastants, or felt puffs of air on their fingertips. Each task included abrupt cues that forced subjects to switch attention - for instance, a sudden change in picture orientation or a surprise tone embedded in white noise.



The investigators processed more than 500 hours of scan data through a pipeline that removed head motion and physiological noise, then aligned brain volumes to a common atlas.



In every sensory domain, when a cue demanded rapid attentional re-orientation, blood-oxygen signals spiked in the reticular formation and the central thalamus. The effect was absent or minimal during passive stimulation, underscoring the importance of active engagement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consciousness-in-the-brain">Consciousness in the brain</h2>



Why would a taste test and a vision task end up at the same neural address? The authors propose that the midbrain reticular formation integrates sudden sensory changes and broadcasts a “wake-up” volley to the thalamus, which relays it to widespread cortical areas.



That burst synchronizes cortical rhythms, priming the brain to process incoming information. The scheme dovetails with classical animal studies showing that electrical stimulation of the reticular formation induces cortical desynchronization and behavioral arousal, while lesions produce stupor.



“It tells us how important this brain region is and what it could mean in efforts to restore consciousness,” Khalaf said.



“This has also given us insights into how things work normally in the brain. It’s really a step forward in our understanding of awareness and consciousness,” said senior author Hal Blumenfeld, a neurologist at Yale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-awakening-senses-in-the-brain">Awakening senses in the brain</h2>



Because the same deep-brain hubs fire regardless of which sense is active, treatments aimed at modulating those hubs could benefit diverse conditions.



Drugs that enhance thalamic neurotransmission, for instance, might improve focus in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autism-and-adhd-disorders-directly-linked-amount-of-time-kids-spend-on-screens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a>. Conversely, overactivity in the arousal circuit has been implicated in insomnia; dampening the circuitry could help induce sleep.



The results also support ongoing trials that deliver low-intensity ultrasound or deep-brain electrodes to the central thalamus in patients with disorders of consciousness. 



If attention triggers the thalamus to “switch on” the cortex, stimulating it directly might help rouse patients who are minimally conscious.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-sensory-rehabilitation"><a></a>Rethinking sensory rehabilitation</h2>



The discovery challenges sensory-specific training programs that ignore subcortical commonalities. 



For example, visual rehabilitation for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stroke-risk-is-elevated-by-air-pollution-and-traffic-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stroke</a> survivors may benefit from pairing attentional cues with tactile or auditory tasks to engage the shared arousal pathway.



Likewise, virtual-reality therapies that bombard users with multi-sensory surprises might more effectively sharpen attentional control.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The Yale team plans to refine the timeline of activation using magnetoencephalography, which offers millisecond resolution. They also hope to dissect the frequency bands that link the thalamus to frontal and parietal cortices during attentional jumps. 



Such work could reveal whether gamma-band bursts or alpha-band suppression carry the critical “wake-up” message.



Another frontier involves patients. Investigators will compare responses in healthy volunteers with those in people who have attention deficits or who are emerging from anaesthesia. 



Identifying a lost or delayed thalamic spike could serve as a biomarker for impaired consciousness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-regions-and-the-senses">Brain regions and the senses</h2>



For now, the study establishes the midbrain reticular formation and central thalamus as the universal relay through which sight, sound, taste, and touch gain conscious entry - at least when our minds snap to attention.



By showing that “all the senses light up the same central brain regions,” it confirms that consciousness depends not only on specialized cortical maps but also on a common deep-brain gatekeeper. 



Therapies that target this gatekeeper may eventually help restore awareness where it has dimmed and sharpen it where it wanders.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811925002277?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NeuroImage</a>.



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Scientists discover a brain region that connects all the senses

Scientists have long mapped separate brain areas for sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. Yet new research reveals that when we focus sharply on any of those senses, signals converge on the same two structures buried deep in the brain - the midbrain reticular formation and the central thalamus. This finding highlights a shared neural pathway that sustains attention and wakefulness and could inspire therapies for coma, epilepsy, and attention-deficit disorders. Senses in a single brain region Research over the past century has shown that visual scenes...

In a new report from <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics">JAMA Pediatrics</a>, experts describe how the coronavirus is affecting children. Study co-authors Dr. Lindsay A. Thompson and Dr. Sonja A. Rasmussen also explain what parents can do to help keep their children safe as the pandemic persists.

While most children with COVID-19 have only mild symptoms or even no symptoms at all, others are becoming severely ill. There is a collection of evidence which shows that certain underlying conditions increase the risk for severe COVID-19 among children. These conditions include obesity, asthma, neurologic disorders, heart disease, and being immunocompromised, among others.

"As children get older, their risk of getting sick enough to be hospitalized is higher, although newborns and young infants are also at increased risk," wrote the researchers.

"Risk of death in children is far lower than in adults, but some children have died of COVID-19. Children who are Hispanic, Black, or American Indian or Alaska native are at higher risk for severe disease and death."

"Children can get COVID-19 from family members and other close contacts such as friends and teachers at school and from sports activities." 

In some rare cases, kids who have been infected with COVID-19 have developed a condition called multisystem inflammatory syndrome. "Children may develop this syndrome about 2 to 4 weeks after infection, and some of these children had no symptoms of COVID-19," explained the study authors.

"These children require hospitalization and many need complex supportive therapies to help respond to what seems to be the body’s strong response to being infected with the virus. Some children with this condition have died."

According to the researchers, the most important way to prevent COVID-19 is to avoid getting infected. 

"All family members should follow important recommendations. First, practice the 3 W’s: (1) watch your distance, keeping at least 6-ft distance between you and others; (2) wear a cloth mask when out of your house; and (3) wash your hands often with soap and water for more than 20 seconds, avoiding touching your eyes, nose, and mouth with unwashed hands."

"Second, avoid the 3 C’s: (1) closed spaces with poor ventilation; (2) crowded places with many people nearby; and (3) close-contact settings, such as close-range conversations."

The experts emphasized that getting flu shots for children older than 6 months is more important than ever this year. In addition, they said parents must find ways to balance their children’s needs to stay safe with their needs to learn and socialize with peers. 

"Parents should consult their school system and health department for the best information on local spread of COVID-19, area rules and recommendations, and school procedures. We want to keep children safe and learning while minimizing risks to themselves, their friends, family members, including grandparents, and other vulnerable members of society."

The <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC) recommends talking with children about the COVID-19 outbreak to help minimize their stress.

"Reassure your child that they are safe. Let them know it is okay if they feel upset. Share with them how you deal with your own stress so that they can learn from you how to cope with stress."

The CDC advises parents to limit their family's exposure to news coverage of the event, including social media. "Children may misinterpret what they hear and can be frightened about something they do not understand."

The experts also recommend keeping up with regular routines, sleeping and eating well, and spending time with your child in meaningful activities like exercising, reading together, and playing board games.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics">JAMA Pediatrics</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How is COVID-19 affecting children?

In a new report from JAMA Pediatrics, experts describe how...

A new study from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> has produced a potential solution to the issue of black pod disease among cacao trees. The researchers found high levels of the antimicrobial compound clovamide in the leaves of a disease-resistant strain of cacao, which could ultimately help in breeding <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tropical-trees-do-not-live-as-long-in-hotter-temperatures/">trees</a> with immunity to black pod rot.

The discovery is significant because this fungal disease is a serious problem in all areas of the world where cacao is grown, explained study co-author Professor Mark Guiltinan.

"This is the first time that clovamide has been implicated in cacao resistance to pathogens, and the innovative method we used to measure the compound in the leaves could have a major impact in the quest to develop highly productive, disease-resistant varieties of cacao," said Professor Guiltinan. "But these results may have consequences for advancing disease resistance in other plant species, as well."

The study was focused on a cacao variety known as Scavina 6, which is tolerant of the fungus that causes black pod rot. The leaves of this particular cacao strain were found to accumulate high levels of clovamide and several other metabolites that are known to be involved in responses to stress.

Compared to a susceptible cacao strain, Imperial College Selection 1, concentrations of clovamide were up to 58 times higher than in Scavina 6 leaf extracts.

"These results pointed to clovamide as a potential contributor to disease resistance, and laboratory tests supported this hunch," said Professor Guiltinan.

Lab tests confirmed that the compound inhibits the growth of three pathogens of cacao in the Phytophthora genus. In one experiment, clovamide inhibited the activity of the enzymes proteinase and pectinase, which are known to break down plant cell walls. 

According to the researchers, their study indicates that clovamide prevents the pathogen's ability to break down cell walls while killing and digesting plant tissue.

Study lead author Ben Knollenberg said the findings promise to enhance plant-breeding efforts to develop highly productive varieties of cacao that can withstand the onset of black pod rot. He explained that the method used in this study to measure clovamide levels in leaves could greatly streamline and condense the breeding process.

"The Scavina 6 strain has been utilized as a parent in cacao-breeding programs for decades, but it hasn't been clear why it's resistant to black pod rot, which makes breeding for resistance difficult," said Knollenberg. 

"Breeders cross Scavina 6 with higher-yielding varieties, for example, and they get a bunch of seeds or offspring, which may or may not have inherited the disease resistance. Evaluating the disease resistance of this new generation of trees requires years of growth and measurements in field trials, which requires land, labor and money."

If breeders can screen for leaf clovamide content when the trees are just seedlings in the greenhouse, they can eliminate trees that lack the trait before transplanting the seedlings to the field, said Knollenberg. 

"We think this will accelerate breeding and make it more efficient so that breeders can develop resistant varieties more quickly. For example, instead of growing 1,000 trees to evaluate resistance, with the ability to measure the relative abundance of clovamide in the leaf tissues, they could grow just the 100 highest-clovamide trees instead."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science">Frontiers in Plant Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists identify a compound that protects cacao trees from disease

A new study from Penn State has produced a potential...

Pathogens like <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-work-better-together-to-improve-crops/">bacteria</a> and viruses do not affect all plants in the same way. The ability of a species to resist nonadapted pathogens, also known as nonhost resistance, is an important plant defense strategy that remains elusive.

The plant pathogen Phytophthora infestans is best known for causing late blight disease, which was responsible for the Irish potato famine. However, despite being the world's most destructive and costly potato pathogen, P. infestans has no effect on other plants like cucumbers and apples.

There are also many examples of plants that are susceptible to one pathogen but able to resist another closely related strain. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.apsnet.org/">American Phytopathological Society</a>, scientists are working to gain a better understanding of the plant immune system, including the mechanism that provides nonhost resistance, in order to improve crop resilience.

Pathogens are a constant threat to agriculture, limiting where crops can be grown and how productive they can become. Experts have reduced the impacts of many diseases through the development of pesticides, farming practices, and breeding techniques. However, globalization and human development are increasingly facilitating the spread of pathogens into new environments. 

"The field of nonhost resistance sets out to identify novel ways to engineer resistance to these plant pathogens, guided by approaches that already exist in nature," explained study co-author Matthew Moscou. 

"This question is fundamental to understanding why some plants get infected by a particular pathogen and others don't, and, vice versa, why a given pathogen can only successfully colonize a limited number of plant species, which collectively form its host range."

Scientists have learned that nonhost resistance is a feature controlled by many genes. Physical barriers, such as the plant cuticle, are often key factors in nonhost resistance, as well as the secretion of antimicrobial molecules.

"While the contribution of microbial commensals (microbes that naturally inhabit plant organs without causing any harm) to plant immunity has emerged during the past few years, their explicit role in nonhost resistance has not been demonstrated yet," said study co-author Ralph Panstruga.

"Our knowledge on nonhost resistance largely relies on findings obtained in a handful of (model) angiosperm plant species that are genetically very tractable. We do not know yet to what extent these insights can be generalized, especially with respect to non-angiosperms."

Recent technological advances, including DNA sequencing methods, will make it easier for scientists to learn more about nonhost resistance.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.apsnet.org/PUBLICATIONS/MPMI">Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How do plants develop resistance to potentially deadly pathogens?

Pathogens like bacteria and viruses do not affect all plants...

A new study from the <a href="https://mipt.ru/english/">Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology</a> (MIPT) suggests that rapid Arctic warming is linked to a series of great earthquakes. Greenhouse gas emissions associated with human activities are driving temperatures up on a global scale, but this does not explain abrupt <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/lake-levels-are-falling-as-temperatures-rise/">temperature</a> spikes that have been periodically observed in the Arctic. 

One of the main factors involved in Arctic warming is the release of methane from thawing permafrost. In the time since record-keeping began, the region has experienced two periods of abrupt warming: in the 1920s and 1930s, and then from 1980 to present day.

Study author Leopold Lobkovsky is a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the head of the MIPT Laboratory for Geophysical Research of the Arctic and Continental Margins of the World Ocean. In his report, Lobkovsky theorizes that unexplained temperature changes in the Arctic could have been triggered by geodynamic factors. In particular, he points to a series of great earthquakes in the Aleutian Arc, which is the closest seismically active area to the Arctic.

To test his theory, Lobkovsky first investigated whether the dates of the great earthquakes coincided with temperature spikes. Based on historical data, he found that the Aleutian Arc was the site of two series of earthquakes in the 20th century. Each of the events was followed by an abrupt rise in temperature about 15 to 20 years later.

Next, Lobkovsky needed to determine how the lithospheric disturbances may have spread over more than 1,240 miles from the Aleutian Islands to the Arctic shelf region.

A model of lithospheric excitation dynamics predicted that the propagation of so-called tectonic waves should travel at about 100 kilometers, or 62 miles, per year. This explains the delay between each earthquake series and the subsequent increase in Arctic temperatures 15 to 20 years later. 

Finally, Lobkovsky set out to understand how these disturbances may intensify methane emissions. He concluded that the deformation waves arriving in the shelf zone cause minor additional stresses in the lithosphere, which are sufficient to disrupt the internal structure of the permafrost. This releases heat-trapping methane into atmosphere, leading to local climate warming.

"There is a clear correlation between the great earthquakes in the Aleutian Arc and the phases of climate warming. A mechanism exists for physically transmitting the stresses in the lithosphere at the appropriate velocities. And these added stresses are capable of destroying metastable gas hydrates and permafrost, releasing methane."

"Each of the three components in this scheme is logical and lends itself to mathematical and physical explanation. Importantly, it explains a known fact - the abrupt rise in temperature anomalies in the Arctic - which remained unaccounted for by the previous models."

According to Lobkovsky, his model will benefit from discussion and will likely be improved, and further research is needed in order to confirm or rule out the link between seismic activity and abrupt Arctic warming.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/geosciences">Geosciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Arctic warming linked to earthquakes more than 1,200 miles away

A new study from the Moscow Institute of Physics and...

Tens of thousands of migratory birds that mysteriously dropped dead in the Southwest earlier this year apparently died of long-term starvation. According to the U.S. Geological Survey’s <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nwhc">National Wildlife Health Center</a>, most of the bird carcasses showed signs of starvation, including emaciation, severely shrunken breast muscles, empty stomachs, and kidney failure.

The USGS report suggests that a severe summer drought contributed to prolonged starvation among the birds. An unusual cold front followed the drought, and temperatures plummeted below freezing in early September.

The researchers said that the cold snap likely made things worse, causing the birds to become disoriented. Some were struck by vehicles, flew into buildings, or died from exposure to the cold weather. 

Although the experts could not identify a single, definitive cause of death, they were able to rule out disease and poisoning, according to the <a href="https://apnews.com/article/wildlife-health-wildlife-health-weather-new-mexico-0ec435b343f3285baa1a91e771c3f0b1">Associated Press</a>.

Many of the deaths may have also been tied to this year's devastating wildfire season. In September, Professor Martha Desmond of New Mexico State University speculated that the fires may have pushed some birds into early migrations that they were not physically prepared for, while others likely died from lung damage.  

“Birds who migrated before they were ready because of the weather might have not had enough fat to survive,” Professor Desmond told <a href="https://www.cnn.com/">CNN</a>. “Some birds might have not even had the reserves to start migrating so they died in place.”

The USGS team found no evidence of smoke poisoning in the birds. Regardless, Jon Hayes of the Audubon Society believes the fires played a role. 

“The birds could have been altering their migration path to avoid smoke plumes, thereby increasing the energy demand of their migration and causing exhaustion,” Hayes told Audubon Magazine. “The evidence they’ve shown regarding poor body condition could still fit that scenario, and so I think there’s still questions like the role of fire in particular.”

Many different types of migratory birds were found dead, including bluebirds, sparrows, blackbirds, flycatchers, and warblers. There were multiple reports by people who had witnessed strange behavior among birds leading up to the die-off. For example, birds that are typically seen foraging in shrubs or trees were observed chasing insects on the ground.

The first signs of the mortality event emerged on August 20, when about 200 dead birds were found at the White Sands Missile Range in southern New Mexico. Over the next few weeks, dead birds began turning up in alarming numbers across several states. 

In her interview with CNN, Professor Desmond said that many birds were lethargic and unresponsive, and were getting struck by cars in larger numbers than ever before. She added that at the missile range golf course, swallows were sitting on the ground letting people approach them.

Professor Desmond pointed to the role of climate change in this shocking mortality event. “We have lost three billion birds in the U.S. since 1970 and we’ve also seen a tremendous decline in insects, so an event like this is terrifying to these populations and it’s devastating to see.”

Experts warn that rising temperatures due to human-caused climate change will cause even more severe droughts in the Western United States. A recent study from Columbia University reports that the region is experiencing a 20-year megadrought that is on its way to becoming the worst in modern history. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Shocking bird mortality event was caused by long-term starvation

Tens of thousands of migratory birds that mysteriously dropped dead...

In the midst of chaos, it becomes more difficult for people with clinical anxiety and depression to make sound decisions. But these patients can dramatically improve their judgement by focusing on previous successes, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">UC Berkeley</a>.

The findings are particularly relevant during the ongoing <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/research-confirms-that-covid-19-enters-the-brain/">COVID-19</a> pandemic, when important decisions must be made on a daily basis to avoid illness. 

The researchers examined the probabilistic decision-making skills of more than 300 adults. Some of the participants had been diagnosed with major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder. In probabilistic decision making, people tend to subconsciously rely on the positive or negative results of their previous actions. 

Participants with overlapping symptoms of both anxiety and depression - such as obsessive worrying or a lack of motivation - were found to have the most trouble executing a computerized task that simulated a rapidly changing environment.

By contrast, individuals without significant symptoms of anxiety and depression learned more quickly to adjust to volatile conditions based on the actions they had previously taken.

"When everything keeps changing rapidly, and you get a bad outcome from a decision you make, you might fixate on what you did wrong, which is often the case with clinically anxious or depressed people," explained study senior author Professor Sonia Bishop. "Conversely, emotionally resilient people tend to focus on what gave them a good outcome, and in many real-world situations that might be key to learning to make good decisions."

However, this does not mean that people with clinical anxiety and depression are doomed to a life of bad decisions, said Professor Bishop. For example, individualized treatments, such as cognitive behavior therapy, could improve both decision-making skills and confidence by focusing on past successes, instead of failures, she noted.

The research expands on Professor Bishop's 2015 study, which found that people with high levels of anxiety made more mistakes when making decisions in both stable and rapidly changing environments. For the current study, the team looked at whether people with depression would also struggle with their judgement in volatile environments.

"We wanted to see if this weakness was unique to people with anxiety, or if it also presented in people with depression, which often goes hand in hand with anxiety," said Professor Bishop. "We also sought to find out if the problem was a general one or specific to learning about potential reward or potential threat."

A series of experiments revealed that having symptoms common to both anxiety and depression predicted who would struggle most with making sound decisions in the face of changing circumstances.

"We found that people who are emotionally resilient are good at latching on to the best course of action when the world is changing fast," said Professor Bishop. "People with anxiety and depression, on the other hand, are less able to adapt to these changes. Our results suggest they might benefit from cognitive therapies that redirect their attention to positive, rather than negative, outcomes."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Focus on the positive to make sound decisions during turbulent times

In the midst of chaos, it becomes more difficult for...

The restoration of oyster reefs could lead to enormous environmental benefits, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.hku.hk/">University of Hong Kong</a>. Restoring lost oyster reefs would help mitigate some of the destruction associated with coastal development, such as damage from storm surge and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-and-animals-evolve-faster-in-coldspots-than-in-biodiversity-hotspots/">biodiversity</a> loss.

Shellfish reefs were once abundant along the shoreline of Hong Kong. A number of stressors, including over-harvesting and pollution, has caused shellfish populations to drastically decline. 

"Globally, we have lost 85% of shellfish reefs, making it the most endangered marine habitat on earth," said study co-author Marine Thomas. "Most people associate oysters with food, but less well-known is that oysters create reef habitats that support coastal marine life. Only by restoring these lost habitats can we start to bring back some of the associated environmental benefits."

The experts report that just seven square meters of oyster reef can filter enough water to fill up an Olympic swimming pool each day. A single Hong Kong oyster can filter up to 30 liters of water per hour at summer temperatures. This is one of the highest filtration rates of any oyster species.

Oyster reefs also provide habitats for many native species that are otherwise lost. In a recent study from the Swire Institute of Marine Science (SWIMS), researchers found that these reefs house six times more species than bare shores. 

Out of more than 80 species that the team identified along the muddy shores in Deep Bay, 95 percent of them were found in oyster reefs, and almost 60 percent of those species were found exclusively in those reefs.

"A previous SWIMS study found that Hong Kong is home to approximately 6,000 marine species and 26% of all marine species in China. This new research adds to that list, as we've identified a small crab previously not seen in Hong Kong. This shows us just how understudied these ecosystems are," said Dr. Bayden D Russell.

Restored reefs also increase the production of commercially and recreationally valuable fish and crabs. According to the research, oysters could be naturally recruited in Hong Kong, which would eliminate the need for transplanting the shellfish from hatcheries. 

"We were excited to find high natural recruitment levels which suggests that oyster reef restoration is possible without hatchery intervention," said Dr. Russell. "We think that this recruitment is because traditional oyster farming in the Pearl River Delta has maintained populations of native oysters in the system in spite of the loss of oyster reefs and these farms could potentially act as a source of larvae."

Across ten different sites that were examined for the study, the team found that large oysters beyond a year old were very hard to find due to overharvesting.

"While we are excited by the biological feasibility of restoration, unfortunately the human aspect remains our biggest challenge to bring these habitats back at scale. Shellfish habitats are still severely under protected in Hong Kong, with very little public awareness of their ecological value," explained Thomas.

"Wild harvesting is a huge problem - as soon as oysters or mussels are big enough to eat, someone will harvest them. We are working with Government on gaining more protection and recognition for these important ecosystems and hope to include them in the next Hong Kong Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://laurentian.ca/program/restoration-biology">Restoration Biology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Restoring oyster reefs would produce major benefits

The restoration of oyster reefs could lead to enormous environmental...

In order for the body to fight off an <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/the-antidepressant-fluvoxamine-may-prevent-severe-covid-19-infection/">infection</a>, it must first become aware of an invading pathogen. A new study led by the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a> has revealed that the very first "danger" signals that are transmitted upon pathogen recognition can be traced to gut cells that line the intestines called enterocytes. 

The researchers found that when a host is first infected by the parasite Cryptosporidium, the gut cells trigger a series of reactions that alert the immune system. The enterocytes alert the body to danger through the molecular receptor NLRP6, which is a component of the inflammasome.

"You can think about the inflammasome as an alarm system in a house. It has various components - like a camera that watches the door, and sensors on the windows - and once triggered it amplifies those first signals to warn of danger and send a call for help," said study senior author Professor Boris Striepen.

"Cells have these different components as well, and now we've provided maybe the clearest example yet of how a particular receptor in the gut is acting as a sensor for an important intestinal infection."

Typically, researchers have focused on immune cells, like macrophages and dendritic cells, as being the first to detect foreign invaders, but this new finding underscores that cells not normally thought of as part of the immune system are playing key roles in how an immune response gets launched, explained Professor Striepen.

"There is a growing body of literature that is really appreciating what epithelial cells are doing to help the immune system sense pathogens," said study first author Adam Sateriale. "They seem to be a first line of defense against infection."

A team in Professor Striepen's lab has extensively studied Cryptosporidium, which is a leading cause of diarrheal disease that can be deadly in young children in resource-poor regions. Cryptosporidium also causes half of all water-borne disease outbreaks in the United States.

The current study was focused on a naturally occurring species of mouse Cryptosporidium that mimics human infection in many ways. The experts already knew that T cells help control the parasite in the later stages of infection, but they wanted to know more about the body's initial response.

Early infection with Cryptosporidium, as well as the intestinal inflammation that it causes, predisposes children to malnutrition and stunted growth. At the same time, children who are malnourished are more susceptible to infection. 

"That led us to think that maybe some of the danger-sensing mechanisms that can drive inflammation in the gut also play a role in the larger context of this infection," said Professor Striepen.

Using the mouse model, the research team took a closer look at the inflammasome and its impact on the course of infection. They removed a key component of the inflammasome, an enzyme called caspase-1. "It turns out that animals that are missing this had much higher levels of infection," said Sateriale.

Further analysis showed that mice lacking caspase-1 in their gut cells suffered infections as high as those lacking it completely, which demonstrates the critical role of the enterocytes.

The experts determined that out of various receptors, only the loss of the NLRP6 receptor compromised the body's ability to control the parasitic infection. The NLRP6 receptor was previously linked to maintaining the intestinal microbiome. 

To understand how triggering the intestinal inflammasome led to an effective response, the researchers looked at some of the signaling molecules, or cytokines, typically associated with inflammasome activation. They found that infection leads to release of IL-18, and animals that lacked this cytokine experienced more severe infection.

Next, the team plans to investigate the later stages of Cryptosporidium infection. "Now that we understand how infection is detected, we'd like to understand the mechanisms by which it is controlled," said Sateriale. "After the system senses a parasite, what is done to restrict their growth and kill them?"

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gut cells help launch the body's immune response

In order for the body to fight off an infection,...

Some bacteria can boost plant health and provide protection from pathogens. These microorganisms, known as plant-growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB), can be used to improve agricultural yields. 

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.apsnet.org/">American Phytopathological Society</a>, scientists have discovered that the benefits of PGPB can be increased when they are grouped together with other species of bacteria. 

Many PGPB form communities of cells called biofilms that help them stick to plant roots. The researchers set out to find other plant-associated bacteria that could help PGPB better adhere to plant roots. The goal was to investigate whether a larger number of PGPB cells attached to the roots could increase their beneficial effects.

The team identified multiple strains of bacteria that increased the adherence of PGPB to plant roots over time. The findings indicate that physical or chemical interactions between these different bacterial species result in better long-term maintenance of PGPB on the plant roots.

"Our results highlight how bacteria can use each other for their own benefit. These findings could be used to create groups of bacteria that are able to work together to better protect crop plants and improve their growth," said study co-author Elizabeth Shank. 

"The results of this research might also be used to better understand and design microbial treatments that could improve crop yields in agricultural settings."

For the investigation, the researchers screened bacteria that were obtained from the roots of wild-grown plants. They also looked at how other microbes may alter the behavior of each PGPB strain. The study was focused on a PGPB that is currently used in agricultural treatments.

"One important impact of our work may be further encouraging agricultural biotechnology companies to consider using groups of multiple bacteria (rather than a single isolate) in their search for better and longer-lasting biological treatments to improve crop yield and help increase food production," said Shank.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/journal/pbiomes">Phytobiomes Journal</a>. 

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bacteria work better together to improve crops

Some bacteria can boost plant health and provide protection from...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, researchers report that the biggest <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-in-low-quality-habitats-are-more-susceptible-to-disease/">bumblebees</a> take the time to memorize the location of flowers with the richest nectar. With a shorter flight range and less carrying capacity, smaller bees are not concerned with finding the best flowers.

Honeybees are known to perform "learning flights" after leaving flowers. The Exeter team discovered that bumblebees do the same thing, repeatedly looking back to memorize a flower's location.

"It might not be widely known that pollinating insects learn and develop individual flower preferences, but in fact bumblebees are selective," said study co-author Professor Natalie Hempel de Ibarra.

"On leaving a flower, they can actively decide how much effort to put into remembering its location. The surprising finding of our study is that a bee's size determines this decision making and the learning behavior."

The researchers designed an experiment in which captive bees visited artificial flowers that contained a sugar solution of varying concentrations. The experts found that, the larger the bee, the more its learning behavior varied depending on the richness of the solution.

Meanwhile, smaller bees invested the same amount of effort in learning the locations of the artificial flowers, regardless of whether the sugar concentration was high or low.

"The differences we found reflect the different roles of bees in their colonies," said Professor Hempel de Ibarra.."Large bumblebees can carry larger loads and explore further from the nest than smaller ones."

"Small ones with a smaller flight range and carrying capacity cannot afford to be as selective, so they accept a wider range of flowers. These small bees tend to be involved more with tasks inside the nest - only going out to forage if food supplies in the colony are running low."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Large bumblebees can find the best flowers

In a new study from the University of Exeter, researchers...

An international team of researchers is calling for a new approach to help mitigate the destructive effects of floods, which are increasingly affecting communities worldwide. 

The report, sponsored by the <a href="http://english.iap.cas.cn/">Institute of Atmospheric Physics</a>, says that large-scale global forecasting and on-the-ground observations must be integrated into one system to better predict and prevent widespread flooding disasters.

Study lead author Huan Wu is the deputy director of the Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Climate Change and Natural Disaster Studies and a professor at Sun Yat-Sen University.

"A 'glocal' - global to local - hydrometeorological solution (GHS-F) for floods is considered to be critical for better preparedness, mitigation, and management of different types of significant precipitation-caused flooding, which happen extensively almost every year and in many countries, such as China, India and the United States," said Professor Wu.

He explains that such a solution is necessary for both scientific research and operational logistics. A GHS-F could combine widespread weather predictions with the knowledge of how forecasted rain could affect river basins to produce highly detailed and consistent rain-flood information.

Professor Wu notes the complex relationship between rain and floods, arguing that if the meteorological and hydrological communities shared more observations, techniques, and modeled data some flooding damage could be avoided.

The researchers examined flood events which occurred between May 20 to July 18 in central-eastern and southern China. During these two months, the Yangtze River had 49 percent more rain than the average amounts for the same time period over the last 60 years. Seven major rainfall events affected almost 40 million people in 27 provinces, with 141 people reported dead or missing.

"An encompassing view of flood occurrences, evolution, extent dynamics, and spatial distribution of areas at high risk from flooding over a global or national scale with local detail is highly desirable and, yet, missing for international and national agencies with a mandate in flood response and management."

According to Professor Wu, a GHS-F was first suggested about 10 years ago, but the unprecedented computing capability and timely data availability, as well as model and data interoperability of the current era mean such a solution is now more practical.

The researchers plan to demonstrate the feasibility of a GHS-F to increase the confidence of emergency management decision makers in using this tool for information and risk assessment.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/376">Advances in Atmospheric Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

"Glocal" approach is needed to mitigate flood damage

An international team of researchers is calling for a new...

People make healthier food choices when they are wearing formal clothes, according to a new study published in the Journal of Business Research. The experts found that casual clothes were more associated with comfort <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/current-food-production-methods-threaten-thousands-of-species/">foods</a>, such as unhealthy snacks. 

The research was focused on students attending a university in southern China. The participants were divided into two groups and instructed to wear either T-shirts and jeans or suits and other formal attire.

A series of experiments revealed that diners who were dressed up made healthier food choices than those who were dressed casually. 

The researchers theorize that wearing formal clothes drives people to become more aware of the impression they are making while eating. This leads to healthier food selections, such as choosing a salad over a hamburger.

In one particular experiment, students were offered a choice between potato chips and cherry tomatoes as an afternoon snack.

Nearly half of those dressed formally did not eat anything at all, while only two percent snacked on the chips. On the other hand, about 40 percent of those wearing casual clothes ate both snacks, and 25 percent opted for just the potato chips. 

In a separate trial, 277 people were asked to choose between almonds or potato chips at a supermarket checkout. Two-thirds of the individuals who were dressed up chose the healthier snack. 

A survey with nearly 300 respondents revealed that formal wear enhanced self-esteem and led to healthier food choices. The analysis also indicated that wearing casual clothes led consumers to value comfort and relaxation, which steered them toward tastier, less healthy foods. The researchers said that students in a suit and tie felt greater restraint and self-control, resulting in healthier choices.

"Our findings have significant implications for policymakers," said study lead author Professor Xuehua Wang. "Obesity has long been a critical issue. Future research should examine conditions that may strengthen or weaken the effect of clothes style on food choice."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-business-research">Journal of Business Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Want to eat healthier? Just get dressed up

People make healthier food choices when they are wearing formal...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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