<p>A recent analysis of the Sapphire Canyon mudstone core, drilled by NASA’s Perseverance rover in July 2024, adds new and convincing evidence to the ongoing search for life on Mars.</p>



<p>The study describes minerals and textures that - on Earth - are often linked to microbial activity. At the same time, the authors stress that some unknown, nonbiological chemistry could also explain the signals.</p>



<p>“This finding by Perseverance is the closest we have ever come to discovering life on Mars. The identification of a potential biosignature on the Red Planet is a groundbreaking discovery, and one that will advance our understanding of Mars,” said acting NASA Administrator Sean Duffy. </p>



<p>“NASA’s commitment to conducting Gold Standard Science will continue as we pursue our goal of putting American boots on Mars’ rocky soil.”</p>



<p>The core was taken from a rock named "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perseverance-rover-finds-best-evidence-yet-life-on-mars-cheyava-falls-rock/">Chevaya Falls</a>" in Neretva Vallis, an ancient river channel about a quarter mile wide that once fed Jezero Crater’s lake. </p>



<p>After drilling, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perseverance-rover-captures-a-surprise-dust-devil-while-taking-high-resolution-selfie-on-mars/">Perseverance</a> sealed the sample for possible return to Earth, where laboratory instruments can perform tests far beyond the rover’s onboard capabilities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-martian-mudstone">Inside the Martian mudstone</h2>



<p>Lead author Joel A. Hurowitz of <a href="https://www.stonybrook.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stony Brook University</a> (SBU) reports a fine-grained mudstone with circular reaction fronts informally called leopard spots, plus small nodules embedded in layered sediments.</p>



<p>Perseverance’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/jpl/the-detective-aboard-nasas-perseverance-rover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SHERLOC</a> and <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/heres-how-ai-is-changing-nasas-mars-rover-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PIXL</a> instruments mapped organic carbon with phosphate, iron, and sulfur arranged in distinct, repeating patterns.</p>



<p>Two minerals stand out: vivianite and greigite. Vivianite is an iron phosphate, while greigite is an iron sulfide associated with iron and sulfur cycling in oxygen-poor settings.</p>



<p>These features show up in rocks that settled from<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/"> water</a>, not in lavas. The site on Mars lies along Bright Angel, a set of outcrops that preserve layers and veins consistent with slow changes after the mud was laid down.</p>



<p>Textures and chemistry point to low temperature reactions that reorganized elements already present in the mud. </p>



<p>That detail matters because low temperatures fit environments that life can handle, while very hot conditions tend to erase delicate signals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-microbes-leave-similar-traces">Earth microbes leave similar traces</h2>



<p>On Earth, vivianite often forms where microbes reduce iron in water-rich sediments and trap phosphorus in blue-green nodules. </p>



<p>Laboratory and field work document biologically mediated vivianite through extracellular electron transfer.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/greigite" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greigite</a> frequently appears where sulfate reducing bacteria drive chemistry in anoxic muds. In controlled experiments, greigite was detected only in live biotic setups after months of incubation.</p>



<p>The Martian rock shows rims rich in vivianite surrounding small cores enriched in greigite. That bullseye pattern matches a sequence of electron transfer reactions seen in some Earth sediments.</p>



<p>None of this proves metabolism happened in Bright Angel mud, but it shows the chemistry is right for it. That is a subtle point, and it is the reason scientists keep the language cautious.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-life-on-mars">Evidence of life on Mars</h2>



<p>A potential biosignature is a feature that might have a biological origin but still needs more data to rule out nonbiological sources. </p>



<p>NASA points mission teams and the public to the Confidence of Life Detection, or CoLD scale, which encourages staged claims and independent checks.</p>



<p>The CoLD mindset is simple in practice. First detect a signal, then exclude contamination, then tackle alternatives, and only then talk about life on Mars with high confidence.</p>



<p>The Bright Angel work sits early on that ladder. It clears several necessary steps but leaves demanding tests for the lab.</p>



<p>Organic compounds can also arrive by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-meteorites-tell-us-about-their-birthplace-in-space/">meteorites</a> or form without biology. The authors note those routes and describe how future analyses could tell paths apart.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-organic-signals-but-no-certainty">Organic signals, but no certainty</h2>



<p>The Mars rover detected organic carbon in several targets within Bright Angel. Reaction fronts rimmed with vivianite surround cores richer in greigite, a pairing consistent with iron and sulfur cycling recorded in the paper.</p>



<p>Mineral veins include calcium sulfate, while the mudstone remains fine-grained and low in magnesium and manganese. There is no sign of intense heating that would reset the rock or scramble tiny textures.</p>



<p>The outcrop sits within layered sediments deposited by water flowing through Neretva Vallis. That channel spans roughly a quarter mile across, which implies sustained flow into Jezero’s ancient lake.</p>



<p>Low temperature context favors life-compatible chemistry, but it does not require life. Abiotic organics and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mineral-discovery-sheds-light-on-mars-fiery-past/">mineral</a> reactions can sometimes copy the same shapes and signals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-proof-but-potential-life-on-mars">Not proof, but potential life on Mars</h2>



<p>“It’s not life itself,” said Nicky Fox, associate administrator for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate, stressing that this is a potential biosignature, not proof of life. The lead author echoed that caution.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We cannot claim this is more than a potential biosignature,” said Hurowitz. Other officials also underscored the stakes and the limits.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“[But] this very well could be the clearest sign of life that we’ve ever found on Mars,” said Sean Duffy, acting NASA administrator. </p>



<p>Caution is not hedging for its own sake. It is how science avoids false alarms when the question is this important.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/mars-life_olivine_leopard-spot_Cheyava-Falls_Perseverance-rover_NASA_1big.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/mars-life_olivine_leopard-spot_Cheyava-Falls_Perseverance-rover_NASA_1s.webp" alt="NASA’s Perseverance rover discovered leopard spots on a reddish rock nicknamed “Cheyava Falls” in Mars’ Jezero Crater in July 2024. Scientists think the spots may indicate that, billions of years ago, the chemical reactions in this rock could have supported microbial life; other explanations are being considered. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS" class="wp-image-1985874"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>NASA’s Perseverance rover discovered leopard spots on a reddish rock nicknamed “Cheyava Falls” in Mars’ Jezero Crater in July 2024. Scientists think the spots may indicate that, billions of years ago, the chemical reactions in this rock could have supported microbial life; other explanations are being considered. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-habitability">Implications for habitability</h2>



<p>If the vivianite and greigite formed through microbe-like metabolisms, then <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perseverance-rover-begins-steep-climb-up-martian-crater-rim-jezero-crater/">Bright Angel</a> captures a period when surface waters supported the same chemical strategies some cells use for energy today. </p>



<p>That would extend Mars's habitability into a window when this part of Jezero was still wet.</p>



<p>If abiotic paths made the same pattern, the rock still records redox organization of iron, sulfur, and phosphorus in Martian mud. That is a window into how the planet cycles key elements without biology.</p>



<p>Either outcome matters for the bigger story. Mars did not just dry out, it changed its chemistry over time, and these samples let researchers track that change layer by layer.</p>



<p>The work also flags what to measure next. Isotopes, microtextures, and the exact structure of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-atoms-in-your-body-took-a-400000-light-year-journey-through-space/">carbon</a> in the core can separate metabolic signatures from chemical lookalikes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-search-for-life-on-mars-moves-forward">Search for life on Mars moves forward</h2>



<p>The authors lay out lab experiments and field analogs on Earth to test whether nonbiological reactions can reproduce these textures and mineral pairings. </p>



<p>They also point to analyses that require the sample in a clean Earth lab, including isotope ratios that biology tends to skew.</p>



<p>Sample return planning will shape how fast those tests happen. Meanwhile, the rover can keep mapping where these features cluster and how they relate to other rock units nearby.</p>



<p>PIXL and SHERLOC have shown enough sensitivity to guide that search. The pairing of elemental maps and Raman detections gives a consistent picture that can be applied to other outcrops.</p>



<p>As new targets are logged, the CoLD framework will help communicate progress without getting ahead of the data. That is how a potential biosignature becomes a result people can trust.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/ieJKWW8sp2A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>This animation depicts water disappearing over time in the Martian river valley Neretva Vallis, where NASA's Perseverance Mars takes the rock sample named “Sapphire Canyon” from a rock called “Cheyava Falls,” which was found in the “Bright Angel” formation. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09413-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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NASA announces discovery of life on Mars with high degree of confidence

A recent analysis of the Sapphire Canyon mudstone core, drilled by NASA’s Perseverance rover in July 2024, adds new and convincing evidence to the ongoing search for life on Mars. The study describes minerals and textures that - on Earth - are often linked to microbial activity. At the same time, the authors stress that some unknown, nonbiological chemistry could also explain the signals. “This finding by Perseverance is the closest we have ever come to discovering life on Mars. The identification of a potential biosignature on...

<p>NASA’s Lunar Trailblazer mission, launching next year, aims to shed light on the mystery of water on the Moon. Although scientists know that water exists on the lunar surface, many details remain unknown, including its precise location, abundance, and form.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Lunar Trailblazer, a small satellite managed by NASA’s <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) and led by the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Institute of Technology</a> (Caltech), will use advanced instruments to map <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moons-entire-surface-is-covered-with-water-and-hydroxyl-not-just-the-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunar water</a> in unprecedented detail.</p>



<p>“Making high-resolution measurements of the type and amount of lunar water will help us understand the lunar water cycle,” said Bethany Ehlmann, principal investigator for Lunar Trailblazer at Caltech.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“But understanding the inventory of lunar water is also important if we are to establish a sustained human and robotic presence on the Moon and beyond.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-the-potential-of-lunar-resources">Unlocking the potential of lunar resources</h2>



<p>The presence of water on the Moon could be invaluable for future exploration. Lunar ice may offer a resource for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-travel-takes-a-greater-toll-on-astronauts-brains-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">astronauts</a> to produce oxygen and rocket fuel, reducing the need to transport these essentials from Earth. </p>



<p>Equipped with Lunar Trailblazer’s findings, future missions might sample lunar ice to trace its origins. For instance, ammonia in the samples could indicate cometary origins, while sulfur might suggest the water was vented from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-moon-had-active-volcanoes-just-120-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic activity</a> when the Moon was geologically young.</p>



<p>“In the future, scientists could analyze the ice in the interiors of permanently shadowed craters to learn more about the origins of water on the Moon,” said Rachel Klima, deputy principal investigator of Lunar Trailblazer at <a href="https://www.jhuapl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-water-movement-on-the-moon">Understanding water movement on the Moon</h2>



<p>An essential aspect of the mission is to determine if lunar water is mobile or locked into the rocks.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Sunlight heats frosty “cold traps” on the Moon’s surface, causing ice to sublimate, or transform directly from solid to gas, which may allow water molecules to travel to cooler locations. By tracking this movement, Lunar Trailblazer will contribute to understanding water cycles on other airless bodies, like asteroids.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-the-moon-s-water-nbsp">Detecting the Moon's water&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The mission’s two instruments - the High-resolution Volatiles and Minerals Moon Mapper (HVM3) and the Lunar Thermal Mapper (LTM) - will work together to reveal where water resides and how it behaves.&nbsp;</p>



<p>JPL’s HVM3 infrared spectrometer will detect the Moon’s water by identifying its spectral signature and can peer into permanently shadowed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/man-in-the-moon-craters-are-200-million-years-older-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">craters</a> by analyzing faint light reflecting off crater walls. </p>



<p>Meanwhile, the LTM, developed by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> with <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/uk-space-agency" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK Space Agency</a> funding, will create thermal maps to track temperature variations across the lunar surface.</p>



<p>“The LTM instrument precisely maps the surface temperature of the Moon while the HVM3 instrument looks for the spectral signature of water molecules,” explained Neil Bowles, instrument scientist for the LTM at the University of Oxford.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Together, these instruments will offer a clear view of the Moon’s water distribution, temperature influence, and potential movement.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-the-lunar-trailblazer-for-its-journey">Preparing the Lunar Trailblazer for its journey</h2>



<p>Lunar Trailblazer is a compact 440-pound (200-kilogram) satellite, spanning 11.5 feet (3.5 meters) with solar panels fully deployed. It will orbit 60 miles (100 kilometers) above the Moon’s surface, collecting data to map lunar water.&nbsp;</p>



<p>After its assembly and environmental testing at <a href="https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/capabilities/space.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lockheed Martin Space</a> in Littleton, Colorado, the orbiter passed an operational readiness review at Caltech.</p>



<p>Currently, the mission team is conducting software tests simulating launch conditions and operations, including maneuvers and science data collection in lunar orbit.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, the operations team, led by IPAC at Caltech, is testing communication with <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/somd/space-communications-navigation-program/what-is-the-deep-space-network/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Deep Space Network</a> to ensure smooth navigation and command transmission during the mission.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mission-management-and-objectives">Mission management and objectives</h2>



<p>Managed by JPL with Caltech leading science operations, Lunar Trailblazer is part of NASA’s SIMPLEx (Small Innovative Missions for Planetary Exploration) program.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Lockheed Martin Space provides the satellite itself and supports integration and operations under contract with Caltech. This mission is also part of NASA’s Discovery Program, directed by the Planetary Missions Program Office at NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/marshall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marshall Space Flight Center</a>.</p>



<p>Ultimately, Lunar Trailblazer’s high-resolution mapping of lunar water will advance both scientific understanding and exploration goals.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As the mission brings new insights into the Moon’s water cycle, it will inform strategies for sustainable lunar presence and help to answer broader questions about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-origins-of-water-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">origins of water on Earth</a> and other celestial bodies.</p>



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Where is the Moon’s water? A NASA mission will soon find out

NASA’s Lunar Trailblazer mission, launching next year, aims to shed...

<p>There's a common saying that there is strength in numbers. We usually associate this with the idea of unity and group power. Yet, scientists are discovering that in the aquatic realm, this is not necessarily the case. Fish that swarm together don't seem to have the advantage of safety in numbers.</p>



<p>The research shows that large groups of fish often make a bigger, more attractive target for predators.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-swarms-in-the-arctic">Fish swarms in the Arctic</h2>



<p>This discovery was made by <a href="https://www.mit.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a> and Norwegian oceanographers during an exploration of a large patch of ocean off the coast of Norway.</p>



<p>The researchers conducted the study during the height of the capelin's spawning season. Capelin are tiny Arctic fish, about the size of an anchovy, that migrate southward each February from the Arctic ice sheet edges to the Norwegian coast to lay their eggs.</p>



<p>The same coastline also happens to be a pitstop for the Atlantic cod, the capelin's main predator. The scientists watched as the cod followed the capelin south, feeding on the small fish as they <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/striped-marlin-demonstrate-the-advantages-of-group-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spawned</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-fish-predation-event">Massive fish predation event</h2>



<p>Reporting these findings in the journal <em>Nature Communications Biology</em>, the MIT team captured interactions between migrating cod and spawning capelin over a vast area.</p>



<p>Using a sonic-based imaging technique, the researchers observed as random capelin began forming a massive shoal. Almost as if in response to this, individual cod also began grouping together, forming an enormous shoal of their own.</p>



<p>Before anyone had time to blink, the cod had descended upon the capelin. They consumed over 10 million of the gathered fish. This quick, dramatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquake-swarms-the-latest-hazard-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">encounter</a> is the largest known predation event ever recorded, both in terms of the number of individuals involved and the area where it took place.</p>



<p>Despite the sheer size of this event and the numbers consumed, it had minimal impact on the capelin population as a whole. The devoured shoal represented only 0.1 percent of the capelin that spawn in the region.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-stressor-for-survival">Climate change: Stressor for survival</h2>



<p>However, as climate change pushes the Arctic ice sheet to retreat, the capelin will have to swim longer distances to spawn. This not only puts more stress on the fish swarms but also makes them more vulnerable to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dietary-shift-to-forage-fish-could-prevent-millions-of-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural predation events</a> like the one the research team observed.</p>



<p>“In our work we are seeing that natural catastrophic predation events can change the local predator prey balance in a matter of hours,”&nbsp;said Nicholas Makris, professor of mechanical and ocean engineering at MIT.</p>



<p>“That’s not an issue for a healthy population with many spatially distributed population centers or ecological hotspots."</p>



<p>"But as the number of these hotspots deceases due to climate and anthropogenic stresses, the kind of natural ‘catastrophic’ predation event we witnessed of a keystone species could lead to dramatic consequences for that species as well as the many species dependent on them.”</p>



<p>Makris' co-authors on the paper are Shourav Pednekar and Ankita Jain at MIT, along with Olav Rune Godø of the <a href="https://www.hi.no/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Marine Research</a> in Norway.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-the-fish-swarms">Monitoring the fish swarms</h2>



<p>How did the team observe this interaction of life and death in the middle of the ocean? It all comes down to technology. </p>



<p>The experts deployed the Ocean Acoustic Waveguide Remote Sensing (OAWRS) system. This sonic imaging approach uses a vertical acoustic array attached to a boat's bottom to send sound waves down into the ocean, which then scatter in all directions.</p>



<p>A second boat towing an array of acoustic receivers picks up the reflected waves. These can come from as far as tens of kilometers away. </p>



<p>The scientists can then analyze the collected waveforms to create instantaneous maps of the ocean over a vast area.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-resonance-of-swim-bladders">Resonance of swim bladders</h2>



<p>In this particular study, the researchers employed a "multispectral" technique to differentiate between fish species. They based this distinction on the unique acoustic resonance of the fish's swim bladders.</p>



<p>“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aquaculture-impacts-wild-fish-much-more-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fish</a> have swim bladders that resonate like bells,” noted Makris. “Cod have large swim bladders that have a low resonance, like a Big Ben bell, whereas capelin have tiny swim bladders that resonate like the highest notes on a piano.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-predation-studies">Future of predation studies</h2>



<p>The researchers have paved the way for future studies on predation of fish swarms.</p>



<p>“It’s been shown time and again that, when a population is on the verge of collapse, you will have that one last shoal. And when that last big, dense group is gone, there’s a collapse,” said Makris. “So you’ve got to know what’s there before it’s gone, because the pressures are not in their favor.”</p>



<p>The research was supported, in part, by the U.S. Office of Naval Research and the Institute of Marine Research in Norway.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-024-06952-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.</em></p>



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Largest predation event ever witnessed involved millions of fish

There's a common saying that there is strength in numbers....

<p>Between 635 to 541 million years ago, during the Ediacaran Period, Earth witnessed a remarkable emergence of early life in the form of multicellular organisms. These weren't just tiny microbes; some were over three feet long and could move around. </p>



<p>What could have triggered this sudden burst of life?</p>



<p>John Tarduno, a professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at the <a href="http://www.rochester.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a>, thinks he might have an answer. His team studied Earth's ancient magnetic field and found something intriguing.</p>



<p>Tarduno and his colleagues discovered that Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic field</a> during the Ediacaran Period was up to 30 times weaker than it is today. </p>



<p>This ultra-weak field lasted for at least 26 million years -- the weakest it's ever been, according to their data.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-earth-s-magnetic-field">Importance of Earth's magnetic field</h2>



<p>But why does this matter? Earth's magnetic field basically serves as our planet's invisible shield against all of the nasty stuff in the universe that would immediately kill all life on the planet.</p>



<p>It deflects harmful solar radiation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-rays-help-archaeologists-determine-age-discoveries-prehistoric-settlements/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic rays</a> that would otherwise strip away our atmosphere and expose us to levels of radiation that would be devastating.</p>



<p>Without this magnetic protection, not only could we get fried by cosmic rays, but we might also lose our water and essential gases to space -- making Earth a far less hospitable place to live.</p>



<p>Without it, life as we know it wouldn't be possible. So, if the field was so weak back then, how did <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life manage to flourish</a>?</p>



<p>Well, the timing caught the researchers' attention. The appearance of these large, mobile creatures coincided with the weakest magnetic field on record. </p>



<p>Tarduno explains, “They were notable for their resemblance to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-of-earths-earliest-animals-found-in-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early animals</a> -- some even reached more than a meter in size and were mobile, indicating they probably needed more oxygen compared to earlier life forms.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weak-magnetism-linked-to-oxygen-levels">Weak magnetism linked to oxygen levels</h2>



<p>This led them to think about how environmental factors, especially oxygen levels in the atmosphere and oceans, might have played a role. </p>



<p>If the magnetic field was weak, more charged particles from the sun could strip away hydrogen from our atmosphere. With less hydrogen to react with, oxygen levels could rise.</p>



<p>Imagine that: a weaker shield leading to more oxygen, which in turn supports larger and more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-animals-were-very-picky-about-where-they-lived/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex life forms</a>. It's a bit counterintuitive, isn't it?</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-answers-in-ancient-rocks">Finding answers in ancient rocks</h2>



<p>To dig deeper, Tarduno's team used some high-tech tools. They examined ancient crystals called feldspar and pyroxene from a type of rock known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-origins-of-earths-largest-igneous-rocks-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anorthosite</a>. </p>



<p>By studying the magnetism locked inside these crystals, they pieced together a timeline of Earth's magnetic field.</p>



<p>Using a CO₂ laser and a superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) magnetometer, they measured the magnetic signals with great precision. </p>



<p>Their findings painted a picture of an Earth with a very weak magnetic field during a critical time in life's history.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-earth-s-atmosphere-and-life">Implications for Earth's atmosphere and life</h2>



<p>A weaker magnetic field means more solar particles hitting the atmosphere, which can strip away light <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hydrothermal-vents-earths-first-living-beings-hydrogen-gas-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elements like hydrogen</a>. </p>



<p>Over tens of millions of years, this loss of hydrogen could lead to more oxygen hanging around. And more oxygen means more fuel for complex organisms.</p>



<p>Tarduno and his team suggest that this increase in oxygen may have been just what these early creatures needed to thrive. </p>



<p>“If the extraordinarily weak field had remained after the Ediacaran, Earth might look very different from the water-rich planet it is today: water loss might have gradually dried Earth,” he notes.</p>



<p>Luckily for us, Earth's magnetic field bounced back during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-did-the-first-animals-appear-on-earth-we-are-now-one-step-closer-to-knowing-the-answer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian Period</a>, which followed the Ediacaran. This stronger field provided better protection, allowing life to continue evolving.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-earth">Looking beyond Earth</h2>



<p>So, what does all this mean? For one, it highlights how interconnected our planet's systems are. </p>



<p>Processes deep within <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-rotation-has-begun-moving-backwards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's core</a> can have a big impact on life on the surface. It's also a reminder that when we think about the possibility of life on other planets, we need to consider not just the surface conditions but what's happening deep inside.</p>



<p>“It’s fascinating to think that processes in Earth’s core could be linked ultimately to evolution,” Tarduno explained. “As we think about the possibility of life elsewhere, we also need to consider how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europa-clipper-will-search-for-signs-of-life-on-jupiters-icy-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interiors of planets</a> form and develop.”</p>



<p>This research opens up new questions. Could other planets with weak magnetic fields have seen similar bursts of life? Or does Earth's unique history make it one of a kind?</p>



<p>As we explore these ideas, it's clear there's still so much to learn about our own planet's past. The Ediacaran Period might have been a time when Earth's defenses were down, but life found a way to take advantage of it.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-magnetic-fields-and-life">Earth, magnetic fields, and life</h2>



<p>To sum it all up, understanding the interplay between Earth's magnetic field and the rise of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/complex-life-emerged-1-5-billion-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex life</a> gives us a whole new appreciation for our planet's history. </p>



<p>It's wild to think that a weaker magnetic shield, which is supposed to protect life on Earth, might have actually helped life flourish by boosting oxygen levels.</p>



<p>This unexpected connection highlights just how intertwined Earth's systems are -- from deep within its core all the way to the organisms roaming its surface.</p>



<p>As we keep digging (sometimes literally) into these ancient mysteries, we're reminded that there's still so much to learn about how life evolves. </p>



<p>One thing's for sure: studies like John Tarduno's help us piece together our own story and get us thinking about life's possibilities elsewhere in the universe. </p>



<p>After all, if something as subtle as a magnetic field can tip the scales, the potential for life beyond Earth might be greater than we ever imagined.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal&nbsp;<em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01360-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth had an issue 600 million years ago that may have kickstarted complex life

Between 635 to 541 million years ago, during the Ediacaran...

Water,Molecules,,Molecular,Chemical,Formula,H2o,,Odorless,,Ball,And,Stick

<p>Water is essential for life, but there's still so much we don't understand about it. One of the biggest mysteries lies in how water molecules connect through hydrogen bonds. </p>



<p>These tiny interactions are responsible for water's unique properties, yet they've been hard to study directly -- until now.</p>



<p>Enter Dr. Sylvie Roke, head of the <a href="https://www.epfl.ch/labs/lbp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Laboratory for Fundamental BioPhotonics</a>. She and her team have developed a new method to observe how water molecules behave when they form hydrogen bond networks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-correlated-vibrational-spectroscopy">Correlated vibrational spectroscopy</h2>



<p>Working at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Dr. Roke's team has introduced a technique called correlated vibrational spectroscopy (CVS). </p>



<p>This method allows scientists to distinguish between water molecules that are interacting through hydrogen bonds and those that aren't -- a feat that wasn't possible with previous technologies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hydrogen-bonds-and-water-molecules">Hydrogen bonds and water molecules</h2>



<p>So, what's a hydrogen bond anyway? </p>



<p>Think of water molecules as tiny magnets, each with a positive and negative side. They stick together because the positive side of one is attracted to the negative side of another. </p>



<p>This attraction is the hydrogen bond, and it's what gives water its special characteristics, like surface tension and its ability to dissolve many substances.</p>



<p>Before CVS, scientists had a hard time telling which water molecules were bonded and which weren't. </p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-now-trace-forever-chemicals-back-to-their-sources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Traditional spectroscopy</a> methods measured the vibrations of all the molecules together, making it a bit like trying to hear a single voice in a noisy crowd.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-water-molecules-with-cvs">Studying water molecules with CVS</h2>



<p>Dr. Roke explains, “Current spectroscopy methods measure the scattering of laser light caused by the vibrations of all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-discovery-water-molecules-will-force-chemistry-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molecules in a system</a>, so you have to guess or assume that what you are seeing is due to the molecular interaction you’re interested in.” </p>



<p>With CVS, however, each type of molecule shows up with its own unique signature, allowing researchers to focus on the ones that are actually interacting.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-the-angle">Changing the angle</h2>



<p>How did they pull this off? The team used ultra-short laser pulses -- lasting just a quadrillionth of a second -- to illuminate the water. </p>



<p>These pulses cause tiny movements in the water molecules, which then emit visible light. By analyzing this light, scientists can see how the molecules are arranged and how they're moving.</p>



<p>One clever twist was changing the angle of their detector. </p>



<p>“Typical experiments place the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-microbes-discovered-in-2-billion-year-old-rocks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spectrographic detector</a> at a 90-degree angle to the incoming laser beam,” says Dr. Roke. </p>



<p>“But we realized that we could probe interacting molecules simply by changing the detector position, and recording spectra using certain combinations of polarized light. In this way, we can create separate spectra for non-interacting and interacting molecules.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experimenting-with-ph-levels">Experimenting with pH levels</h2>



<p>The team didn't stop there. They also experimented with changing the pH of the water by adding hydroxide ions (making it more basic) or protons (making it more acidic). This allowed them to see how these changes affect hydrogen bonding.</p>



<p>“Hydroxide ions and protons participate in H-bonding, so changing the pH of water changes its reactivity,” explains PhD student Mischa Flór, the paper’s first author. </p>



<p>“With CVS, we can now quantify exactly how much extra charge hydroxide ions donate to H-bond networks -- 8% -- and how much charge protons accept from it -- 4% -- precise measurements that could never have been done experimentally before.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-this-matter">Why does this matter?</h2>



<p>What's the significance of all this? Understanding hydrogen bonds at this level could have wide-ranging implications. </p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massless-dirac-electrons-seen-moving-in-four-dimensions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">From biology to chemistry</a>, many processes depend on these interactions. For instance, the structure of DNA and the behavior of proteins are influenced by hydrogen bonding.</p>



<p>But the excitement doesn't end with water. </p>



<p>“The ability to quantify directly H-bonding strength is a powerful method that can be used to clarify molecular-level details of any solution, for example containing electrolytes, sugars, amino acids, DNA, or proteins,” says Dr. Roke. </p>



<p>“As CVS is not limited to water, it can also deliver a wealth of information on other liquids, systems, and processes.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-molecules-cvs-and-the-future">Water molecules, CVS, and the future</h2>



<p>The team is already applying CVS to other materials. This could open up new avenues in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nanotech-material-graphene-passes-human-safety-tests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">material science</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unleashing-the-potential-of-nanotechnology-in-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nanotechnology</a>, and even medicine. </p>



<p>By better understanding molecular interactions, scientists could design more effective drugs or develop new materials with special properties.</p>



<p>Ever wonder why ice is slippery or how plants pull water from their roots to their leaves? It all comes back to hydrogen bonds. Techniques like CVS help us get a clearer picture of these everyday wonders.</p>



<p>All things considered, what Dr. Roke and her team have achieved is pretty incredible. They've found a new way to look at the tiny hydrogen bonds that make water -- and so many other things -- work the way they do. </p>



<p>Unlocking the secrets of water's hydrogen bonds is a step toward understanding the very fabric of life.</p>



<p>With their CVS technique, we might soon unlock more of nature's secrets, leading to breakthroughs in science and technology that could touch our everyday lives.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ads4369" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Quantum secrets of water molecules discovered in the lab through spectroscopy

Water is essential for life, but there's still so much...

<p>The grandeur and innovation of ancient Roman architecture is etched into the concrete of the very structures and monuments that are still standing today after thousands of years.</p>



<p>From the awe-inspiring Pantheon, with its massive unreinforced concrete dome, to aqueducts that still channel water into the city, ancient Roman engineering continues to amaze us. </p>



<p>But what exactly gave their concrete such enduring strength?</p>



<p>Admir Masic, a professor of civil and environmental engineering at <a href="https://www.mit.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>, has been captivated by this very question. Alongside a team from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> and laboratories in Italy and Switzerland, Masic decided to uncover the mysteries of Roman concrete. </p>



<p>"Ever since I first began working with ancient Roman concrete, I’ve always been fascinated by these features," he says, referring to the tiny white mineral chunks embedded in the material.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-concrete-and-lime-clasts">Ancient concrete and lime clasts</h2>



<p>For years, these white inclusions, known as "lime clasts," were thought to be a sign of sloppy mixing or inferior materials. But Masic wasn't convinced. </p>



<p>"The idea that the presence of these lime clasts was simply attributed to low quality control always bothered me," he notes. </p>



<p>If the Romans were meticulous in their construction methods, why would they overlook such an important detail?</p>



<p>Using advanced imaging and chemical mapping techniques, the team discovered that these lime clasts weren't accidental at all. They were, in fact, a deliberate addition that gave the concrete a unique self-healing ability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-ancient-romans-made-concrete">How ancient Romans made concrete</h2>



<p>Traditional thinking suggested that the Romans used slaked lime -- a paste-like substance formed by combining lime with water -- in their concrete. </p>



<p>However, the presence of the lime clasts hinted at a different method. Masic wondered, "Was it possible that the Romans might have actually directly used lime in its more reactive form, known as quicklime?"</p>



<p>The team's research confirmed this hunch. The lime clasts were formed at extremely high temperatures, indicative of a process called "hot mixing." </p>



<p>This method involves adding quicklime directly to the mix, causing exothermic reactions that significantly enhance the properties of the concrete.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-self-healing-concrete-in-ancient-times">Self-healing concrete in ancient times</h2>



<p>The benefits of hot mixing are substantial. "First, when the overall concrete is heated to high temperatures, it allows chemistries that are not possible if you only used slaked lime," Masic explains. </p>



<p>This means the concrete could form compounds that contribute to its durability. </p>



<p>"Second, this increased temperature significantly reduces curing and setting times since all the reactions are accelerated, allowing for much faster construction," Masic continued.</p>



<p>But perhaps the most remarkable advantage is the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-rise-of-self-heating-concrete-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">self-healing property</a> it imparts to the concrete. </p>



<p>As tiny cracks form over time, they tend to pass through the brittle lime clasts. When water enters these cracks, it reacts with the quicklime to form a calcium-saturated solution. </p>



<p>This solution can then recrystallize as calcium carbonate, effectively filling the cracks and preventing them from spreading.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-theory">Testing the theory</h2>



<p>To validate their findings, the team created samples of hot-mixed concrete using both ancient and modern recipes. They deliberately cracked these samples and introduced water. </p>



<p>In just two weeks, the cracks had completely healed in the samples containing quicklime, halting the flow of water entirely. Samples made without quicklime showed no such healing.</p>



<p>These insights have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recycled-cement-is-an-absolute-miracle-to-lower-concrete-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">practical implications</a> for today's world. </p>



<p>"It’s exciting to think about how these more durable concrete formulations could expand not only the service life of these materials but also how it could improve the durability of 3D-printed concrete formulations," says Masic.</p>



<p>By extending the lifespan of concrete structures and enabling lighter designs, this ancient technique could play a role in reducing the environmental impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mycocrete-new-material-made-of-fungi-hopes-to-replace-concrete-in-construction-projects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cement production</a>. </p>



<p>Given that cement manufacturing accounts for about 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions, innovations like this are more important than ever.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-durability-plus-environmental-benefits">Durability plus environmental benefits</h2>



<p>Masic's lab isn't stopping at self-healing concrete. They're also exploring formulations that can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/concrete-becoming-great-carbon-sink-capturing-storing-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">absorb carbon dioxide</a> from the air. </p>



<p>Combining these approaches could lead to a new generation of concrete that not only lasts longer but also contributes to carbon reduction efforts.</p>



<p>The discovery underscores a fascinating intersection of ancient wisdom and modern technology. </p>



<p>By re-examining historical materials with today's scientific tools, we're able to unlock secrets that could have a profound <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/making-concrete-more-environmentally-friendly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact on our future</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



<p>As the team moves forward with commercializing this modified cement material, the possibilities seem vast. </p>



<p>From more resilient infrastructure to environmentally friendly building practices, the lessons learned from Roman concrete could pave the way for significant advancements in construction.</p>



<p>It's intriguing to think that by looking back at techniques used over two millennia ago, we might find solutions to some of today's most pressing challenges. </p>



<p>What other ancient secrets might be waiting to be discovered, and how could they shape the world of tomorrow?</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.add1602" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



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How ancient Romans made such incredibly durable concrete is no longer a mystery

The grandeur and innovation of ancient Roman architecture is etched...

<p>Ever wondered why you perk up when you smell fresh apple pie or the earthy scent of rain? Your sense of smell and olfactory system might have more to do with your overall health than you think. </p>



<p>In a fascinating research revelation, an unexpected link has emerged between our sense of smell, or olfactory function, and both brain and overall health.</p>



<p>A whiff of a certain fragrance or the pungent pong of an odor, it's all more than just a sensory experience.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-health-and-our-sense-of-smell">Brain health and our sense of smell</h2>



<p>How often do we pause to appreciate the olfactory wonders that our noses make possible every day? And yet, the implications of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-sense-of-smell-detects-odors-in-less-time-than-it-takes-to-blink/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense of smell</a> extend far beyond identifying the fragrance of a blooming rose or the refreshingly earthy scent that follows rainfall. </p>



<p>A team of researchers led by Professor Emeritus Michael Leon along with Cynthia Woo and Emily Troscianko, has put our noses under the microscope, so to say, uncovering the significant role they play in our overall physical and mental health.</p>



<p>The research proceedings, published in <em>Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience</em>, involved scientists from the <a href="https://www.bio.uci.edu/about/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Charlie Dunlop School of Biological Sciences</a> and <a href="https://torch.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Oxford Research Centre in the Humanities</a>.</p>



<p>Together, they have connected the dots between the loss of olfactory function and an increase in inflammation, pointing out a staggering number of 139 associated medical conditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smelling-trouble-in-brain-and-body-health">Smelling trouble in brain and body health</h2>



<p>An impaired <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/odors-influence-newborn-brain-growth-in-the-first-week/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense of smell</a> is often brushed off as an insignificant inconvenience. However, the latest research findings hint that it may be more than just that. Olfactory dysfunction could indeed be a harbinger of neurological and bodily diseases. </p>



<p>“The data are particularly interesting because we had previously found that olfactory enrichment can improve the memory of older adults by 226 percent,” said professor Michael Leon. </p>



<p>“We now know that pleasant scents can decrease inflammation, potentially pointing to the mechanism by which such scents can improve brain health.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-scent-lots-to-prevent">No scent, lots to prevent</h2>



<p>Unlocking the potential of our sense of smell could be the key to mitigating symptoms and perhaps even delay the onset of certain diseases. How, you ask? By therapeutically stimulating our olfactory senses, of course.</p>



<p>The research study tackles the herculean task of systematically tracking a whopping 139 medical conditions associated with both olfactory loss and heightened inflammation. </p>



<p>The findings throw light on a shared pathway linking these factors.</p>



<p>The loss of smell is often the first domino to fall before conditions such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. Therefore, it could serve as a timely indicator to act proactively and adopt therapeutic approaches.</p>



<p>You may have heard the saying ‘No pain, no gain’, but in this case, it should be ‘No scent, lots to prevent’.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smell-power-helps-brain-power">Smell power helps brain power</h2>



<p>The concept of olfactory enrichment involves regular and intentional exposure to a variety of odors to stimulate the olfactory system. </p>



<p>Emerging from the detailed research led by Professor Leon and his colleagues, this revolutionary approach promises to offer a proactive method to bolster cognitive health. </p>



<p>By introducing a structured regimen of pleasant and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-nose-is-a-clever-smell-prediction-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diverse scents</a> into daily life, individuals can potentially delay or reduce the impact of neurodegenerative diseases. </p>



<p>This kind of sensory intervention harnesses the power of smell not only to evoke memories and emotions, but also to tangibly affect brain health, promoting synaptic connections and reducing inflammation. </p>



<p>Such findings open up an innovative dimension in therapeutic practices, where the humble fragrance might rival traditional medicinal routes in its impact and accessibility.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions">Future directions</h2>



<p>The exciting revelations surrounding olfactory enrichment underscore the importance of further interdisciplinary research. </p>



<p>As we stand on the cusp of integrating sensory therapies into disease prevention and management, the path forward calls for collaboration across fields such as neuroscience, psychology, and even the cosmetic industry. </p>



<p>Future studies can expand the range of scents explored, personalize olfactory kits based on patient profiles, and incorporate digital technologies to monitor progress. </p>



<p>This expansion is critical to developing tailored olfactory interventions that can be easily adopted into everyday routines.</p>



<p>Moreover, public awareness campaigns about olfaction’s significance in health can empower individuals to take charge of their sensory experiences, transforming a simple smell into a powerful tool for brain and overall well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healthcare-sense-of-smell-and-the-future">Healthcare, sense of smell, and the future</h2>



<p>The future of healthcare could smell a lot better, quite literally, thanks to this important research. Professor Michael Leon and Cynthia Woo are currently developing a device to deliver olfactory therapy. This could potentially revolutionize non-invasive health improvement methods.</p>



<p>This research serves as a stepping stone for future studies aiming to explore the therapeutic use of scent to address a broader range of medical conditions.</p>



<p>“It will be interesting to see if we can ameliorate the symptoms of other medical conditions with olfactory enrichment,” Professor Leon says.</p>



<p>This study has revealed a crucial link between our sense of smell and brain health while highlighting the need for further investigation into olfactory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-smell-loss-linked-to-changes-in-brain-connectivity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therapies</a>.</p>



<p>So next time you inhale the aroma of your morning coffee or the aroma from your kitchen, remember, there's more to that whiff than meets, quite literally, the nostrils.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2024.1455418/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience</a>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



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Losing your sense of smell is linked to over 100 diseases

Ever wondered why you perk up when you smell fresh...

<p>Deep in Antarctica's Erebus Bay lives the robust Weddell seal, the southernmost mammal in the world. You're acquainted with the seals, but how much do you really know about them? </p>



<p>When at rest on the icy plains, they bear resemblance to an overfed feline sprawled languidly on a rug. Yet, the comparison stops at appearances. </p>



<p>Weddell <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seals-have-genetic-scars-from-intense-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a> are phenomenal divers. Their intriguing underwater exploits have marked records of over 900 meters (2,952 feet) deep dives, some extending to a mind-boggling 96 minutes.</p>



<p>But what's even more fascinating is their recent diving escapade that has caught the attention of marine researchers worldwide.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diving-strategy-of-weddell-seals">Diving strategy of Weddell seals</h2>



<p>Researchers at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) have discovered a novel dive foraging strategy used by Weddell seals.</p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fascinating-mating-behaviors-of-leopard-seals-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a>, it seems, have learned to play the tactical game of survival by striking a delicate balance between their breath-holding expeditions and maximizing the use of seasonal Antarctic light.</p>



<p>According to the study, the seals conduct their deepest, most prolonged dives right at the start of the day, instead of during the sun-bathed peak hours.</p>



<p>“These extreme dives require longer recuperation times once the seals return to the surface," said lead author&nbsp;<a href="http://www.shero-lab.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michelle Shero</a>, an assistant scientist in biology at <a href="https://www.whoi.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHOI</a>.</p>



<p>"So, if the seals make extreme dives in the middle of the day when it is maximum light&nbsp;- there may be lots of prey around that are easy to see, but the seals would still ‘miss out’ because they’d have to spend a lot of time recuperating.&nbsp;<em>Not</em>&nbsp;conducting extreme dives when prey is most accessible, may actually be the best strategy.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-foraging-in-different-light-conditions">Foraging in different light conditions </h2>



<p>What the research team witnessed was these animals under varying light conditions, counting daylight 24/7, a mix of day and night, and then dark 24/7. This provided a "natural experiment" to help understand how the seals' feeding strategies change with a range of light conditions.</p>



<p>“We expected that the seals would follow their food and that their deepest, longest dives might occur at midday when the sun is overhead," said Shero.</p>



<p>"But what we surprisingly found was that the seals appeared to actually avoid making their most extreme dives during midday, allowing the seals to keep diving over and over without having to pause for long.”</p>



<p>This avoidance effectively allows the seals to dive repeatedly without requiring lengthy pauses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategic-decisions-of-weddell-seals">Strategic decisions of Weddell seals</h2>



<p>By avoiding peak-hour extreme dives, the seals effectively spend nearly all their time underwater, foraging under high-light conditions, which is best for visual hunters. </p>



<p>"These animals are making very strategic decisions about when to make their long dives, so they can best interact with the daily-changing environment in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-are-intense-heat-waves-affecting-life-in-antarctica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctic</a>, allowing them to maximize their prey," noted Shero.</p>



<p>Equipped with Conductivity Temperature Depth-Satellite Relay Dive Loggers, the research team collected data from 59 adult seals from the western Ross Sea in Antarctica, accounting for 8,913 seal days of behavioral data.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weddell-seals-plan-their-activities">Weddell seals plan their activities</h2>



<p>Study co-author Professor Jennifer Burns is chair of the <a href="https://www.depts.ttu.edu/biology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Biological Sciences</a> at Texas Tech University, Lubbock.</p>



<p>"For me, one of the more surprising findings of this research was our discovery that Weddell seals 'plan' their activities in a much more nuanced way than I had previously appreciated,” said Professor Burns. </p>



<p>“Not only did the seals shift the average depth and duration of their dives in response to current light levels, but they also made their longest and most taxing dives at times when their recovery period was least likely to negatively impact overall foraging success." </p>



<p>"So not only were they planning when to forage, but it also seems that they were thinking ahead and planning when to rest.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-in-tune-with-their-surroundings">In tune with their surroundings </h2>



<p>"Weddell seals live in one of the most hostile environments on the planet and need to keep their internal clock running during periods when the sun never sets or when the sun never rises," noted Daniel Costa, professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Santa Cruz</a>.</p>



<p>"Our study found that they take great advantage of the periods of short-day length to make the longest dives that push their physiological ability to the extreme to do the most hunting when there is light to enable their search for food and or breathing holes in the ice."</p>



<p>The interpretation of the data has led to the realization that these seals are in tune with circadian rhythms and light levels while foraging in Antarctica. The research provides insights into the survival strategies of Weddell seals in one of the most rapidly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-will-the-antarctic-ice-sheet-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">changing environments</a>.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-024-07029-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Weddell seals have a surprising survival strategy

Deep in Antarctica's Erebus Bay lives the robust Weddell seal,...

<p>The warm, familiar image of hedgehogs has now turned into an alarming symbol of the ecological crisis our planet is facing.</p>



<p>Hedgehogs, once common in Europe, are now <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-predict-a-new-mass-extinction-that-will-wipe-out-humans-and-all-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">struggling to survive</a>. Their habitats have decreased as a result of urban growth, intensive farming, and roads.</p>



<p>The IUCN has labeled them "near threatened" due to a significant population decline of 30% in the last decade.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sudden-disappearance-of-hedgehogs">Sudden disappearance of hedgehogs</h2>



<p>Frenzied urban development hasn't been kind to hedgehogs. The concrete jungle and polluted air have made their existence an uphill battle, but that's just part of the problem. </p>



<p>Our high-speed roads have morphed into death traps for these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-european-hedgehog-lived-in-denmark/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">critters</a> - who aren't known for their swift movements.</p>



<p>Even the rural landscapes, once considered safe havens, have become hostile territories. Technologically advanced farming techniques, especially the rampant use of pesticides, have not only eliminated insects - a primary food source for hedgehogs, but also pose a potential poison threat to the hedgehogs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threat-of-hedgehog-extinction">Threat of hedgehog extinction</h2>



<p>Even after concerted efforts by <a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>, fully grasping the reasons behind the decline in hedgehog population remains a puzzle. </p>



<p>“Unfortunately, evidence points towards a worrying and widespread downward trend. The red list assessment also highlights data uncertainties – for example, the limits of this species’ distribution are not entirely clear, and there are gaps in knowledge of its populations," said Abi Gazzard, a program officer at IUCN. </p>



<p>"There is still a chance to halt the decline of the western European hedgehog, and we must aim to prevent any further worsening of status.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-hedgehogs-from-extinction">Saving hedgehogs from extinction</h2>



<p>The Mammal Society is rallying the public to make their backyards and gardens more welcoming for hedgehogs. This could mean creating small passages in fences for their free movement, avoiding harmful pesticides, and setting up cozy shelters for them to rest.</p>



<p>“This decline will likely come as no surprise to the average person. When hedgehogs come up in conversation, it’s not long before someone says that they just don’t see them any more," said Hope Nothhelfer, a communications officer at the Mammal Society.</p>



<p>"The hope is that as hedgehogs become more and more like a distant memory from our childhoods, we will respond with action that will bring these memories back to life."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-red-list-revelations">Red List revelations</h2>



<p>The hedgehog is not alone in its struggle. Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> worldwide are facing similar challenges. In fact, the IUCN's red list has been buzzing with shifts and changes.</p>



<p>The grey plover, for instance, has seen its population drop by over 30% since the late 1990s, landing it in the "vulnerable" category.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts-need-a-boost">Conservation efforts need a boost</h2>



<p>With these distressing circumstances, global conservation efforts need a major revamp to save hedgehogs from extinction. </p>



<p>Initiatives focusing on restoring habitats, legal protection drives, and public awareness programs are gaining momentum, as more and more people realize that preserving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-stop-the-extinction-of-north-atlantic-right-whales/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> is critical. </p>



<p>Education is a powerful weapon in the fight for conservation. By educating individuals about wildlife preservation, we equip them with the tools they need to actively contribute to the cause.</p>



<p>We have seen school curriculums and community workshops becoming more inclusive of modules on environmental awareness and biodiversity.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-threat-to-trees">The threat to trees</h2>



<p>If we want to help save hedgehogs, we must also turn our attention to trees. Hedgehogs rely on trees for shelter and nesting material. Trees also attract the insects that hedgehogs like to eat, such as beetles and caterpillars. </p>



<p>The red list reveals that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-third-of-the-worlds-trees-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">38% of the world's tree species</a> are wavering on the brink of extinction. It is our job to ensure that we are planting at the same rate, if not more, at which we are felling these trees.</p>



<p>Our heavy-handed urbanization and agricultural expansion are directly responsible for the loss of tree habitats. Other threatening factors include invasive species, pests, and diseases.</p>



<p>The research reminds us that many of the decisions we make, such as paving a driveway or selecting a pesticide, directly impacts the habitats of animals - and therefore, their survival.</p>



<p>Though the consequences of our actions may not always be immediate and visible, they certainly have long-lasting effects. </p>



<p>-----</p>



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Hedgehogs face extinction as their habitats vanish

The warm, familiar image of hedgehogs has now turned into...

<p>Approximately 201.6 million years ago, Earth experienced one of its most catastrophic mass extinctions, wiping out nearly 75% of all species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This upheaval, marking the transition from the Triassic to the Jurassic period, coincided with massive volcanic eruptions that tore apart the supercontinent Pangaea, paving the way for dinosaurs to dominate.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-caused-the-mass-extinction">What caused the mass extinction?</h2>



<p>Yet, despite decades of research, the precise mechanisms of this extinction <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-was-the-cause-of-earths-largest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">event</a> have remained elusive. </p>



<p>The most prominent theory has held that volcanic carbon dioxide (CO2) raised global temperatures, leading to extreme warming and ocean acidification that proved unsustainable for most species.</p>



<p>Now, a new study published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2415486121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em></a> challenges this longstanding belief, presenting evidence that severe cooling from volcanic sulfates - not warming - was the primary trigger. </p>



<p>The study proposes that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-winters-weakened-the-dinosaurs-before-the-asteroid-hit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">volcanic winters</a> from massive, short-lived lava eruptions plunged the planet into drastic cold, instantly disrupting ecosystems long adapted to warmer climates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-cooling-as-the-main-driver">Volcanic cooling as the main driver </h2>



<p>Led by Dennis Kent of Columbia University’s <a href="https://lamont.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory</a>, the team analyzed evidence from the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP), a volcanic region that erupted as Pangaea split apart. </p>



<p>Unlike the gradual CO2 buildup that would have driven warming over millennia, volcanic sulfate aerosols have a nearly immediate cooling effect, reflecting sunlight away from Earth.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Carbon dioxide and sulfates act not just in opposite ways, but opposite time frames. It takes a long time for carbon dioxide to build up and heat things, but the effect of sulfates is pretty much instant,” Kent explained.</p>



<p>This new insight places the initial extinction-inducing events within a time frame that “happened in the span of a lifetime.” This makes it relatable, noted Kent, to modern humanity's grasp of rapid climate events.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-impact-of-the-eruptions">Mysterious impact of the eruptions </h2>



<p>The Triassic-Jurassic extinction has long been associated with CAMP eruptions, but the timing and intensity of these eruptions had been unclear.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In an earlier <a href="https://news.climate.columbia.edu/2013/03/21/megavolcanoes-tied-to-pre-dinosaur-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> in 2013, Kent and his colleagues linked CAMP to this extinction through consistent magnetic polarity in rock layers, establishing a near-simultaneous timing across what is now North America, Europe, and North Africa. </p>



<p>The actual size and impact of these eruptions, however, remained under debate, with most assuming they had occurred gradually over thousands of years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetic-evidence-of-catastrophic-eruptions-nbsp">Magnetic evidence of catastrophic eruptions&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The current study offers a clearer picture by examining magnetic particles in rocks from sites in Morocco, the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, and New Jersey's Newark Basin.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Through the magnetic alignment of particles preserved in these lava deposits, Kent and his team found that each of the first five eruptions occurred in less than 100 years - too short a span for Earth’s magnetic pole to shift enough to show a directional change in the particles.</p>



<p>These findings suggest that the eruptions were, in fact, monumental, concentrated pulses.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to co-author Paul Olsen, a Lamont-Doherty paleontologist, small events spread out over tens of thousands of years produce much less of an effect than the same total volume of volcanism concentrated in less than a century.</p>



<p>This concentration likely released vast quantities of sulfates rapidly enough to create widespread cooling, triggering environmental collapse.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-devastating-effects-of-volcanic-cooling">Devastating effects of volcanic cooling</h2>



<p>The cooling effects of sulfate aerosols, unlike CO2, are short-lived. Sulfates tend to fall out of the atmosphere within a few years, leading to temporary but extreme volcanic winters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, the rapid and intense pulses of CAMP eruptions would have produced repeated, harsh cold spells that were hundreds of times more powerful than Iceland’s Laki eruption in 1783, which led to widespread crop failures and climate disruptions across Europe.</p>



<p>In the CAMP regions, temperatures plummeted quickly, altering ecosystems drastically. In sediments just below the first CAMP lava flows, Triassic-era fossils of animals like large semiaquatic crocodilian relatives, tree-dwelling lizards, and flat-headed amphibians appear.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Above these lava layers, they disappear. Small feathered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-are-helping-astronomers-in-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> and early mammals, which were already present but in limited diversity, seem to have survived, perhaps due to their smaller size, ability to burrow, or other adaptive traits that helped them endure colder conditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-climate-change-lessons-from-the-past">Rapid climate change: Lessons from the past</h2>



<p>This revised timeline and understanding of the CAMP eruptions not only reshape our comprehension of the Triassic-Jurassic extinction but also underscore how concentrated environmental shocks can cause rapid, large-scale disruptions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The authors suggest that the massive and abrupt release of volcanic sulfates forced drastic adaptation, with only certain resilient species surviving. These findings resonate today as we face accelerating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-happening-too-fast-for-some-species-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate changes</a> and underscore the potentially devastating effects of rapid environmental shifts.</p>



<p>Kent and his team’s research reveals that the Triassic-Jurassic extinction may have been a lesson in environmental volatility, where intense cold wiped out many species long before sustained heat took its toll.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to Olsen, the magnitude of the environmental effects are related to how concentrated the events are. This study’s perspective on past mass extinctions offers insights relevant to today’s environmental challenges, reminding us of the power and unpredictability of planetary forces.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Volcanic cooling, not warming, caused a major mass extinction

Approximately 201.6 million years ago, Earth experienced one of its...

<p>A recent breakthrough in genetic research has introduced a tool capable of delivering therapeutic genetic material to developing fetal brain cells, potentially halting genetic neurodevelopmental disorders before birth. </p>



<p>Developed by a collaborative team led by Aijun Wang, a professor of surgery and biomedical engineering at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>, the innovative delivery method was successfully tested in mice and could target conditions like Angelman and Rett syndromes.</p>



<p>“The implications of this tool for treating neurodevelopmental conditions are profound. We can potentially correct genetic anomalies at a foundational level during critical periods of brain development,” Wang said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.4c05169" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>ACS Nano</em></a>, the study showcases a lipid nanoparticle (LNP)-based delivery system that transmits messenger RNA (mRNA) to fetal cells, facilitating early intervention for genetic disorders identifiable during prenatal testing.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delivering-material-to-fix-faulty-genes">Delivering material to fix faulty genes</h2>



<p>Central to this new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene editing</a> tool is the use of LNPs to transport mRNA, which carries instructions for creating essential proteins. In many genetic disorders, gene mutations cause abnormal protein production, leading to dysfunctional cellular processes. </p>



<p>By delivering mRNA that translates into functional proteins, the LNPs offer a way to directly address these genetic faults within developing fetal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-blowing-discovery-humans-possess-over-3000-different-types-of-brain-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain cells</a>.</p>



<p>As Wang and his colleagues described, LNPs carrying mRNA are introduced into the cells through endocytosis. Within the cell, an innovative “acid-degradable linker” enables rapid decomposition of the LNP, releasing the mRNA payload.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The LNPs developed in this study use a new acid degradable linker that enables the LNPs to rapidly degrade inside of cells. The new linker also enables LNPs to be engineered to have lower toxicity,” said Niren Murthy, a professor of bioengineering at UC Berkeley and co-investigator on the project.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-challenges-to-fix-genes">Overcoming challenges to fix genes</h2>



<p>This innovation addresses a major hurdle in mRNA-based therapy: toxicity. Without high efficiency, increased doses would be required, potentially triggering a harmful immune response.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The biggest hurdle to deliver <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moderna-announces-mrna-flu-vaccine-success-will-soon-be-released/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mRNA</a> to the central nervous system so far has been toxicity that leads to inflammation,” Wang said. However, the study’s results showed the LNPs effectively delivered the mRNA, reducing the need for toxic doses.</p>



<p>The research team applied the LNP method to deliver mRNA coding for CAS9 - a protein used in CRISPR gene editing technology - to the brains of fetal mice.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fixing-faulty-genes-early">Fixing faulty genes early</h2>



<p>This approach, focused on Angelman syndrome, aimed to intervene before the brain’s blood-brain barrier formed, ensuring greater accessibility and efficiency in correcting genetic faults early.</p>



<p>CAS9 acts like molecular scissors, precisely editing DNA to correct specific mutations.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The mRNA is like the Lego manual that has instructions to put the pieces together to form functional proteins,” Wang explained.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The cell itself has all the pieces to build CAS9. We just have to supply the mRNA sequence, and the cell will take and translate it into proteins.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-efficiency-in-brain-cell-transformation">High efficiency in brain cell transformation</h2>



<p>Through detailed tracking, the researchers observed widespread editing in the developing brain cells of their mouse model. They achieved 30% gene editing in brain stem cells, a significant outcome given that these cells differentiate into various types of neurons across the brain.</p>



<p>“Transfecting 30% of the whole brain, especially the stem cells, is a big deal. These cells migrate and spread to many places across the brain as the fetus further develops,” Wang said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As development progressed, these stem cells moved throughout the brain, resulting in over 60% of hippocampal neurons and 40% of cortical neurons exhibiting successful gene transfection.</p>



<p>“This is a very promising method for genetic conditions affecting the central nervous system. When the babies are born, many of the neurons could have been corrected. This means the baby could be born with no symptoms,” Wang explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-outcomes-for-faulty-genes">Positive outcomes for faulty genes</h2>



<p>Wang and his team anticipate that the efficiency of this genetic intervention may be even higher in models where the disease is actively progressing. </p>



<p>“Bad neurons with mutation may be killed by the accumulation of disease symptoms and good neurons may stay and proliferate. This could lead to amplified therapeutic efficiency,” he explained.</p>



<p>Wang added that further understanding of the cellular mechanisms could optimize this approach, working in harmony with natural cellular repair pathways.</p>



<p>Ultimately, the study marks a groundbreaking step in genetic-based prenatal therapies. With further research, this technique could revolutionize treatment for genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toddler-screen-time-linked-to-atypical-sensory-behaviors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurodevelopmental disorders</a>, offering hope for countless families and new pathways for medical intervention at the earliest stages of life.</p>



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Can we fix faulty genes before birth?

A recent breakthrough in genetic research has introduced a tool...

<p>Let's rewind the clock, almost 14 billion years to the beginning of it all -- the Big Bang. This cosmic event generated an exponential expansion in the infant universe and birthed all known matter, including stars, planets, black holes, dark matter, and dark energy, according to the inflationary universe theory.</p>



<p>The energy created bears striking similarities to what we now call "dark energy," which most scientists believe makes up roughly 70% of the universe. </p>



<p>The catch? We’re not exactly sure what dark energy is or how it might relate to black holes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-desi-and-the-beginning-of-everything">DESI and the beginning of everything</h2>



<p>"If you ask yourself the question, 'Where in the later universe do we see gravity as strong as it was at the beginning of the universe?' the answer is at the center of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/highest-resolution-eht-black-hole-images-ever-taken-usher-in-new-era/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a>," said <a href="https://lsa.umich.edu/mira/people/faculty/gtarle.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><u>Gregory Tarlé</u></a>, professor of physics at the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> and co-author of the study.</p>



<p>"It's possible that what happened during inflation runs in reverse, the matter of a massive star becomes dark energy again during gravitational collapse -- like a little Big Bang played in reverse."</p>



<p>Tarlé and his team of researchers from five different institutions combined their expertise and the data from the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (<a href="https://www.desi.lbl.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DESI</a>) to strengthen their case. </p>



<p>The DESI, with its 5,000 robotic eyes mounted on the Mayall telescope at the Kitt Peak National Observatory, is like having 5,000 Sherlock Holmes' set to solve the mystery of dark energy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-energy-in-black-holes">Dark energy in black holes</h2>



<p>"If black holes contain dark energy, they can couple to and grow with the expanding universe, causing its growth to accelerate" said <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=YlUuiIQAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kevin Croker</a>, lead author of the team's new study and an assistant research scientist at <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>.</p>



<p>"We can't get the details of how this is happening, but we can see evidence that it is happening."</p>



<p>Data from the first year of DESI's five-year survey teases us with evidence that the density of dark energy is increasing over time. </p>



<p>This syncs with the theory of how the amount and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-finds-a-surge-of-black-holes-after-the-big-bang/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mass of black holes</a> increased over time, providing a compelling clue towards understanding what dark energy is.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-source-of-dark-energy">Source of dark energy</h2>



<p>"When I first got involved with the project, I was very skeptical," said co-author&nbsp;<a href="https://www.bu.edu/physics/profile/steve-ahlen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><u>Steve Ahlen</u></a>, professor emeritus of physics at <a href="https://www.bu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Boston University</a>. </p>



<p>"But I maintained an open mind throughout the entire process and when we started doing the cosmology calculations, I said, 'Well, this is a really nice mechanism for making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/directly-detecting-dark-matter-primordial-black-holes-simple-as-monitoring-mars-orbit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a>.'"</p>



<p>So, they dived into the data. The team compared the data to the black holes created from the deaths of large stars across the universe's history. </p>



<p>The result? </p>



<p>"The two phenomena were consistent with each other -- as new black holes were made in the deaths of massive stars, the amount of dark energy in the universe increased in the right way," said <a href="https://www.phys.hawaii.edu/profile/DrFarrah/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><u>Duncan Farrah</u></a>, associate professor of physics at the <a href="https://www.hawaii.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hawai'i</a> and co-author of the study.</p>



<p>"This makes it more plausible that black holes are the source of dark energy."&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-holes-relation-to-dark-matter">Black holes relation to dark matter</h2>



<p>A key distinction in the new paper is that most of the black holes under consideration are much younger than those previously studied. </p>



<p>These black holes were born when star formation was well underway, rather than just beginning.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/black-holes_dark-energy_jwst-pearls_galaxies_credit-IOP-Science_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/black-holes_dark-energy_jwst-pearls_galaxies_credit-IOP-Science_1s.webp" alt="JWST NIRCam imaging of star-forming protocluster PHz G191.24+62.04, 11 billion years ago as the universe was approaching the peak of star formation. These early galaxies are among the most active star-forming galaxies observed between 10.5 and 11.5 billion years ago. Each galaxy seen in this image is therefore producing many black holes, which are converting matter into dark energy according to the cosmologically coupled black hole hypothesis. This image shows the two &quot;modules&quot; of JWST NIRCam: The leftmost module contains the protocluster, and the rightmost module is an adjacent blank field. Each module sees thousands of galaxies. Credit: NASA/IOP" class="wp-image-1948918"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>JWST NIRCam imaging of star-forming protocluster PHz G191.24+62.04, 11 billion years ago as the universe was approaching the peak of star formation. These early galaxies are among the most active star-forming galaxies observed between 10.5 and 11.5 billion years ago. Each galaxy seen in this image is therefore producing many black holes, which are converting matter into dark energy according to the cosmologically coupled black hole hypothesis. This image shows the two "modules" of JWST NIRCam: The leftmost module contains the protocluster, and the rightmost module is an adjacent blank field. Each module sees thousands of galaxies. Credit: NASA/IOP</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>"This occurs much later in the universe and is informed by recent measurements of black hole production and growth as observed with the <a href="https://hubblesite.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble</a> and <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Webb space telescopes</a>," said co-author&nbsp;<a href="https://search.asu.edu/profile/108697" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><u>Rogier Windhorst</u></a>, an interdisciplinary scientist for the JWST and professor of earth and space exploration at Arizona State University.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-cosmic-equation">Unraveling the cosmic equation</h2>



<p>Despite the intriguing data, the precise mechanism by which black holes contribute to the acceleration of the universe's expansion remains elusive.</p>



<p>Scientists continue to refine their models and seek additional evidence to support the hypothesis that black holes are repositories for dark energy. </p>



<p>Future observations using advanced telescopes and instruments are expected to shed light on this profound cosmic equation. </p>



<p>By studying the intricate dance between gravity and dark energy, researchers aim to reveal more about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-formed-through-a-merger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe's fate</a> and the role black holes may play in it.</p>



<p>Such inquiry not only pushes the boundaries of astrophysics but also challenges the fundamental understanding of cosmology itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-dark-energy-research">Future dark energy research</h2>



<p>As we look forward to new developments in dark energy research, collaborative efforts among international research teams will be paramount. </p>



<p>Instruments like DESI and future missions such as the Euclid satellite and the <a href="https://roman.gsfc.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope</a>, slated for launch in the coming years, hold promise for fresh insights into the nature of dark energy and its interaction with matter. </p>



<p>Meanwhile, theoretical advancements will continue to play a pivotal role, inviting novel interpretations and solutions to the dark energy puzzle. </p>



<p>As our tools and knowledge grow, so too does the excitement within the scientific community, as each discovery fuels the quest to unravel the ultimate mystery -- what truly binds the cosmos together.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-are-black-holes-the-source-of-dark-energy">Are black holes the source of dark energy?</h2>



<p>The burning question now is understanding where these black holes are and tracking their movement over the past 8 billion years. Researchers are already working at it.</p>



<p>Science is all about pushing boundaries, asking questions, and challenging assumptions. With the DESI online, we're only scratching the surface of dark energy exploration.</p>



<p>“This will only bring more depth and clarity to our understanding of dark energy, whether that continues to support the black hole hypothesis or not," Ahlen said. "I think as an experimental endeavor, it's wonderful. You can have preconceived notions or not, but we're driven by data and observations."</p>



<p>Indeed, whatever the future observations bring, the ongoing work represents a significant shift in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hubble-spots-two-supermassive-black-holes-spiraling-on-collision-course/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy research</a>.</p>



<p>"Fundamentally, whether black holes are dark energy, coupled to the universe they inhabit, has ceased to be just a theoretical question," Tarlé said. "This is an experimental question now."</p>



<p>The study is published in the <em><a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1475-7516/2024/10/094" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics</a>. </em></p>



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New evidence suggests that dark energy comes from black holes

Let's rewind the clock, almost 14 billion years to the...

<p>Plants are known to engage in fierce competition for essential growth elements - light, water, and nutrients. And one of the most fascinating phenomena observed in the green world is the "shade avoidance" response.</p>



<p>This is an instinctive survival mechanism where plants do everything possible to intercept light in high-density environments. The concept has been studied extensively, and yet, the world of science never ceases to surprise us.</p>



<p>A team in the Laboratory of Molecular Biology at <a href="https://www.wur.nl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wageningen University</a> has recently unveiled a brand new shade avoidance mechanism revolving around the crucial role of the hormone cytokinin.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-fight-for-the-light">Plants fight for the light</h2>



<p>So how do plants even realize that they're getting crowded? The answer lies in the minute details of light absorption.</p>



<p>"In densely planted crops, red light is absorbed faster than far-red light, which is instead reflected. The red-to-far-red ratio therefore decreases with greater density. Plants 'see' this through the light-sensitive pigment <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-plants-response-to-light-can-be-manipulated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytochrome</a>," explained Professor Ronald Pierik.</p>



<p>Just think of this pigment as a light switch operated by the red-to-far-red light ratio. As the far-red light increases, likely in densely planted crops, responses such as elongating stems or leaves shifting from horizontal to vertical positions are triggered. </p>



<p>The objective is simple: the plants must rise above their neighbors to intercept more light.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-competition-beyond-light">Plant competition beyond light</h2>



<p>While light competition among plants has been well-documented, Professor Pierik and postdoctoral researcher Pierre Gautrat studied these interactions from another angle.</p>



<p>They considered how plants compete for nutrients like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-adjust-roots-to-reach-their-preferred-form-of-nitrogen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen</a>, and whether the plant's response to far-red light is affected if it does not receive sufficient nutrition.</p>



<p>The fine details of plant communication are mind-boggling. But a simplified version is that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-know-where-to-find-the-light/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant tissues</a> need to know the nitrogen availability in soil. They receive this information through a "message" passed from the roots.</p>



<p>The message carrier is cytokinin, a hormone produced in the roots that travels to the above-ground part of the plant. More nitrogen equals more cytokinin.</p>



<p>The Wageningen University team found that the shade avoidance response reduced when nitrogen was low. However, by adding extra cytokinin, even with low nitrogen, the length growth was significantly triggered by the far-red light.</p>



<p>This was a breakthrough discovery, indicating that cytokinin has a crucial role in shade avoidance.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-cytokinin">The role of cytokinin </h2>



<p>Even more intriguing is that previous research labeled cytokinin as a growth inhibitor. </p>



<p>"Looking back, all the trials on which that conclusion was based involved seedlings raised in the dark," noted Professor Pierik. "You only get that response when you grow them in the light. And not with ordinary white light, but only with an excess of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunflowers-use-multiple-light-response-systems-to-track-the-sun/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">far-red light</a>."</p>



<p>The research also shed light on the genetic level of this mechanism. Certain proteins inhibit plant sensitivity to cytokinin, and these proteins are inhibited when exposed to far-red light.</p>



<p>It's a fascinating game of inhibition which ultimately stimulates sensitivity.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-crop-cultivation">Impact on crop cultivation</h2>



<p>The architecture of crops has a significant bearing on their productivity. For example, dwarf wheat and rice varieties of the Green Revolution proved to be highly productive as they put less energy into length growth and more into grains. </p>



<p>These novel findings could help agronomists and growers improve yields in barley, wheat, maize, and rice.</p>



<p>The research ultimately highlights the ongoing enigma of plant biology and its potential to enhance our food production systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-in-sustainable-agriculture">New era in sustainable agriculture</h2>



<p>The implications of these findings extend far beyond the lab, hinting at a future where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-nitrogen-oxide-pollution-could-boost-crop-yields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop yields</a> could be optimized by leveraging our understanding of shade avoidance and cytokinin. </p>



<p>For farmers, this research offers the possibility of tailoring crop growth under high-density planting conditions, especially as the demand for efficient food production continues to rise. </p>



<p>With the right balance of cytokinin, crops can potentially be coaxed into maximizing growth even in nutrient-poor soils or densely populated fields. </p>



<p>This breakthrough could inspire a new era in sustainable agriculture, where crop architecture is finely tuned for resilience and productivity, reducing the need for excessive fertilizer and supporting global food security efforts.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-52828-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a></em>.</p>



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<p></p>

The quest for light: How plants compete to survive

Plants are known to engage in fierce competition for essential...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic pollution.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-threat-in-urban-air"><strong>Invisible threat in urban air</strong></h2>



<p>City dwellers face an unseen danger with every breath. New findings from Emory University researchers suggest that fine particulate matter from <a href="http://earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicle emissions may significantly elevate the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease</a>. The study examined brain tissue samples from 224 individuals who had confirmed diagnoses and volunteered their brains for scientific research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disturbing-connections-emerge"><strong>Disturbing connections emerge</strong></h2>



<p>Scientists analyzed neuritic plaques — protein clusters that characterize Alzheimer's — while mapping each participant's exposure to PM2.5 particles based on residential location and surrounding traffic density. The correlation proved more alarming than anticipated. Individuals experiencing higher pollution exposure showed nearly double the likelihood of elevated plaque accumulation in brain tissue.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-matters"><strong>Timing matters</strong></h2>



<p>The research team discovered that pollution exposure during the final year before death demonstrated the strongest association with brain changes. This timeline suggests relatively rapid impacts from environmental toxins on neural health. The connection remained robust even after accounting for various demographic and health factors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-vulnerability-patterns"><strong>Genetic vulnerability patterns</strong></h2>



<p>Perhaps most concerning, people lacking the APOE gene—which naturally predisposes individuals to Alzheimer's — exhibited more than twice the susceptibility to pollution-related brain damage. Study author Dr. Anke Huels noted this indicates environmental elements like air contamination could trigger the disease in cases where hereditary factors don't explain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-implications"><strong>Public health implications</strong></h2>



<p>These findings, published in <em><a href="https://www.neurology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a></em>, underscore the critical importance of air quality regulations in urban planning. The research suggests that implementing stricter emission controls and promoting alternative transportation could serve as powerful tools in Alzheimer's prevention.</p>



<p>As cities worldwide grapple with growing traffic congestion and aging populations, this study highlights an urgent need for comprehensive approaches to environmental health that protect both our lungs and our minds.</p>



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Traffic fumes may trigger Alzheimer's

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-earth-became-a-frozen-wasteland">When Earth became a frozen wasteland</h2>



<p>Imagine Earth as a giant snowball, frozen solid from the North Pole to the equator. This wasn't the plot of a science fiction movie – it was our planet's reality 700 million years ago during an extreme ice age that has puzzled scientists for decades.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery">The discovery</h2>



<p>Australian researchers from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> have finally cracked one of geology's greatest mysteries: what caused the Sturtian glaciation and why it persisted for an unprecedented 57 million years. This period occurred long before dinosaurs roamed the Earth, when no complex plants or multicellular animals existed.</p>



<p>Dr. Adriana Dutkiewicz, the study's lead author, describes a world completely unlike today's climate. "Imagine the Earth almost completely frozen over," she explained. "The planet was blanketed in ice from poles to equator, and temperatures plunged."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-combination-of-climate-factors">The combination of climate factors</h2>



<p>The research team discovered that this massive freeze resulted from a "double whammy" of geological events. First, plate tectonic activity reduced volcanic carbon dioxide emissions to historically low levels. Volcanic activity typically releases CO2 into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that keeps Earth warm.</p>



<p>Simultaneously, weathering of volcanic rocks in what is now Canada actively absorbed atmospheric CO2, further reducing greenhouse gas concentrations. When atmospheric carbon dioxide levels dropped below 200 parts per million – less than half of today's levels – glaciation engulfed the entire planet.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-climate-implications">Modern climate implications</h2>



<p>Published in the journal <em><a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a></em>, this research provides crucial insights into Earth's climate system. While geological climate changes occur over millions of years, the study emphasizes that human-induced climate change is happening at a pace ten times faster than previously observed natural changes, highlighting the urgent need to understand our planet's delicate climate balance.</p>



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What caused the planet's longest ice age

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY 57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



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Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



<p id="block-9bd989d6-2fd3-4580-957f-6cacce134f08">-----</p>



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<p id="block-1f9a227a-ec37-4140-81b8-ffa4a7cc6689">-----</p>



<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>



<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



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<p>-----</p>

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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