Most of us have heard a parent or grandparent say, “Time goes by faster every year,” while shaking their head at how quickly July 4 seems to roll around. 



When you’re twelve, however, the brain has a different perception of time - the wait for summer vacation feels endless, and a single school day can feel as slow as a traffic jam in August heat.



That gap between the child’s long afternoon and the adult’s lightning-fast month isn’t just storytelling, it’s how our brain's perception of time changes, altering the way it measures all of the moments that make up our lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-vs-fresh-experiences">First vs. fresh experiences</h2>



Children cram their days with firsts: a first dive into the pool, a first try at long division, a first sleepover away from home.



These fresh experiences swarm the brain with new images to file away, stretching the subjective length of a single afternoon.



Adults, by contrast, tend to replay <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-impacts-our-daily-routines-and-transportation/">familiar routines</a>. With fewer novel snapshots to store, the days collapse into something closer to a highlight reel than a feature film.



According to psychologist Marc Wittmann at the Institute for Frontier Areas of Psychology and Mental Health <a href="https://igpp.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(IGPP</a>), the feeling that time accelerates is tightly linked to how much new material our brains record each day.



He points out that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-clutter-speeds-up-aging-in-the-brain/">memory</a> and time perception sit on the same neural bench; when one slows, the other shrinks. "Newness" holds the key to this phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-brain-and-time-perception">Human brain and time perception</h2>



Whenever a brain encounters something it has never processed before, a quick surge of attention flags the event as worth keeping. The more flags raised, the thicker the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-use-storage-trick-to-keep-your-memories-in-sequential-order/">memory log</a> becomes, and the longer that span later feels.



Kids, still green to nearly everything, throw flags left and right. A lunchroom joke, a new word in science class, or a game of tag - each registers as its own small chapter.



Adults often glide through copy-and-paste days that differ only by the date on the calendar. With fewer chapters recorded, the book of any given week reads as a short story.



Research using immersive virtual reality in 2024 showed that older volunteers underestimated simple time intervals by roughly 15 percent, highlighting how novelty <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S096800042300302X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharpens the inner clock</a>.



Routine doesn’t just compress the past; it also drains the present.



Studies tracking holiday seasons in several countries found that people who stuck to predictable daily rhythms felt that Christmas or Ramadan arrived sooner every year, while those who sprinkled in new activities reported a slower march toward the festivities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-processing-speed-linked-with-time">Brain processing speed linked with time</h2>



Every sensation has to travel from eye or ear to cortex. In youngsters, those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/speech-pattern-wfd-that-is-a-clear-indication-a-person-is-in-cognitive-decline/">neural highways</a> are short and well-paved. As bodies grow, the routes lengthen, and the conduction speed though still quick can’t match its earlier zip.



Add natural age-related slowing of signal processing and the brain starts sampling the world less often each second.



Fewer samples mean fewer “ticks” on the subjective stopwatch, so a morning meeting seems to vanish faster for a forty-year-old than for a fourth grader.



This sampling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-link-pupil-dilation-to-brains-working-memory-levels/">shows up in the eyes</a>. Our eyes jerk from point to point in rapid saccades, pausing in brief fixations while the brain grabs a visual frame.



Young, rested eyes squeeze in more fixations per minute. Older or fatigued eyes lag, offering the brain fewer still frames to stitch together. With a thinner film strip, the projection of the day speeds along.



Scientists studying eye movements liken perception to a flipbook. Each fixation is a page; flip them fast enough and you see smooth action.



When fixations slow, the flipbook loses pages. Motion still appears, but the storyline gets choppy, and, in recall, it shortens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-and-alertness">Sleep and alertness</h2>



A single night of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-can-boost-memory-in-a-surprising-way/">good sleep</a> can pull the brake on runaway days. When neurons are well-rested, they fire faster, notice more, and form clearer memories.



Athletes know the flip side: stepping onto the field after too little shut-eye makes the whole match blur. The plays happen, but the mind records only a highlight or two before the final whistle.



Students grinding through an all-nighter meet the same fate - an exam that seems to finish moments after it starts.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-best-treatment-for-excessive-daytime-sleepiness/">Chronic fatigue</a> magnifies the effect. Continually short-changing rest lowers baseline alertness, trimming snapshots day after day.



Over months, life can feel like it’s slipping through the cracks, not because the clock sped up but because the recorder slowed down.



<a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/dopamine-the-pathway-to-pleasure" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dopamine</a>, a neurotransmitter tied to motivation and time estimation, also dips with sleep debt, further warping the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1364166/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense of duration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-media-and-lost-time-perception">Social media and lost time perception</h2>



Endless feeds promise variety, yet most algorithms serve look-alike posts. Swipe through video after video of the same dance trend, and the brain barely registers a change.



Hours evaporate while the memory log remains nearly blank. Compound that with the blue-light-induced bedtime delay, and you have a double punch: fewer snapshots captured and fewer hours slept.



Cutting back on passive scrolling or swapping it for an activity with genuine novelty - trying a new recipe, learning a chord on guitar - feeds the brain more distinct moments. Those moments stretch subjective time, turning a blur of an evening into something that feels full.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-with-age-comes-responsibility">With age comes responsibility</h2>



Beyond slower processing, adults juggle long lists of responsibilities. Focus narrows to tasks at hand - emails, errands, budgets - scanning less of the environment for new input. Novelty drops, and subjective days shorten.



<a href="https://www.tiaa.org/public/institute/publication/2023/young-adults-their-attitudes-and-outlook-toward-retirement-and-the-future" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A 2023 survey</a> comparing young adults with retirees found that the older group reported the year as “rushing by” nearly twice as often, linking the feeling to the predictability of daily routines rather than to health issues.



Even so, not every senior feels the rush. Researchers tracking so-called “<a href="https://www.nm.org/healthbeat/healthy-tips/4-habits-super-agers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">super-agers</a>” note that those who keep learning new skills and staying socially engaged maintain sharper senses of time, along with stronger memory performance. Variety keeps the brain’s camera clicking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-use-your-brain-to-slow-time-perception">Use your brain to slow time perception</h2>



Here's the good news - the tools to lengthen your days fit into ordinary life. Go to bed on a schedule that honors the seven-to-nine-hour rule.



Plan at least one activity each week that forces you out of autopilot: a different jogging route, a museum you’ve never visited, a new language app.



While doing it, pay close attention to sights, sounds, and textures. Engagement packs extra snapshots into the mental album.



Stay curious daily. Swap a lunchtime scroll for a short walk and notice five things you’ve never clocked before - a mural, a bird call, the scent of a bakery vent.



Those micro-discoveries add pages to the flipbook, expanding the subjective afternoon. Over time, the habit can "thicken" the memory book that tells the story of a year, making December feel like it belongs twelve full months away, right where the calendar says it should be.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-review/article/why-the-days-seem-shorter-as-we-get-older/2CB8EC9B0B30537230C7442B826E42F1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Review</a>.



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Scientists explain why time seems to move faster and 'fly by' as we age

Most of us have heard a parent or grandparent say, “Time goes by faster every year,” while shaking their head at how quickly July 4 seems to roll around. When you’re twelve, however, the brain has a different perception of time - the wait for summer vacation feels endless, and a single school day can feel as slow as a traffic jam in August heat. That gap between the child’s long afternoon and the adult’s lightning-fast month isn’t just storytelling, it’s how our brain's perception of time...

New research has unveiled how a spreading wave of disruption and fluid flow in the brain triggers headaches, linking the neurological symptoms of aura to the subsequent migraine. The study has also identified new proteins that could serve as foundations for new migraine drugs.



“In this study, we describe the interaction between the central and peripheral nervous system brought about by increased concentrations of proteins released in the brain during an episode of spreading depolarization, a phenomenon responsible for the aura associated with migraines,” said senior author Maiken Nedergaard, the co-director of the <a href="https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/ctn.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester Center for Translational Neuromedicine</a>. 



“These findings provide us with a host of new targets to suppress sensory nerve activation to prevent and treat migraines and strengthen existing therapies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-migraines-are-preceded-by-an-aura">Many migraines are preceded by an aura</h2>



Approximately one out of ten people experience migraines, and in one-fourth of these cases, the headache is preceded by an aura. This sensory disturbance can include light flashes, blind spots, double vision, and tingling sensations or limb numbness, usually appearing five to 60 minutes before the headache.



The cause of the aura is a phenomenon called cortical spreading depression. This temporary depolarization of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neurons-can-predict-human-speech-before-we-say-a-word/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> and other cells is caused by the diffusion of glutamate and potassium, radiating like a wave across the brain, reducing oxygen levels and impairing blood flow. 



Most frequently, the depolarization event is located in the brain's visual processing center, hence the visual symptoms that often precede a migraine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-communication-during-migraines">Brain communication during migraines</h2>



Although auras arise in the brain, the brain itself cannot sense pain. Instead, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pain-signals-travel-fast/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain signals</a> are transmitted from the central nervous system (consisting of the brain and spinal cord) to the peripheral nervous system, which includes sensory nerves responsible for sending information such as touch and pain. 



Until recently, the process of communication between the brain and these peripheral nerves in migraines has largely remained a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluids-circulating-the-brain">Fluids circulating the brain</h2>



Nedergaard and her colleagues at the University of Rochester and the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> are well-known pioneers in understanding how fluids circulate in the brain. 



In 2012, Nedergard’s lab was the first to describe the glymphatic system, which uses cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to eliminate toxic proteins in the brain.&nbsp;



Together with experts in fluid dynamics, the team has built detailed models of how CSF moves in the brain, along with its role in transporting proteins, neurotransmitters, and other types of chemicals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unexpected-source-of-migraines-nbsp">An unexpected source of migraines&nbsp;</h2>



Previously, scientists argued that nerve endings on the outer surface of the membranes enclosing the brain are responsible for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/women-migraines/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">headaches</a> following an aura. 



However, the new study, conducted in mice, describes a different route and identifies proteins - many of which are currently potential new drug targets - which may be responsible for activating the nerves and causing pain.



As the depolarization wave spreads, neurons release a variety of inflammatory proteins (as well as other types of proteins) into the CSF.&nbsp;



The investigation revealed how CSF transports these proteins to the trigeminal ganglion, a massive bundle of nerves located at the base of the skull that supplies sensory information to the head and face.



Scientists have previously assumed that the trigeminal ganglion, like the rest of the peripheral nervous system, resided outside the blood-brain barrier, which tightly controls what molecules enter and leave the brain.&nbsp;



However, Nedergaard and her team identified a previously unknown gap in the barrier, allowing CSF to flow directly into the trigeminal ganglion and expose sensory nerves to the proteins released by the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-the-proteins-involved-nbsp">Identifying the proteins involved&nbsp;</h2>



The experts identified twelve proteins called ligands that bind with receptors on sensory nerves found in the trigeminal ganglion, potentially causing these cells to activate. The concentrations of several of these proteins found in CSF more than doubled following a cortical spreading depression.&nbsp;



One of these proteins, the calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), is already the target of a new class of drugs called CGRP inhibitors, which aim to treat and prevent migraines.&nbsp;



Other identified proteins are known to play a role in other pain conditions, such as neuropathic pain, and are likely important in migraine headaches as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targets-for-new-migraine-drugs-nbsp">Targets for new migraine drugs&nbsp;</h2>



“We’ve identified a new signaling pathway and several molecules that activate sensory nerves in the peripheral nervous system. Among the identified molecules are those already associated with migraines, but we didn't know exactly how and where the migraine-inducing action occurred,” said lead author Martin Kaag Rasmussen, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen.&nbsp;



“Defining the role of these newly identified ligand-receptor pairs may enable the discovery of new pharmacological targets, which could benefit the large portion of patients not responding to available therapies.”



Finally, the researchers found that the transport of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleeping-may-lower-levels-of-alzheimers-abnormal-proteins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proteins</a> released in one side of the brain reaches mostly the nerves in the trigeminal ganglion on the same side, potentially explaining why pain occurs on one side of the head during most migraines.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adl0544" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Scientists finally discover what causes migraines

New research has unveiled how a spreading wave of disruption...

Imagine traveling back in time, around forty million years before dinosaurs roamed Earth. Picture an ancient predator: fierce, patient, and lurking in swampy waters. Meet Gaiasia jennyae, an ancient swamp creature with a skull oddly resembling a toilet seat.



Its hunting strategy involved lying in wait, with jaws wide open, ready to capture any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/550-million-year-old-fossil-sponge-discovered-in-china/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creature</a>. This intriguing discovery adds a fascinating chapter to our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gigoutella-mauretanica-best-preserved-trilobite-fossils-ever-found/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric</a> life. 



What can we learn from such ancient predators, and how do they reshape our understanding of Earth's history?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giant-salamander-like-top-predator">Giant salamander-like top predator</h2>



Jason Pardo, an NSF postdoctoral fellow at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Field Museum</a> in Chicago and co-lead author of the study, described the impressive characteristics of Gaiasia jennyae. 



He explained that this ancient creature was significantly larger than a human and likely inhabited the lower regions of swamps and lakes. 



Pardo vividly described its distinctive features, stating, "It's got a big, flat, toilet seat-shaped head, which allows it to open its mouth and suck in prey." 



He further emphasized the creature's formidable dentition, noting, "It has these huge fangs, the whole front of the mouth is just giant teeth. It’s a big predator, but potentially also a relatively slow ambush predator.”



Affectionately dubbed the swamp creature with a toilet seat-shaped head, Gaiasia jennyae is believed to have hung around the swamp and lake bottoms while silently preparing for its next ambush.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-gaiasia-jennyae-got-its-name">How Gaiasia jennyae got its name</h2>



The name Gaiasia jennyae commemorates the location where the fossils were discovered: the Gai-as Formation in Namibia. It pays tribute to renowned paleontologist, Jenny Clack, celebrated for her work on the evolution of early tetrapods.



The term 'tetrapod' denotes four-limbed vertebrates that evolved from lobe-finned fishes, which laid the foundation for the evolution of a wide variety of species, including amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/gaiasia-jennyae_giant-salamander-like_skeleton_credit-Marsicano_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/gaiasia-jennyae_giant-salamander-like_skeleton_credit-Marsicano_1s.jpg" alt="Skeleton of Gaiasia jennyae recently unearthed. Credit: Marsicano" class="wp-image-1938244"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Skeleton of Gaiasia jennyae recently unearthed. Credit: Marsicano</figcaption></figure>



“When we found this enormous specimen just lying on the outcrop as a giant concretion, it was really shocking. I knew just from seeing it that it was something completely different. We were all very excited,” said Marsicano. 



“After examining the skull,&nbsp; the structure of the front of the skull caught my attention. It&nbsp; was the only clearly visible part at that time, and it showed very unusually interlocking large fangs, creating a unique bite for early tetrapods.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worlds-apart-worlds-together">Worlds apart, worlds together</h2>



Namibia of the present stands just north of South Africa. Around 300 million years ago, it was even further south, approximately on par with modern-day northern tips of Antarctica. 



The world was gradually coming out of an ice age. As swamps near the equator were drying up and turning into forests, the swampy ecosystem near the poles managed to survive, potentially amidst patches of ice and glaciers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creatures-before-gaiasia-jennyae">Creatures before Gaiasia jennyae</h2>



At such times of significant climatic transformation, animals were adapting to new forms of existence. 



Stem tetrapods, which are early four-legged vertebrates, started to diverge into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/500-million-year-old-trilobites-fossils-preserved-in-volcanic-ash/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lineages</a> that would eventually evolve into mammals, reptiles, and amphibians.



Meanwhile, in regions like what is now Namibia, ancient forms persisted. Holding on to their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lineage</a>, creatures like Gaiasia jennyae turned out to be a surprise.



Somehow tied to organisms believed to have gone extinct about 40 million years prior, Gaiasia jennyae's survival and dominance in its ecosystem as a primary predator were astonishing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cracking-the-permian-period-code">Cracking the Permian period code</h2>



Gaiasia jennyae is more than just a prehistoric creature - it's a key to unlocking the mysteries of the Permian period, enabling paleontologists to understand how the world evolved.



It suggests that the dynamics at the Equator differed significantly from those in the far south. This revelation is crucial because it may provide answers about the origins of various animal groups.



The discovery of this ancient predator suggests the existence of a thriving ecosystem, capable of nurturing such large predators. 



"The more we look, we might find more answers about these major animal groups that we care about, like the ancestors of mammals and modern reptiles." concludes Pardo.



Who knows what other secrets of evolution lie <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/470-million-year-old-animal-fossils-discovered-in-frances-cabrieres-biota/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">buried</a>, awaiting their own time in the sun? 



The quest for knowledge is far from over, and each new discovery brings us closer to understanding our world's wondrous past.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07572-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Giant salamander-like beast was a top predator before the dinosaurs

Imagine traveling back in time, around forty million years before...

How many times have you wished for a miracle to fix a past mistake? What if our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-our-brain-form-long-term-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> might have the ability to mend its own errors? Recent research shows neurons and cells can change functions, offering new hope.



Recently, researchers from Ludwig Maximilian <a href="https://www.lmu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Munich</a> and the <a href="https://www.pioneercampus.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Helmholtz Pioneer Campus</a> took a deep dive into the ocean of neuroscience to unlock the miracles of direct neuronal reprogramming.



This is where cells can change their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-sizes-are-growing-possibly-lowering-dementia-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">function</a> from one type to another, opening up promising strategies to counter neurological disorders that cause significant impairments in brain function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glial-cells-to-neurons">Glial cells to neurons</h2>



Guiding this exploration are researchers Magdalena Götz, Chair of Physiological Genomics at LMU and Head of the Stem Cell Center Department at Helmholtz Munich, alongside Boyan Bonev from the Helmholtz Pioneer Campus. 



The research was focused on using glial cells, which are non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system. The experts demonstrated that these glial cells can be transformed into functional neurons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-the-epigenome">Role of the epigenome</h2>



The researchers and their teams have narrowed their attention to small chemical modifications in the epigenome. Acting as a control switch, the epigenome determines which genes are active in different cells at various times.



The researchers claim that a post-translational modification of a key factor significantly impacts this command center, facilitating cell transformation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yin-and-yang-of-cell-reprogramming">Yin and Yang of cell reprogramming</h2>



Enter YingYang1 - a novel protein and an essential player in directing this transformation. 



Acting as a transcriptional regulator, YingYang1 opens up the chromatin for reprogramming and interacts with the transcription factor to facilitate gene expression changes. 



Simply put, YingYang1 helps to fine-tune the conversion from astrocytes, a type of glial cell that provides support and nutrition to neurons, into functional neurons. This process is vital for neuroregenerative medicine and understanding how certain diseases affect the brain and its functions. 



Overall, YingYang1 stands out as a key element in cellular reprogramming, making significant contributions to advancing neuroscience.



"The protein YingYang1 is crucial for achieving the conversion from astrocytes to neurons," explained Götz. "These findings are important to understand and improve reprogramming of glial cells to neurons, and thus bring us closer to therapeutic solutions."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-possibilities">Challenges and possibilities</h2>



Despite the promising developments in direct neuronal reprogramming, the road to practical, widespread therapeutic applications is not without its obstacles. One major challenge lies in the efficiency and specificity of the reprogramming process. 



Ensuring that glial cells consistently and accurately transform into functional neurons, without unintended effects, requires meticulous fine-tuning of the protocols used. 



Furthermore, the human brain’s intricate network poses another level of complexity. Introducing new neurons into established circuits must be done in a way that maintains or restores cognitive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bright-light-instantly-enhances-brain-function-alertness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">functions</a> rather than disrupting them.



Additionally, ethical considerations surrounding neuronal reprogramming must be responsibly navigated. This innovative field involves manipulating fundamental aspects of human biology. It necessitates rigorous ethical scrutiny and public dialogues.



Long-term effects, potential risks, and societal implications must be carefully weighed as this research moves from the lab to clinical settings.



Scientists need to consider the long-term effects of neuronal reprogramming. They must understand any potential risks involved in this process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-applications-of-turning-cells-to-neurons">Potential applications of turning cells to neurons</h2>



The potential applications of direct neuronal reprogramming are vast and transformative. One of the most promising areas is the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's disease. 



Beyond neurodegeneration, direct neuronal reprogramming could change how we treat brain injuries and strokes. Current treatments usually focus on managing symptoms. They also aim to prevent further damage. 



However, generating new, functional neurons offers a different approach. This ability presents the possibility of efficiently repairing the brain. It can help restore lost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-health-may-literally-be-a-state-of-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive</a> and motor functions.



So, why not take a moment to appreciate this remarkable discovery? And while you're at it, maybe even take a minute to marvel at the wonders of your own brain's capabilities. Because who knows? One day, we might just be able to flip the switch and give our brains the reboot they need.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-024-01677-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Neuroscience</a>.



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Rebooting the brain: Experts can transform cells into neurons

How many times have you wished for a miracle to...

Ever wondered how our <a href="https://www.massgeneral.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brains</a> manage to decipher spoken words into usable meaning? A study led by experts at <a href="https://www.massgeneral.org/">Massachusetts General Hospital</a> might have the key. They were able to uncover a conclave of neurons which they've dubbed the "brain thesaurus."



This fascinating research is the work of Dr. Ziv Williams, a highly regarded physician-investigator in the Department of Neurosurgery at Mass General.



He's also an associate professor of Neurosurgery at <a href="https://hms.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard Medical School</a>. Williams and his team set out to understand the complex process of how our brain interprets <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/similar-patterns-music-language-found-across-all-cultures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language</a> at the individual neuron level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-language-comprehension">Language comprehension</h2>



"Humans possess an exceptional ability to extract nuanced meaning through language - when we listen to speech, we can comprehend the meanings of up to tens of thousands of words and do so seamlessly across remarkably diverse concepts and themes," said Williams.



"Yet, how the human brain processes language at the basic computational level of individual neurons has remained a challenge to understand."



Through their research, the team sought to construct a detailed map of how neurons in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bilingual-brain-maintains-youthfulness-with-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> represent word meanings. For instance, how do we associate the word "cat" or "dog" with the concept of an animal? How do we distinguish the meaning of "dog" from "car"?



To understand the mechanics behind these associations, the experts used a novel technology that recorded the activities of up to a hundred neurons while subjects listened to sentences and short stories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-words-in-the-brain-s-thesaurus">Decoding words in the brain's thesaurus</h2>



The researchers conducted a study on how the brain processes different words. They found that listening to specific word categories activated distinct groups of neurons. Words related to physical actions, like "ran" or "jumped," triggered certain neurons.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-emotions-linked-to-unique-brain-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Emotionally</a> significant words, like "happy" or "sad," activated different neurons. This shows the brain has specialized regions for various linguistic stimuli. It suggests a complex neural network dedicated to language processing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinction-in-context">Distinction in context</h2>



In addition, the experts discovered that certain neurons could differentiate between homonyms like "sun" and "son" or "see" and "sea" based on their sentence context.



"Moreover, when looking at all of the neurons together, we could start building a detailed picture of how word meanings are represented in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-health-may-literally-be-a-state-of-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a>," said Williams. 



This opens the potential to predict, with some degree of accuracy, what someone is listening to or thinking about.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improved-communication-through-the-brain-thesaurus">Improved communication through the brain thesaurus</h2>



According to Williams, this depth of understanding could prove vital for developing future brain-machine interfaces. Such interfaces could potentially enable individuals with conditions such as motor paralysis or stroke to communicate more effectively.



This study catapults us closer to comprehending the remarkable human brain. It offers us a glimpse into how we derive meaning from language, a unique perspective to better understand our world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-neuroscience-and-technology">Bridging neuroscience and technology</h2>



The fusion of neuroscience and technology showcased in this study signifies a burgeoning field with transformative possibilities. By leveraging advanced recording techniques and computational algorithms, researchers can obtain real-time insights into neural activities, bridging the gap between abstract concepts and practical applications. 



This convergence not only enhances our understanding of cognitive functions but also propels the development of next-generation devices designed to interact seamlessly with the human brain. 



Such innovations could revolutionize various fields, from medical diagnostics to artificial intelligence, offering unprecedented opportunities to improve the quality of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions">Future directions</h2>



Ensuring that these advancements are accessible and beneficial to all segments of society requires transparent policies and collaborative efforts among scientists, ethicists, and policymakers. 



Furthermore, future research needs to address the variability across different individuals' brain structures and functions to develop more inclusive and effective solutions. 



The path ahead is challenging yet exciting, promising a deeper understanding of the human mind and more sophisticated artificial systems that could transform varied aspects of human experience.



This research paves the way for pioneering advancements that could reshape how we interact with technology and each other.



After all, the interplay between language, technology, and the human brain deepens our understanding of what it means to be human.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07643-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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The brain uses a secret 'thesaurus' to find the right words

Ever wondered how our brains manage to decipher spoken words...

Imagine attending a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/live-music-evokes-stronger-emotions-than-streamed-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">live</a> music performance and feeling a sense of unity with the audience as everyone's hearts beat in rhythm with the melody.



This occurrence isn't just a poetic expression; recent research suggests it could occur scientifically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pulse-behind-the-phenomenon">Pulse behind the phenomenon</h2>



Recent findings from the esteemed <a href="https://www.waseda.jp/top/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Waseda University in Japan</a> indicate that an audience's heartbeat can synchronize during a live performance.



The research, conducted by Professor Ryota Nomura, experimented with the idea of "common input synchronization." This phenomenon explains how systems or organisms respond equivalently when exposed to the same stimulus - in this case, music.



“Music-induced synchronization of heart rate may be the mechanism underlying the coherent behavior of a large audience in a theater,” said Professor Nomura.



Although previous studies have shown low correlations in heart rate synchronization between different individuals, Nomura's focus on intra-person correlations presents a fresh perspective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-live-music-and-the-heart">Live music and the heart</h2>



Nomura's research pivoted from a broad, intersubjective perspective to a more intra-focused approach.



Addressing a significant challenge in this field of research - the elusive control of intra-person correlation - the study sought to minimize individual processing differences by applying the same "common input" repeatedly.



Analyzing intra-subject correlations (within one individual) and inter-subject correlations (between multiple individuals), Nomura gained fascinating insights.



The findings revealed that an individual’s heart rate synchronization in response to music was less dependent on their mood or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/similar-patterns-music-language-found-across-all-cultures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">musical preferences</a>. Instead, it hinged on the person’s reliable physiological responses to the music.



“This study allows us to explain the reproducibility of the aesthetic experience of the theater in terms of reliability,” noted Professor Nomura.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-symphony-of-synchronization">A symphony of synchronization</h2>



By having participants listen to the same piece of music on different days and by investigating differing music preferences, Nomura determined that heart rate synchronization was more reproducible within an individual over time than between different people.



“Inter-subject correlations were consistently lower compared to intra-subject correlations, regardless of participants’ music preferences and daily moods. Furthermore, music-induced heart rate synchronization depends on the reliability of physiological responses to musical pieces rather than mood or motivation,” said Nomura.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-live-music-performances">Future of live music performances</h2>



The research opens up new avenues in understanding collective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-gives-rise-to-unique-physical-sensations-in-the-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human emotions</a>, particularly those evoked during shared aesthetic experiences like theatre.



By identifying the key factors contributing to heart-rate synchronization and subsequent emotional responses, the field of performing arts stands to gain valuable insights. 



“From data on small audiences, for example, the degree of proficiency of performers, commercial success can be predicted in terms of reliability. This could contribute to better performances in theaters," said Nomura.



"Moreover, engineered devices that enhance reliability may facilitate synchronization of the physiological states of multiple audience members."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications">Broader implications</h2>



The implications of the study extend beyond the realm of live performances. Understanding how physiological synchronization can be influenced by shared stimuli might open new pathways in fields such as education, therapy, and virtual reality (VR).



In educational settings, for instance, teachers could design lessons that foster synchronized engagement among students, thereby enhancing collective learning experiences. 



In therapy, music and other stimuli could be used to promote emotional and physiological harmony between patients and therapists, potentially improving therapeutic outcomes. 



Furthermore, in VR, developers could create experiences that elicit synchronized physiological responses, making virtual environments feel more immersive and emotionally engaging.



As technology advances, the applications of this research could revolutionize how we connect and interact across various domains, making shared experiences even more profound and impactful.



While we continue to dive deeper into understanding the connection between music, heart rhythms, and collective experience, we may soon discover new ways to enhance our enjoyment of the shared auditory experience.



As we eagerly anticipate the day our heartbeats align with the music's rhythm, we should take time to appreciate the profound impact music has on our lives and bodies.&nbsp; It connects us, evokes emotions, and can even synchronize our heartbeats, enhancing the shared experience during live performances.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-62994-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Live music can synchronize the heartbeats of the audience

Imagine attending a live music performance and feeling a sense...

Agroecology is a science, practice, and movement that seeks social, political, economic, and environmental sustainability in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-food-system-must-change-if-nations-hope-to-reduce-greenhouse-gas-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global food system</a>. 



According to a new study led by <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dartmouth College</a>, although this field is currently gaining momentum in the United States, it requires close collaboration between scientists, farmers, and activists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-and-social-sustainability-of-food-systems">Ecological and social sustainability of food systems</h2>



Study lead author Theresa Ong is an assistant professor of environmental studies at Dartmouth. She noted that U.S. residents tend to be more familiar with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farming-high-yield/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organic farming</a>, the production of food without synthetic inputs, and regenerative agriculture, which aims to restore soil health.



However, according to Ong, unlike these practices, agroecology is different, as it strives to achieve both ecological and social sustainability of food systems without sacrificing one for the other.&nbsp;



“We cannot save biodiversity and ecosystem integrity without also preserving farmer livelihoods and ensuring that the food systems we create provide food that is culturally relevant to local communities, and not simply meeting a calorie quota,” said Ong.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-facing-global-food-systems-nbsp">Challenges facing global food systems&nbsp;</h2>



Currently, the U.S. food system is monopolized by industrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/losing-grasslands-fewer-fires-griculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agriculture</a>, which relies on chemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers, along with technology depending heavily on fossil fuels. 



Moreover, challenges facing global food systems, such as food insecurity, public health issues, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity loss</a>, and global warming, are partly perpetuated by the US food systems and its key political players.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-promoting-agroecology-as-a-sustainable-practice">Promoting agroecology as a sustainable practice</h2>



For decades already, scientists and activists from the US and beyond have called for a major transformation of the current industrial food system, leading the United Nations to promote agroecology as a more sustainable practice. However, this field failed for a long time to gain recognition beyond certain academic circles.



Fortunately, in 2023, a major<a href="https://www.uvm.edu/instituteforagroecology/us-agroecology-summit-2023%C3%B9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> US Agroecology Summit</a> gathered nearly 100 stakeholders in the food industry calling for a re-evaluation of current practices. 



The experts advocated the need for equitable representation and support of agricultural practitioners and scientists and increased access to funding, as well as the development of ethical approaches to research in agroecology.



“'Food sovereignty' - the right to define, produce, and access healthy food that is culturally appropriate and preserves the ways of life of farmers, is a critical goal in agroecology and was first defined by La Vía Campesina, an international peasant movement, in 1996,” Ong said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-equitable-representation-and-coordination">Equitable representation and coordination</h2>



This summit builds on the momentum which has been growing over the past 15 years, and led to the establishment of the nonprofit <a href="https://usfoodsovereigntyalliance.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Food Sovereignty Alliance</a> in 2010, along with the enactment of food sovereignty laws in eight states (Maine, Vermont, Massachusetts, Georgia, North Carolina, Utah, Wyoming, and Montana).



Yet, more work needs to be done to make sure that all voices in this field - including large and small farmers, family farmers, migrant farmers, Black and Indigenous farmers, and farm workers - are properly represented and have decision-making power.



“Agroecology is about building coalitions to ensure equitable representation and coordination between farmers, activists, and academics,” Ong concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43016-024-01006-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Food</a>.



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Sustainable food systems are gaining momentum

Agroecology is a science, practice, and movement that seeks social,...

Is eternal youth within our grasp? A team of scientists at Harvard University believes so as they edge closer to discovering the famed Fountain of Youth.



Their recent publication in the scientific journal Aging unveils the identification of six chemical concoctions capable of reversing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-cells-could-be-used-to-slow-down-or-even-reverse-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging process</a> in both human and rodent skin cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-dr-david-sinclair">Meet Dr. David Sinclair</h2>



Dr. David Sinclair, a molecular biologist at <a href="https://hms.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard Medical School</a>, and co-author of the study, hails this as a "breakthrough". He sees it as a step towards "affordable whole-body rejuvenation."



Sinclair's audacious prediction that human trials could commence within the next year got people talking, including none less than the tech titan Elon Musk, who curiously asked: "Ok, so what exactly is it?"



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-fountain-of-youth">Understanding the "Fountain of Youth"</h2>



The Fountain of Youth is a legendary spring that reputedly restores the youth of anyone who drinks or bathes in its waters.



People have recounted tales of such a fountain across the world for thousands of years. Mention of a Fountain of Youth appear in writings by Herodotus, the Alexander romance, and the stories of Prester John.



The exact location of the mythical fountain has been described differently in various stories and legends. One of the most famous associated locales is Florida.



Tradition says that Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León, the first recorded European to reach Florida, discovered Florida while he was searching for the Fountain of Youth. However, there is no contemporary evidence to support this claim.



In modern times, people often use the Fountain of Youth metaphorically to represent anything that has the potential to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-tea-delays-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increase longevity</a> or reverse aging. This can be anything from a scientific breakthrough, to a new skincare product, or a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-diet-may-save-your-life-six-key-foods-lower-the-risk-of-heart-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthful lifestyle</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cramming-the-fountain-of-youth-into-a-pill">Cramming the Fountain of Youth into a Pill</h2>



The Harvard researchers used high-throughput cell-based assays to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-blood-pressure-drug-called-rilmenidine-dramatically-slows-aging-in-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">differentiate young cells</a> from their older, non-dividing, or senescent counterparts -- a characteristic of aging.



They tested thousands to millions of samples rapidly for biological activity, resulting in the identification of six chemical mixtures that "restored genome-wide transcript profiles to youthful states and reversed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-aging-discovered-in-plant-leaves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transcriptomic age</a> in less than a week."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-miraculous-aging-reversal">"Miraculous" aging reversal</h2>



Testing these mixes on mice and human cells suggested a de-aging effect for all six combinations.



The effect of this four-day treatment is comparable to the total change seen after a year of a regenerative treatment described in a landmark study from 2019, which also focused on restoring <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-epigenetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epigenetic information</a>.



Researchers evaluated age changes using rodent and human transcriptomic clocks, which predict biological age using gene expression data.



"This new discovery offers the potential to reverse aging with a single pill, with applications ranging from improving eyesight to effectively treating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-protein-linked-to-healthier-aging-and-lower-risk-of-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age-related diseases</a>," said Dr. Sinclair.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-word-of-caution-not-all-are-convinced">Word of caution: Not all are convinced</h2>



However, other biologists are skeptical of this enthusiastic claim. <a href="https://halo.dlmp.uw.edu/people/matt-kaeberlein/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matt Kaeberlein</a>, a biogerontologist, offered cautious praise. 



He noted that while the innovative screening method could lead to significant discoveries, the study is still preliminary.



Kaeberlein suggested the team should have validated at least one of the concoctions in an animal model and shown improvements in age-related health metrics or lifespan before making claims about effects on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/junk-proteins-responsible-for-aging-cause-als/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biological aging</a>.



<a href="https://www.cityofhope.org/charles-brenner" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Charles Brenner</a>, a metabolism researcher, raised concerns about three compounds in the study. CHIR99021 blocks glycogen formation during sleep to store energy; tranylcypromine is an antidepressant; and valproic acid treats bipolar disorder but can harm the liver.



The study didn't mention these risks, and Brenner warned, "These are generally not safe alone or in combination."



Brenner also criticized the study for not using single-cell sequencing to evaluate cell identity. He pointed out that researchers initially reported these cocktails in 2013, suggesting the compounds aren't new discoveries.



"Getting these readouts on cells is not a groundbreaking study on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/japanese-diet-puts-the-brakes-on-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reversal of aging</a>," said Brenner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forever-young-not-quite-yet">Forever young? Not quite yet</h2>



The pursuit of eternal youth has taken a significant step forward with Harvard scientists identifying six chemical mixtures that show promise in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computing-can-help-decode-the-mysteries-of-aging-and-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reversing the aging process</a> in human and rodent cells.



While Dr. David Sinclair and his team hailed this as a breakthrough towards potential whole-body rejuvenation, skepticism remains among other biologists regarding the safety and preliminary nature of the findings.



As the scientific community awaits further validation and research, the dream of a Fountain of Youth in pill form remains tantalizingly close yet still elusive.



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'Fountain of Youth' pill created by Harvard scientists reverses aging

Is eternal youth within our grasp? A team of scientists...

Ongoing research into the impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/offshore-wind-farms-can-harm-marine-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">offshore wind farm</a> electromagnetic fields (EMFs) on shark development reveals that alternating electric currents produced by underwater wind farm cables seem not to disrupt the growth or survival of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-sharks-live-up-to-500-years-whats-their-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a>.



Offshore wind farms are one of the most common marine renewable energy (MRE) producers and are seen as pivotal in the global transition towards <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/renewable-energy-must-be-doubled-by-2030/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">renewable energy</a>, moving away from fossil fuels that contribute to climate change. 



However, their proliferation in marine environments raises questions about their impacts on wildlife. Researchers and energy operators are working together to understand these effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wind-farms-and-sharks">Wind farms and sharks</h2>



“Wind farms can induce noise, vibrations, interruptions to ecological continuity, and generate electromagnetic fields at the level of submarine electric cable,” said Julie Lucas, a research associate at France's <a href="https://www.mnhn.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Museum of Natural History</a>. 



“They can affect the behavior of electro-sensitive species which use natural electromagnetic fields to move and feed, such as sharks.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-submarine-electric-cables">Submarine electric cables</h2>



These offshore wind farms rely on submarine electric cables (CES) that use either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC), depending on their function, power output, and cable length.&nbsp;



“Currently, wind farms located less than 50km from the coast use AC current, whereas more powerful future wind farms are planned to be located more than 50 km away and will use DC current,” Lucas said.



Both AC and DC currents produce strong magnetic fields in the water surrounding them. “These magnetic fields can affect the behavior of electro- and magneto-sensitive species such as elasmobranchs, which use natural electromagnetic fields to move and feed,” she explained.&nbsp;



“The increasing number of offshore wind farms is likely to amplify these effects, while existing information on their impact on marine communities remains patchy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-impacts-of-offshore-wind-farms">Potential impacts of offshore wind farms</h2>



The experts aimed to identify the effects of the magnetic fields caused by AC and DC currents on the survival, development, and behavior of sharks and other electro-sensitive elasmobranchs.&nbsp;



The team studied two key life stages of the small-spotted catshark (Scyliorhinus canicular), embryo and juvenile, under either control or wind farm-impacted conditions using AC or DC currents. They recorded daily survival, weekly development and growth, and metabolic rate through respirometry for both life stages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-sharks-respond-to-wind-farms">How sharks respond to wind farms</h2>



“Thankfully, preliminary results suggest that the impact of alternating electromagnetic fields seems to be limited to the factors that we have measured,” Lucas said. However, the full results are still being analyzed and the effects of DC current will be investigated later this year.



“The results of this project will make it possible to understand more precisely how sharks react to electromagnetic fields depending on their intensity and the type of current. They will also improve our knowledge of the impacts of MREs on marine species.”



Lucas hopes that this research can help inform policy to protect marine species and determine what improvements can be made to CES to continue limiting their impact.&nbsp;



“This project will provide essential information for managers and decision-makers to meet the challenges of developing MREs without harming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-biodiversity-could-shift-rapidly-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine biodiversity</a>,” she concluded.



This study is presented at the <a href="https://www.rsb.org.uk/events?event=sebannualconferenceprague2024#:~:text=The%20Society%20for%20Experimental%20Biology's,from%202-5%20July%202024" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Society for Experimental Biology Annual Conference in Prague </a>from July 2-5, 2024.



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Offshore wind farms threaten electro-sensitive sharks

Ongoing research into the impact of offshore wind farm electromagnetic...

Sometimes, the road to discovering the secrets of black holes and their disks isn't a straight line. It's a winding journey through the cosmos, involving years of rigorous research and cutting-edge technology.



Such is the case with a group of dedicated astrophysicists who have been investigating the mysteries of our universe. 



In a landmark achievement, they have successfully simulated the intricate process of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-lighthouses-emanated-earliest-starlight-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primordial gas</a> travels from the early universe to form a disk around a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-black-holes-become-supermassive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black hole</a>.



This simulation challenges established theories and opens new frontiers in understanding the creation and evolution of black holes and galaxies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-collaboration-at-its-finest">Cosmic collaboration at its finest</h2>



Our journey begins at the esteemed <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Caltech</a>, where powerhouse collaborations have birthed an exciting new discovery about the universe we inhabit.



“Our new simulation marks the culmination of several years of work from two large collaborations started here at Caltech,” says Phil Hopkins, the Ira S. Bowen Professor of Theoretical Astrophysics.



Two major collaborations nicknamed FIRE (Feedback in Realistic Environments) and STARFORGE have been diligently working on studying the cosmos on varying scales.



FIRE delves into large-scale universal phenomena such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-galaxy-formation-occurred-much-faster-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy formation</a>, while STARFORGE zeros in on minutia, spotlighting the creation of stars in individual gas clouds.



“But there was this big gap between the two,” Hopkins explains. “Now, for the first time, we have bridged that gap.”



Previously, a significant gap existed between these two scopes of study, making it difficult to get a complete picture of the cosmic order. 



But that's all changed now, thanks to this pioneering simulation which bridges the scaling gap, delivering comprehensive insights into the dynamics of the universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-disks-around-black-holes">Decoding the disks around black holes</h2>



Unveiling the secrets of the Cosmos requires not just brilliant minds, but powerful technology.



The new simulation boasts a resolution over 1,000 times greater than its previous counterparts in the field.



To the team’s surprise, as reported in The Open Journal of Astrophysics, the simulation revealed that magnetic fields play a much larger role than previously believed in forming and shaping the huge disks of material that swirl around and feed the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-black-holes-become-supermassive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a>.



Long-held beliefs about black hole accretion disks, dating back to the 1970s, were challenged by the new findings.



“Our theories told us the disks should be flat like crepes. But we knew this wasn’t right because astronomical observations reveal that the disks are actually fluffy -- more like an angel cake," Hopkins explains.



"Our simulation helped us understand that magnetic fields are propping up the disk material, making it fluffier.”



The fresh insights suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-galaxy-is-surrounded-by-massive-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic fields</a>, rather than thermal pressure, play an instrumental role in shaping and maintaining these huge disks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zooming-into-black-holes">Zooming into black holes</h2>



The team’s simulation allows what they term as a “super zoom-in” into a single supermassive black hole, similar to the ones that lie at the heart of many galaxies.



In the new simulation, the researchers performed what they call a "super zoom-in" on a single supermassive black hole, a monstrous object that lies at the heart of many galaxies, including our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-chimney-venting-found-heart-milky-way-galaxy-sagittarius-a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>.



These ravenous, mysterious bodies contain anywhere from thousands to billions of times the mass of the sun and thus exert a huge effect on anything that comes near.



The simulation follows a giant stream of material torn off a cloud of star-forming gas and its path as it swirls around the supermassive black hole.



“We would have been very excited if we had just seen that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-frenzy-study-reveals-the-eating-habits-of-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">accretion disk</a>, but what was very surprising was that the simulated disk doesn’t look like what we’ve thought for decades it should look like.”



The advanced simulation reveals the formation of an accretion disk around the black hole, offering valuable information about the structure and behavior of these disks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-of-astrophysics">New era of astrophysics</h2>



To sum up, the new simulation developed by the Caltech team has been instrumental in not only bridging the gap between large and small scales of cosmic research but also in challenging previously held notions about black hole formation.



Their work has brought a revolutionary perspective, proving that the magnetic fields play a greater role than believed, in forming and maintaining the disks around <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flares-shed-light-on-the-milky-ways-supermassive-black-hole/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accretion-disks-fueling-black-holes">Accretion disks fueling black holes</h2>



In the 1970s, two important papers described the accretion disks fueling supermassive black holes. Scientists assumed that thermal pressure played the dominant role in preventing these disks from collapsing. 



Thermal pressure refers to the change in pressure caused by the changing temperature of the gas in the disks. They also acknowledged that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-magnetic-fields-may-be-key-features-of-black-holes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic fields</a> might play a minor role in helping to shore up the disks.



In contrast, the new simulation found that the pressure from the magnetic fields of such disks was actually 10,000 times greater than the pressure from the heat of the gas.



“So, the disks are almost completely controlled by the magnetic fields,” Hopkins says. “The magnetic fields serve many functions, one of which is to prop up the disks and make the material puffy.”



This fascinating research promisingly paves the way for a multitude of enquiries about other aspects of the universe.



From understanding what happens when galaxies merge to exploring the types of stars that form in dense galactic regions, the work by these astronomers is set to change the way we understand our universe forever.



“There’s just so much to do,” Hopkins says.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://astro.theoj.org/article/94757-forge-d-in-fire-resolving-the-end-of-star-formation-and-structure-of-agn-accretion-disks-from-cosmological-initial-conditions" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Open Journal of Astrophysics</a>.



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Mechanism discovered that creates the gas disks around black holes

Sometimes, the road to discovering the secrets of black holes...

New evidence suggests that soy foods have great potential to enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cheese-may-contain-nutrients-that-prevent-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive</a> abilities among school-aged children.



The pioneering study reveals that an increased intake of isoflavones from soy foods can lead to improved thinking ability and attention span in children.



The research paves a new path for studying the positive implications of soy food on youngsters' cognitive growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-isoflavones-in-soy-foods">Exploring isoflavones in soy foods</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-compound-offers-new-hope-for-people-with-food-allergies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Isoflavones</a>, organic compounds rich in soybeans and other related products, have been studied extensively in adults. This research linked soy foods to enhanced memory function. 



However, it remained unclear whether the cognitive benefits of soy foods extended to the younger population.



“Soy foods are often not a regular part of children’s diets in the United States,” said Ajla Bristina, a neuroscience doctoral student at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a>. 



“Our study adds evidence of the importance of nutrients found in soy foods for childhood cognition.”



The in-depth analysis illuminated the significant role of nutrients in soy foods and their direct impact on childhood cognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognitive-effects-of-soy-foods-in-children">Cognitive effects of soy foods in children</h2>



For the investigation, the research team analyzed cross-sectional data from 128 children between the ages of 7 and 13.



The researchers closely examined the average nutritional intake from the children’s dietary journals, considering the consumption of macronutrients, micronutrients, vitamins, and isoflavones.



“Soy consumption for individual participants ranged from 0 to 35 mg/day. To put this into perspective, an 8 fl. oz serving of soy milk provides about 28 mg of isoflavones, a serving of tofu provides about 35 mg and half a cup of steamed edamame provides about 18 mg of isoflavones,” said Bristina.



A blend of carefully constructed pencil and paper tests, adapted per grade level, measured children’s general intellectual prowess. 



Cutting-edge technology and methods, such as the computerized flanker task and electroencephalographic (EEG) assessments, were used to evaluate attention skills. Brain activity was simultaneously recorded to examine information processing speed.



This marked the first time an investigation combined soy isoflavones and EEG measures to explore cognitive functioning.



“No other studies have examined the association between soy isoflavones and attentional abilities using EEG or similar measures to record electrical activity generated by the brain,” said Bristina.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-isoflavones">Impact of isoflavones</h2>



The results were intriguing. The analysis revealed a strong correlation between higher intake of soy-based foods and improved attentional capabilities. 



Children who consumed more isoflavones performed better on cognitive tasks and showed quicker <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caregiver-speech-shapes-infant-language-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">information processing</a> compared to their lower intake counterparts.



“The children in our study consumed an average of 1.33 mg of isoflavones per day, which while relatively low, aligns with previously reported values for the United States,” said Bristina. 



“Overall, the analysis revealed that the children in the study tended to consume low amounts of isoflavone-containing soy foods."



"However, those who did consume more soy foods showed faster responses during the attentional tasks and exhibited faster processing speed. No association was observed between soy isoflavone intake and general intellectual ability.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soy-foods-to-the-rescue">Soy foods to the rescue</h2>



Soy-rich foods, such as tofu, tempeh, or soy-based nuggets, are a beneficial addition to children's diets. 



Not only are these foods easily accessible and flexible to be incorporated into various meals, but they also play a crucial role in fortifying cognitive capacities in children.



Bristina noted that snacks like roasted edamame, soy nuts, or soy milk are a good way to incorporate more soy into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-diet-positively-influences-the-brains-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diet</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed </h2>



Despite the promising results, the research serves merely as a stepping stone. Future experimental studies are crucial to establish the exact quantity of isoflavone intake required to boost cognitive response times and to understand the implications of soy foods on different cognitive abilities.



“Correlational studies like this are only the first step,” said Bristina. “To better understand the effects of eating soy foods on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-profoundly-impairs-childrens-cognitive-abilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">children’s cognitive abilities</a> and the precise amount of isoflavone intake necessary to elicit faster response times will require intervention approaches.”



To dive deeper, the research team has initiated a clinical trial to explore the effects of soy foods on children's thinking abilities, metabolism, sex hormones, and gut health.



The research was presented at the <a href="https://nutrition.org/n24/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NUTRITION 2024</a> conference.



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Soy foods boost cognitive abilities and attention span in children

New evidence suggests that soy foods have great potential to...

The universe's most cryptic puzzle could be on the brink of exposure. Dark matter, cold quantum detectors, particle physics...for the science nerds among us, prepare to be intrigued.



Around 80% of all matter in the universe is invisible. We call it dark matter. It's slipping through us, perhaps trillions of particles every second, almost like an unseen ghost. 



We're aware of its existence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/theory-gravity-exists-without-mass-so-dark-matter-does-not-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">due to the gravitational effects</a> we can observe. However, spotting it directly has always been elusive...until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stellar-minds-leading-the-charge">Stellar minds leading the charge</h2>



A team of scientists, hailing from <a href="https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lancaster University</a>, the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>, and <a href="https://www.royalholloway.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Holloway, University of London</a>, are harnessing quantum technologies to construct unprecedentedly sensitive dark matter detectors. 



Amongst these brilliant minds are Dr. Michael Thompson, Professor Edward Laird, Dr. Dmitry Zmeev, and Dr. Samuli Autti from Lancaster, Professor Jocelyn Monroe from Oxford, and Professor Andrew Casey from Royal Holloway.



In the words of <a href="https://www.ukri.org/councils/epsrc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EPSRC</a> Fellow Dr. Autti, "We are using quantum technologies at ultra-low temperatures to build the most sensitive detectors to date. The goal is to observe this mysterious matter directly in the laboratory and solve one of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-does-not-exist-universe-27-billion-years-old-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greatest enigmas in science</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-illuminating-dark-matter-with-quantum-tools">Illuminating dark matter with quantum tools</h2>



There are key clues to the typical density of dark matter in our galaxy. Yet, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-may-reveal-the-origin-of-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mass of its particles</a> and how they might interact with standard atoms remain mysteries.



Particle physics puts forth two probable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/existence-of-dark-matter-confirmed-by-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark matter candidates</a>: new particles with interactions so delicate we haven’t seen them yet, and very light, wave-like particles called axions. 



This team of scientists is constructing two experiments, each specifically designed to seek one of these candidates.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-type-1-new-particles">Type 1: New particles</h3>



The first type, the new particles with ultra-weak interactions, might be detectable through their collisions with ordinary matter. But hold tight -- it all depends on the mass of the dark matter we're hunting. 



Previous searches could pinpoint dark matter particles weighing between five and 1,000 times more than a hydrogen atom. However, what if we’ve been missing the smaller ones?



The Quantum Enhanced Superfluid Technologies for Dark Matter and Cosmology (<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2402.00181" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">QUEST-DMC</a>) team aims to broaden the scope, reaching a world-leading sensitivity to collisions with dark matter candidates as light as 0.01 to a few hydrogen atoms. 



They are using superfluid helium-3, cooled into a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-discovery-is-a-revolutionary-step-forward/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum state</a>, and rigged with superconducting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bose-einstein-condensate-bec-rare-form-quantum-matter-created-with-molecules/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum amplifiers</a> to detect these elusive, lightweight dark matter collisions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-type-2-axions">Type 2: Axions</h3>



On the other hand, if dark matter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visible-matter-dark-matter-evolved-together-big-bang/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consists of axions</a>, they'd be more than a billion times lighter than a hydrogen atom but a lot more abundant. 



Collisions with axions would be off the table, but scientists could look for an electrical signal resulting from axions decaying in a magnetic field. 



The Quantum Sensors for the Hidden Sector (<a href="https://qshs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">QSHS</a>) team is developing a quantum amplifier to search for this axion signal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-theory-to-reality">From theory to reality</h2>



If you’re thrilled by this scientific endeavor, you’re in for a treat. The team's public exhibit, "A Quantum View of the Invisible Universe," is on display at the Royal Society's <a href="https://royalsociety.org/science-events-and-lectures/summer-science-exhibition" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Summer Science Exhibition</a> from July 2-7, 2024.



From engaging hands-on exhibits to mind-boggling demonstrations, there's something for everyone. There's a gyroscope-in-a-box, depicting dark matter inference from galaxy observations. 



There are glass marbles, transparent in liquid, showing how invisible masses can be detected through smart experimentation.



You'll also witness a working model of a dark matter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-influence-cosmos-galaxies-extends-much-farther-than-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particle collision detector</a> and a replica axion detector. 



You can even use a pendulum to create your own parametric amplifier. All, while a luminous dilution refrigerator showcases how the team achieves ultra-low temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-matter-quantum-coldness-and-fun-science">Dark matter, quantum coldness, and fun science</h2>



To recap, a group of brilliant European scientists are on a mission to reveal dark matter. They use advanced quantum technologies to create highly sensitive detectors. 



These detectors aim to identify dark matter particles through collisions and electrical signals. Their work could solve one of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-galaxy-jwst-er1g-dark-matter-einstein-ring-mystery-solved/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe's greatest mysteries</a>.



As Carlos Frenk, Fellow of the Royal Society and Chair of the Public Engagement Committee, aptly put it: "Science is vital in helping us understand the world we live in – past, present and future." 



So why not follow along with these experiments with an open mind, curiosity, and infectious enthusiasm to celebrate tremendous scientific triumphs that enrich our understanding of the universe? You never know, you might just get an up-close look at the Universe's greatest mystery.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10909-024-03142-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Low Temperature Physics</a>.



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Coldest quantum detectors in the world enlisted to search for dark matter

The universe's most cryptic puzzle could be on the brink...

For many years, small segments of DNA known as “selfish genetic elements” were considered nonessential, existing only to propagate themselves. 



However, researchers at the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California San Diego</a> (UCSD) have discovered that these elements may play a significant role in the competition among organisms. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



“Introns containing homing endonucleases are widespread in nature and have long been assumed to be selfish elements that provide no benefit to the host organism. These genetic elements are common in viruses, but whether they confer a selective advantage is unclear,” noted the researchers.



The findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adl1356" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>, reveal that the genetic elements, specifically mobile introns in bacteriophages (phages), can indeed confer competitive advantages to their hosts.



“In this work, we studied intron-encoded homing endonuclease gp210 in bacteriophage ΦPA3 and found that it contributes to viral competition by interfering with the replication of a co-infecting phage, ΦKZ," wrote the study authors. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteriophages-outcompete-rival-viruses-nbsp">Bacteriophages outcompete rival viruses&nbsp;</h2>



Bacteriophages, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteriophages-how-bacteria-harness-viruses-to-attack-competitors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a> that infect bacteria, are the most abundant organisms on Earth. The research team discovered that mobile introns act as tools for phages, enabling them to outcompete rival viruses. 



“This is the first time a selfish genetic element has been demonstrated to confer a competitive advantage to the host organism it has invaded,” said co-lead author Erica Birkholz, a postdoctoral scholar at UCSD.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weaponized-genetic-elements-nbsp">Weaponized genetic elements&nbsp;</h2>



Focusing on “jumbo” phages, the researchers analyzed the dynamics within bacterial cells co-infected by two phages. They observed how an enzyme called endonuclease from one phage's mobile intron disrupts the DNA of competing phages.&nbsp;



This enzyme cuts into the rival phage's genome, preventing it from effectively assembling its progeny. As Birkholz noted, “this weaponized intron endonuclease gives a competitive advantage to the phage carrying it.”



The study highlights the importance of these findings in understanding the evolutionary arms race among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eavesdropping-viruses-the-unseen-war-within-our-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a>. 



“We were able to clearly delineate the mechanism that gives an advantage and how that happens at the molecular level,” explained co-lead author Chase Morgan, a graduate student at the same university. “This incompatibility between selfish genetic elements becomes molecular warfare.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research-nbsp">Broader implications of the research&nbsp;</h2>



The implications of this research extend to phage therapy, which is increasingly used to combat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-have-been-found-in-clouds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic-resistant bacteria</a>. The insights gained could improve the design of phage cocktails, enhancing their efficacy. 



“The phages in this study can be used to treat patients with bacterial infections associated with cystic fibrosis,” said senior author Joe Pogliano, a professor of biological sciences at UCSD.&nbsp;



“Understanding how they compete with one another will allow us to make better cocktails for phage therapy.”



In essence, this study not only redefines our understanding of selfish genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/difference-between-two-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elements</a> but also provides a deeper insight into viral competition and potential therapeutic applications. 



The findings challenge the previous notion of these DNA segments being mere genetic hitchhikers, showing they can significantly impact host survival and evolution.



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Bacteriophages use ‘selfish genetic elements’ as weapons

For many years, small segments of DNA known as “selfish...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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