<p>Far beneath our feet, beyond the Earth's rocky mantle and molten outer core, lies a dense, solid sphere of iron and other elements like carbon. </p>



<p>This inner core is Earth’s deepest secret, shaping the magnetic field that shields our planet. Yet, scientists still puzzle over how it first formed and what ingredients allowed it to crystallize.</p>



<p>A new study by researchers from the University of Leeds, University of Oxford, and <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> provides fresh insight. </p>



<p>Their findings reveal that carbon may have been the key element that enabled the inner core to solidify billions of years ago.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-earth-s-core-composition-matters">Why Earth's core composition matters</h2>



<p>The makeup of Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-proven-to-be-rapidly-changing-and-now-rotating-backwards/">core</a> determines not only its density but also its thermal and magnetic behavior. </p>



<p>Seismology shows that the core is less dense than pure iron, meaning lighter elements must be present. Candidates like silicon, sulphur, oxygen, and carbon have all been considered.</p>



<p>The latest simulations show that carbon, in particular, may have been essential. Without it, the inner core’s crystallization would have required impossible conditions, making its very existence a mystery.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_hidden-chemistry_illustration_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_hidden-chemistry_illustration_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1s.webp" alt="Drawing of Earth with cutaway showing the mantle and inner and outer core. Magnetic field lines produced by the geodynamo extend into space and interact with the solar wind. The iron-rich core at Earth's center is slowly freezing from the inside out. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson" class="wp-image-1984775"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Drawing of Earth with cutaway showing the mantle and inner and outer core. Magnetic field lines produced by the geodynamo extend into space and interact with the solar wind. The iron-rich core at Earth's center is slowly freezing from the inside out. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-supercooling-paradox">The supercooling paradox</h2>



<p>Liquids rarely freeze solid the instant they cool past their <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/melting-point" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting point</a>. Instead, they must be supercooled, chilled further before crystals can form. </p>



<p>For molten iron alone, estimates suggested that a massive 800 to 1000 °C (1472 to 1832 °F) of supercooling would be needed.</p>



<p>If that had occurred, the consequences for our planet would have been dramatic. </p>



<p>The inner core would have grown far too quickly, disrupting the delicate balance of heat flow inside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-is-not-solid-it-is-shape-shifting-time-for-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/">Earth</a> and destabilizing the magnetic field that protects life from harmful solar and cosmic radiation.</p>



<p>Scientists know this did not happen. Geophysical evidence points instead to a modest level of supercooling, limited to about 250 °C (482 °F). </p>



<p>That small difference between theoretical predictions and observational reality has puzzled researchers for decades.</p>



<p>This contradiction, known as the inner core nucleation paradox, continues to inspire debate, experiments, and advanced simulations aimed at uncovering the true chemistry of Earth’s deepest layers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-the-impossible">Simulating the impossible</h2>



<p>To resolve the paradox, the research team ran atomic-scale simulations of iron mixed with different light elements. </p>



<p>They tested silicon, sulfur, oxygen, and carbon, and watched how each affected the first step of freezing: nucleation.</p>



<p>“Each of these elements exists in the overlying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-an-ocean-of-fire-shaped-early-earths-core-according-to-a-new-study/">mantle</a> and could therefore have been dissolved into the core during Earth’s history,” explained co-author Associate Professor Andrew Walker from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.</p>



<p>“As a result, these could explain why we have a solid inner core with relatively little supercooling at this depth. The presence of one or more of these elements could also rationalize why the core is less dense than pure iron, a key observation from seismology.”</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_cross-section_convection_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_cross-section_convection_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1s.webp" alt="Cross section of the Earth showing the mantle, outer core and inner core. Convection in the outer core produces Earth's geomagnetic field. The properties of Earth's iron-rich core are key to understanding our planet's deep interior, from its temperature to the way it generates the global magnetic field. The core's exact chemistry remains unknown. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson" class="wp-image-1984773"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Cross section of the Earth showing the mantle, outer core and inner core. Convection in the outer core produces Earth's geomagnetic field. The properties of Earth's iron-rich core are key to understanding our planet's deep interior, from its temperature to the way it generates the global magnetic field. The core's exact chemistry remains unknown. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-drives-earth-s-core-freezing">Carbon drives Earth's core freezing</h2>



<p>The simulations revealed that silicon and sulfur actually hindered freezing, which would have increased the supercooling requirement. Carbon, however, had the opposite effect.</p>



<p>With 2.4 % carbon, the required supercooling dropped to about 420 °C (788 °F). Still too high, but much closer to reality. </p>



<p>Extrapolating further, a carbon content of 3.8 % reduced the figure to 266 °C (511 °F), which is consistent with geological evidence.</p>



<p>This makes carbon the only element so far shown to both enable nucleation and align with seismic observations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-seeds-needed">No seeds needed</h2>



<p>Unlike hail forming around dust in clouds, Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-how-gold-reaches-earths-surface-from-the-mantle/">core</a> appears to have frozen without “nucleation seeds.” </p>



<p>Tests of possible seed materials, like oxides or metals, show they would melt or dissolve before reaching the center. That leaves chemistry itself, specifically the presence of carbon, as the driver of solidification.</p>



<p>“It is exciting to see how atomic scale processes control the fundamental structure and dynamics of our planet," said lead author Dr. Alfred Wilson from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a>. </p>



<p>"By studying how Earth’s inner core formed, we are not just learning about our planet’s past. We’re getting a rare glimpse into the chemistry of a region we can never hope to reach directly and learning about how it could change in the future.”</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_iron-carbon-atoms-nucleating_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_iron-carbon-atoms-nucleating_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1s.webp" alt="Drawing of iron and carbon atoms nucleating to form solids which could initiate growth of Earth's solid inner core. The study used atomic scale simulations to identify solids nucleating in supercooled liquids. Carbon atoms can accelerate this process, perhaps enough to trigger the freezing of Earth's solid inner core. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson" class="wp-image-1984777"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Drawing of iron and carbon atoms nucleating to form solids which could initiate growth of Earth's solid inner core. The study used atomic scale simulations to identify solids nucleating in supercooled liquids. Carbon atoms can accelerate this process, perhaps enough to trigger the freezing of Earth's solid inner core. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-s-role-in-earth-s-core">Carbon's role in Earth’s core</h2>



<p>The research also helps refine estimates of when the inner core formed. Some argue it began crystallizing over two billion years ago, while others suggest it happened less than half a billion years ago. </p>



<p>By identifying carbon as the critical player, scientists can narrow down these timelines. </p>



<p>This enables a better understanding of how Earth’s deep engine has evolved to influence the magnetic field, surface conditions, and even the long-term habitability of our planet.</p>



<p>The message is clear: carbon is more than a surface element of life. It may also be the hidden architect of Earth’s inner heart, shaping its stability across geological time.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62841-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.</em></p>



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Scientists have changed their minds again about the composition of Earth's core

Far beneath our feet, beyond the Earth's rocky mantle and molten outer core, lies a dense, solid sphere of iron and other elements like carbon. This inner core is Earth’s deepest secret, shaping the magnetic field that shields our planet. Yet, scientists still puzzle over how it first formed and what ingredients allowed it to crystallize. A new study by researchers from the University of Leeds, University of Oxford, and University College London provides fresh insight. Their findings reveal that carbon may have been the key element...

<p>Cumulative culture is a fundamental aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human evolution</a>, a story of continuous cultural and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/400000-year-old-stone-tools-show-technological-adaptations-of-prehistoric-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">technological advancements</a> passed down through countless generations.</p>



<p>This accumulation of knowledge has set humans apart from other primates, enabling us to adapt to a wide range of environments. </p>



<p>But when did our ancestors start to build on each other's knowledge, creating what we now call cumulative culture?</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-cumulative-culture">Understanding cumulative culture</h2>



<p>Cumulative culture refers to the way humans build upon the knowledge and innovations of previous generations. This unique aspect of human societies allows us to continuously improve tools, technologies, and ideas over time. </p>



<p>Unlike animals, which may learn behaviors through imitation, humans enhance and refine these behaviors, creating more complex solutions to problems. </p>



<p>This process has enabled humans to adapt to a wide variety of environments and challenges, from creating sophisticated tools to developing advanced social systems.</p>



<p>For example, the development of agriculture allowed early humans to settle in one place, leading to the growth of communities and civilizations. </p>



<p>Over generations, these societies developed new farming techniques, tools, and social structures, continuously improving their way of life.</p>



<p>Similarly, advancements in medicine, transportation, and communication have all resulted from cumulative culture, where each generation builds on the discoveries and innovations of the past. This ongoing process is fundamental to human progress and development.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beginning-of-the-culture">Beginning of the culture</h2>



<p>Pinpointing the exact time when this phenomenon began during hominin evolution has been challenging. A recent study by researchers from <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a> sheds light on this pivotal development.</p>



<p>According to study co-authors Charles Perreault and Jonathan Paige, humans began to rapidly accumulate technological knowledge through social learning around 600,000 years ago.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-culture-and-human-adaptability">Cumulative culture and human adaptability</h2>



<p>“Our species, Homo sapiens, has been successful at adapting to ecological conditions - from tropical forests to arctic tundra - that require different kinds of problems to be solved," explained Perreault.</p>



<p>"Cumulative culture is key because it allows human populations to build on and recombine the solutions of prior generations and to develop new complex solutions to problems very quickly."</p>



<p>"The result is, our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-innovative-40000-year-old-culture-found-in-china/">cultures</a>, from technological problems and solutions to how we organize our institutions, are too complex for individuals to invent on their own.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-cumulative-culture">Origins of cumulative culture </h2>



<p>To trace the origins of cumulative culture, Paige and Perreault analyzed the complexity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-humans-hunted-elephants-with-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tool</a> manufacturing techniques over the past 3.3 million years. </p>



<p>They used nonhuman primate technologies and experimental flintknapping by inexperienced humans as baselines for comparison.</p>



<p>The researchers found that between 3.3 and 1.8 million years ago, stone tool manufacturing sequences were relatively simple, involving 1 to 6 procedural units (PUs).</p>



<p>From 1.8 million to 600,000 years ago, the complexity increased slightly to 4 to 7 PUs. However, after 600,000 years ago, there was a rapid increase in complexity, with sequences involving 5 to 18 PUs.</p>



<p>“By 600,000 years ago or so, hominin populations started relying on unusually complex technologies, and we only see rapid increases in complexity after that time as well," said Paige. "Both of those findings match what we expect to see among hominins who rely on cumulative culture."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-tool-assisted-foraging">Role of tool-assisted foraging</h2>



<p>Tool-assisted foraging likely played a crucial role in the early evolution of cumulative culture. </p>



<p>Early hominins, between 3.4 and 2 million years ago, used tools for tasks like accessing meat and marrow, which may have driven changes in brain size, lifespan, and biology, setting the stage for cumulative culture. </p>



<p>While other forms of social learning may have influenced tool-making, rapid increases in technological complexity are evident only from the Middle Pleistocene onward.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-from-the-middle-pleistocene">Evidence from the Middle Pleistocene</h2>



<p>The Middle Pleistocene epoch, around 600,000 years ago, shows consistent evidence of advanced technologies, such as controlled use of fire, hearths, and domestic spaces. These innovations likely played essential roles in the development of cumulative culture.</p>



<p>Additionally, wooden structures constructed with hafted tools - stone blades affixed to wooden or bone handles - also emerged during this period.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emergence-of-cumulative-culture">Emergence of cumulative culture</h2>



<p>This research suggests that cumulative culture began near the start of the Middle Pleistocene, possibly before the divergence of Neanderthals and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-genes-still-influence-modern-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern humans</a>.</p>



<p>By understanding the origins of cumulative culture, we gain insight into the unique evolutionary path that has enabled humans to thrive across diverse environments and challenges.</p>



<p>Through continued research, we can further unravel the complexities of human evolution and the cultural developments that have shaped our history.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2319175121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a></em>.</p>



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Humans started "cumulative culture" around 600,000 years ago

Cumulative culture is a fundamental aspect of human evolution, a...

<p>We all know that time is a fundamental part of life. It governs our daily routines, dictates our schedules, and allows us to make sense of the world around us. But have you ever wondered how your brain and cells actually perceive and process <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">time</a>? </p>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://healthcare.utah.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Utah Health</a> have recently made a remarkable discovery that sheds light on this mystery.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-s-inner-clock-time-cells">Brain's inner clock: Time cells</h2>



<p>Scientists have identified a special group of neurons in the brain called "time cells," which act like the second hand on a clock, firing in sequence to measure short periods of time.</p>



<p>“Time cells are supposed to be active at specific moments during the trial,” said Dr. Hyunwoo Lee, co-first author of the study. “But when the mice made mistakes, that selective activity became messy.”</p>



<p>While previous research suggested that time cells merely tracked time like a stopwatch, the new findings reveal a far more intricate role. These cells play a crucial part in learning complex behaviors that rely on precise timing.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-and-morse-code">Mice and morse code</h2>



<p>To understand how time cells function, the researchers designed an experiment where mice had to learn a simplified version of Morse code using different patterns of odor stimuli. </p>



<p>By observing the activity of individual time cells before and after the learning process, they discovered a fascinating phenomenon.</p>



<p>Initially, the time cells responded uniformly to all odor patterns. However, as the mice mastered the differently timed patterns, the time cells developed unique activity patterns for each sequence. It was like watching the brain create a personalized code for time!</p>



<p>“The MEC isn’t acting like a really simple stopwatch that’s necessary to track time in any simple circumstance,” said Erin Bigus, co-first author of the study. “Its role seems to be in actually learning these more complex temporal relationships.”</p>



<p>When the researchers temporarily deactivated the brain region containing these time cells, the mice could still <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-perception-we-see-the-world-based-on-what-we-expect-to-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perceive</a> and anticipate the timing of events, but they struggled to learn new time-related tasks. </p>



<p>This suggests that time cells are not just responsible for keeping track of time but are also essential for learning intricate temporal relationships.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-space-and-time">New perspective on space and time</h2>



<p>The study's findings challenge our conventional understanding of how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-perception-changes-with-our-walking-rhythm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain processes time</a> and space. </p>



<p>The region where time cells are found, known as the medial entorhinal cortex (MEC), was previously thought to be primarily involved in spatial learning and the formation of mental maps. </p>



<p>However, the researchers observed striking similarities between the brain activity patterns associated with time-based and spatial learning.</p>



<p>This intriguing connection raises the possibility that the brain processes both space and time using similar mechanisms. It's like a hidden link between two seemingly distinct dimensions of our experience.</p>



<p>“We believe that the entorhinal cortex might serve a dual purpose, acting both as an odometer to track distance and as a clock to track elapsed time,” said Dr. James Heys, senior author of the study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-alzheimer-s-disease">Implications for Alzheimer's Disease</h2>



<p>The researchers believe that their findings could significantly impact the field of neurodegenerative disease diagnostics, particularly for Alzheimer's disease.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Given that the MEC is among the initial brain regions affected by Alzheimer's,&nbsp;the observed correlation between MEC function and complex timing tasks suggests a potential avenue for early detection.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By developing diagnostic tools that assess an individual's ability to perform complex time-based tasks,&nbsp;clinicians may be able to identify subtle cognitive impairments associated with early-stage Alzheimer's disease.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This could lead to earlier interventions and potential treatments,&nbsp;ultimately improving patient outcomes and quality of life.</p>



<p>“These are the first areas of the brain to be affected by neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s. We are interested in exploring whether complex timing behavior tasks could be a useful way to detect the early onset of Alzheimer's disease," said Dr. Heys.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-time-research">Future of time research</h2>



<p>The study of time cells is still in its early stages,&nbsp;but the potential implications are vast.&nbsp;Researchers are eager to explore the complex mechanisms by which these cells interact with other brain regions and contribute to our overall perception of time.&nbsp;</p>



<p>They are also investigating how disruptions in time cell activity may contribute to various neurological and psychiatric disorders.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As technology advances,&nbsp;we can expect even more sophisticated tools for studying time cells and their role in the brain.&nbsp;This could lead to new insights into the fundamental nature of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-experiences-alter-time-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">time</a> itself and how it shapes our lives.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-time-cells">Significance of time cells</h2>



<p>The next time you become aware of the passage of time,&nbsp;consider the complex neural processes underlying this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-dreams-influence-our-perceptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perception</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The discovery of time cells and their essential role in learning and adaptation highlights the intricate relationship between our brains and our experience of time.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Ongoing research into time perception promises to reveal even more about how our brains construct our understanding of the world,&nbsp;potentially leading to breakthroughs in fields like neurology and cognitive science.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-024-01683-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Neuroscience</em></a>.</p>



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"Time cells" in the brain act like a stopwatch for complex tasks

We all know that time is a fundamental part of...

<p>Ever wondered why your morning cup is non-negotiable,&nbsp;while others can easily skip it?&nbsp;Or maybe you've pondered the endless debate:&nbsp;is coffee a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/molecule-in-coffee-trigonelline-keeps-muscles-young/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health hero</a> or villain?&nbsp;Recent research suggests the answer to both questions might be entwined with your genes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-in-daily-lives">Coffee in daily lives</h2>



<p>Coffee,&nbsp;a beloved beverage enjoyed worldwide,&nbsp;is made from the roasted seeds of the Coffea plant.&nbsp;Originating in Ethiopia,&nbsp;coffee beans are now <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-plants-fight-climate-change-with-a-genetic-weapon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultivated</a> in various regions across the globe,&nbsp;with popular varieties like Arabica and Robusta offering distinct flavors and aromas.</p>



<p>Coffee plays a significant role in many people's lives,&nbsp;serving as a morning ritual,&nbsp;a social catalyst,&nbsp;and a source of energy due to its caffeine content.</p>



<p>Whether enjoyed black,&nbsp;with cream and sugar,&nbsp;or in elaborate specialty <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dedicated-coffee-drinkers-have-lower-blood-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinks</a>,&nbsp;coffee holds a special place in cultures around the world,&nbsp;fostering connection and providing a much-needed boost to start the day or overcome afternoon slumps.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-craving-genes">Coffee craving genes</h2>



<p>The factors influencing an individual's coffee consumption extend beyond personal taste preferences or a desire for caffeine.&nbsp;Emerging research suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-genome-adapted-to-climate-changes-over-millennia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic predispositions</a> play a significant role in shaping coffee habits.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This means that an individual's inclination towards specific types of coffee,&nbsp;such as a double espresso or black coffee,&nbsp;could be partly influenced by their inherited genetic traits.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These findings challenge the conventional understanding of coffee consumption as solely a matter of choice,&nbsp;suggesting a deeper biological basis for this widespread habit.</p>



<p>This fascinating revelation comes from a recent study published in&nbsp;<em class="">Neuropsychopharmacology,</em>&nbsp;where researchers delved into massive databases from 23andMe and the UK Biobank.&nbsp;They sought to unravel the link between our genes and our caffeine cravings.</p>



<p>"We had good reason to suspect from earlier papers that there were genes that influence how much coffee someone consumes," noted Dr. Abraham Palmer,&nbsp;a professor at <a href="https://medschool.ucsd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC San Diego School of Medicine</a> and a lead researcher on the study.</p>



<p>"In other words, the particular gene variants that you inherit from your parents influence how much coffee you're likely to consume."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-consumption-beyond-genes">Coffee consumption beyond genes</h2>



<p>The research expanded beyond the genetic influences on coffee consumption to explore the broader question of coffee's impact on health.&nbsp;This involved investigating whether coffee consumption is associated with positive or negative health outcomes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This added layer of inquiry aimed to address the ongoing debate about the potential benefits and risks of coffee consumption,&nbsp;providing a more comprehensive understanding of its role in overall well-being.</p>



<p>“The second is something that coffee lovers are really keen on learning," said Dr. Sandra Sanchez-Roige. "Is drinking coffee good or bad? Is it associated with positive health outcomes or not?” </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-genes-and-risks">Coffee genes and risks</h2>



<p>The study's findings regarding coffee's impact on health were multifaceted and surprising.&nbsp;Initial analysis revealed consistent positive genetic associations between coffee and harmful health outcomes, such as obesity and substance use.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research yielded potentially positive outcomes concerning psychiatric conditions like anxiety, depression,&nbsp;and bipolar disorder.&nbsp;However, the results were complex and varied across the different datasets used in the study. </p>



<p>The findings suggest a more nuanced relationship between coffee consumption and mental health than previously understood.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surveys-on-coffee-consumption">Surveys on coffee consumption</h2>



<p>So,&nbsp;what explains these puzzling differences?&nbsp;The researchers suspect it might have to do with how the surveys about coffee consumption were conducted.&nbsp;The questions asked in the 23andMe and UK Biobank surveys differed,&nbsp;potentially influencing the results.</p>



<p>"We know that in the U.K., they have generally higher preference for instant coffee, whereas ground coffee is more preferred in the U.S," noted Dr. Hayley H.A. Thorpe,&nbsp;the lead author of the study.</p>



<p>Beyond just the type of coffee,&nbsp;the surveys didn't account for how coffee is prepared or consumed,&nbsp;leading to a potential mismatch in data.&nbsp;Plus,&nbsp;other caffeinated drinks like tea weren't considered,&nbsp;potentially skewing the results,&nbsp;especially for the UK population.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-environment-and-a-cup-of-coffee">Genes, environment, and a cup of coffee</h2>



<p>So,&nbsp;what's the final verdict?&nbsp;As with many things in science,&nbsp;it's not a simple answer.&nbsp;The research highlights a complex interplay between genetics and the environment when it comes to our coffee habits and their potential health impacts.</p>



<p>"Unlike height, where your behavior doesn't really have much to do with it, your behavior and the choices you're making in your environment play out in various ways. So the interaction between genotype and environment complicates the picture," said Dr. Sanchez-Roige.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-coffee-research">Future of coffee research</h2>



<p>This study serves as a reminder that the relationship between our genes and our daily choices is a captivating puzzle.&nbsp;It also underscores the importance of considering cultural and environmental factors when studying health and behavior.</p>



<p>So,&nbsp;the next time you reach for your favorite mug,&nbsp;remember:&nbsp;your genes might be playing a part in that craving.&nbsp;</p>



<p>And whether coffee is a health boon or bane?&nbsp;The answer might be as unique as your genes and the way you take your coffee.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tips-for-coffee-consumers">Tips for coffee consumers</h2>



<p>Regular coffee consumers must keep the following in mind:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-don-t-fight-your-genes">Don't fight your genes</h3>



<p>If you have a strong craving for coffee,&nbsp;it might be partly due to your genetic makeup.&nbsp;Don't feel guilty about enjoying your daily cup(s) in moderation.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consider-your-mental-health">Consider your mental health</h3>



<p>If you have a history of anxiety,&nbsp;depression,&nbsp;or bipolar disorder,&nbsp;it might be wise to monitor your coffee intake and observe how it affects you.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While the research is mixed,&nbsp;some studies suggest a potential link between coffee consumption and these conditions.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quality-over-quantity-nbsp">Quality over quantity&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Focus on enjoying high-quality coffee rather than consuming large amounts.&nbsp;The study didn't distinguish between different types of coffee,&nbsp;but opting for freshly ground beans and avoiding sugary additives might be a healthier choice.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listen-to-your-body">Listen to your body</h3>



<p>Pay attention to how coffee makes you feel.&nbsp;If you experience negative side effects like jitters, anxiety,&nbsp;or sleep disturbances,&nbsp;it might be a sign to cut back.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-variety-is-key">Variety is key</h3>



<p>Explore different types of coffee, preparation methods, and even other caffeinated beverages like tea. This can help you discover what works best for your body and preferences.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41386-024-01870-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuropsychopharmacology</a>.</em></p>



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Is coffee good for you? It may depend on your genes

Ever wondered why your morning cup is non-negotiable,&nbsp;while others can...

Colliding,Of,Two,Quasars,Galaxies,With,Black,Hole,In,Centrum

<p>Let us transport ourselves back in time to an era when the universe was a mere 900 million years old, a period known as the "Cosmic Dawn."</p>



<p>Amidst this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-map-of-supermassive-black-holes-unveiled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of our universe, astronomers have made an extraordinary discovery: a pair of merging quasars, each powered by a supermassive black hole, locked in a gravitational dance of immense scale and energy.</p>



<p>This observation offers a rare glimpse into the dynamic processes that shaped the early universe and its structures.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supermassive-hearts-of-merging-quasars">Supermassive hearts of merging quasars</h2>



<p>Before delving into this celestial phenomenon, it's essential to understand the key players. Quasars are exceedingly luminous astronomical objects that often outshine entire galaxies. </p>



<p>This immense energy output is generated by a supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-black-holes-and-quasars-grew-faster-than-their-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a> residing at the core of the quasar.</p>



<p>These black holes, millions or even billions of times more massive than our Sun, exert a gravitational pull so powerful that it draws in surrounding matter.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/merging-quasars_cosmic-dawn_NOIRlab_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/merging-quasars_cosmic-dawn_NOIRlab_1s.jpg" alt="Merging quasars from the 'Cosmic Dawn' reveal how the universe was formed. Credit: NOIRlab/NSF" class="wp-image-1936883"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Merging quasars from the 'Cosmic Dawn' reveal how the universe was formed. Credit: NOIRlab/NSF</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>As this matter spirals towards the black hole, it forms an accretion disk, a swirling vortex of gas and dust. </p>



<p>Within this disk, intense frictional and gravitational forces generate extreme temperatures, causing the matter to emit vast amounts of radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum.</p>



<p>This radiant energy is what makes quasars some of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quasar-j0529-4351-brightest-object-ever-seen-eats-one-star-per-day/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brightest objects</a> in the observable universe. The study of quasars provides valuable insights into the evolution of galaxies and the behavior of matter under extreme gravitational conditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-dawn">Cosmic dawn</h2>



<p>The early universe, a period known as the Cosmic Dawn, was a time of immense change. Roughly 50 million years after the Big Bang, the first stars and galaxies began to form, marking a pivotal shift from darkness to light. </p>



<p>This emergence of luminous objects initiated the Epoch of Reionization, a transformative phase in cosmic history.</p>



<p>During the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-discovers-what-powered-the-reionization-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Epoch of Reionization</a>, the universe's abundant neutral hydrogen gas was bombarded with intense ultraviolet radiation emitted by these nascent stars and galaxies. </p>



<p>This radiation had enough energy to strip electrons from the hydrogen atoms, a process known as ionization.</p>



<p>The ionization of hydrogen fundamentally altered the properties of the universe, making it transparent to certain wavelengths of light and paving the way for the formation of the complex structures, such as galaxies and galaxy clusters, that we observe in the universe today.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-merging-quasars-discovered">Merging quasars discovered</h2>



<p>Enter Yoshiki Matsuoka, an astronomer at <a href="https://www.ehime-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ehime University</a> in Japan, and his astute team. While meticulously examining images captured by the <a href="https://www.naoj.org/Projects/HSC/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hyper Suprime-Cam</a> on the <a href="https://subarutelescope.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subaru Telescope</a>, they noticed a curious pair of red dots nestled closely together. </p>



<p>"The discovery was purely serendipitous," Matsuoka remarked, unaware of the remarkable implications this chance observation held.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/merging-quasars_cosmic-dawn_Subaru-telescope_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/merging-quasars_cosmic-dawn_Subaru-telescope_1s.jpg" alt="Subaru telescope captures two quasars merging in the early universe. Credit: NOIRLab/NSF" class="wp-image-1936878"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Subaru telescope captures two quasars merging in the early universe. Credit: NOIRLab/NSF</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>Upon closer inspection, these red dots were revealed to be quasars, each harboring a colossal black hole exceeding 100 million solar masses. </p>



<p>Astoundingly, these quasars were separated by a mere 10,000 light-years, a distance comparable to the width of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-chimney-venting-found-heart-milky-way-galaxy-sagittarius-a/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way galaxy</a>.</p>



<p>This close proximity was no mere coincidence but a telltale sign of a cataclysmic merger in progress. The host galaxies of these quasars were locked in a gravitational embrace, their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermassive-black-holes-are-very-messy-eaters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a> spiraling towards an inevitable collision.</p>



<p>This merger will ultimately give birth to a single, even more monstrous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-may-talk-to-galaxies-through-energetic-winds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>, forever altering the cosmic landscape.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaseous-bridge">Gaseous bridge</h2>



<p>The Gemini Near-Infrared Spectrograph (<a href="https://www.gemini.edu/instrumentation/gnirs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GNIRS</a>) on <a href="https://www.gemini.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gemini North</a> played a crucial role in confirming the identity of these merging quasars and uncovering the secrets of their host galaxies.</p>



<p>“What we learned from the GNIRS observations was that the quasars are too faint to detect in near-infrared, even with one of the largest telescopes on the ground," Matsuoka revealed.</p>



<p>This faintness indicated that a portion of the observed light originated not from the quasars themselves but from the intense star formation occurring within their merging galaxies. </p>



<p>Furthermore, the GNIRS observations detected a bridge of gas connecting the two quasars, providing compelling evidence of their impending merger.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glimpse-into-the-early-universe">Glimpse into the early universe</h2>



<p>This monumental discovery offers a rare glimpse into a period of the universe that has long remained elusive. </p>



<p>By studying these distant objects, astronomers can unlock valuable insights into the processes that shaped the early universe and laid the foundation for the magnificent cosmic structures we marvel at today.</p>



<p>The discovery of this merging quasar pair marks a significant milestone in our understanding of the cosmos. </p>



<p>As astronomers venture deeper into the universe's mysteries, they anticipate uncovering more of these enigmatic objects, gradually piecing together the intricate puzzle of the early universe's evolution.</p>



<p>The highly anticipated Vera C. Rubin Observatory's Legacy Survey of Space and Time (<a href="https://kipac.stanford.edu/research/projects/vera-rubin-observatorys-legacy-survey-space-and-time" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LSST</a>) is poised to revolutionize quasar research. </p>



<p>With its unparalleled ability to peer into the depths of space, the LSST is expected to detect millions of quasars, ushering in a new era of discovery and unveiling the secrets of these cosmic powerhouses.</p>



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Merging quasars from the 'Cosmic Dawn' reveal how the universe was formed

Let us transport ourselves back in time to an era...

<p>A major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquakes-have-long-lasting-impacts-on-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earthquake</a> 2,500 years ago caused a dramatic course change in one of the world's largest rivers, the Ganges, in what is now Bangladesh, a densely populated area still susceptible to significant seismic activity.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experts found that this previously undocumented earthquake rerouted the main channel of the Ganges River.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-river-course-change">Massive river-course change</h2>



<p>While river-course changes, known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-will-cause-catastrophic-river-avulsions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">avulsions</a>, have been documented before, this one stands out due to its scale.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“I don’t think we have ever seen such a big one anywhere,” said co-author Michael Steckler, a geophysicist at the <a href="https://lamont.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory</a>. According to Steckler, such an event could have flooded the surrounding area, posing a significant threat to any inhabitants.</p>



<p>“It was not previously confirmed that earthquakes could drive avulsion in deltas, especially for an immense river like the Ganges,” said lead author Liz Chamberlain, a geophysicist at&nbsp; <a href="https://www.wur.nl/en.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wageningen University</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ganges-river-system">The Ganges River system</h2>



<p>The Ganges River, originating in the Himalayas, flows approximately 1,600 miles and merges with other significant rivers such as the Brahmaputra and the Meghna, forming a complex system of waterways that empty into the Bay of Bengal. This system is the world's second-largest river system by discharge, after the Amazon.</p>



<p>Rivers in major deltas often change course over time due to sediment buildup, causing the river bed to rise and eventually breach, redirecting the flow.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Typically, these changes happen gradually through successive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">floods</a> over years or decades. However, an earthquake-induced avulsion, as Steckler explains, can occur almost instantaneously.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ancient-main-channel-nbsp-of-the-ganges">The ancient main channel&nbsp;of the Ganges </h2>



<p>The researchers identified what they believe to be the ancient main channel of the river, located about 100 kilometers south of Dhaka, Bangladesh's capital. This area, now used primarily for rice cultivation, is prone to frequent flooding.&nbsp;</p>



<p>During fieldwork in 2018, Chamberlain's team discovered vertical dikes of light-colored sand cutting through horizontal layers of mud in a freshly excavated pond. These features, known as seismites, indicate past earthquake activity. The seismites were 30 to 40 centimeters wide, extending through three to four meters of mud.</p>



<p>Further analysis showed that the seismites formed around 2,500 years ago, coinciding with the abandonment and infilling of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/river-colors-are-shifting-from-blue-to-yellow-and-green/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">river</a> channel. Similar findings were observed 85 kilometers downstream.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avulsion-caused-by-an-earthquake">Avulsion caused by an earthquake</h2>



<p>The researchers concluded that this was a significant avulsion caused by an earthquake, likely of magnitude seven or eight.</p>



<p>The potential sources of the quake are twofold: a subduction zone to the south and east, or giant splay faults at the base of the Himalayas. Both zones are accumulating stress and could produce similar earthquakes in the future, as evidenced by a <a href="https://www.earth.columbia.edu/articles/view/3336" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2016 study</a> led by Steckler.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The last comparable quake occurred in 1762, generating a deadly tsunami that reached Dhaka, with another possible event around 1140 CE.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-risks-of-river-avulsion">Modern risks of river avulsion</h2>



<p>The 2016 study estimated that a modern recurrence of such a quake could impact 140 million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Large earthquakes impact large areas and can have long-lasting economic, social and political effects,” said Syed Humayun Akhter, vice-chancellor of <a href="https://www.bou.ac.bd/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bangladesh Open University </a>and co-author of both studies.</p>



<p>The Ganges is not alone in facing these risks. Other rivers in tectonically active deltas include China’s Yellow River, Myanmar’s Irrawaddy, several rivers off the U.S. West Coast, and the Jordan River, which spans the borders of Syria, Jordan, the Palestinian West Bank, and Israel.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-ganges-river-nbsp">More about the Ganges River&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The Ganges River is one of the most significant and sacred rivers in the world. It originates from the Gangotri Glacier in the Indian Himalayas. </p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-extent-of-microplastic-contamination-in-the-ganges-river/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">river</a> is revered in Hinduism, with millions of devotees considering its waters to be purifying and holy.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cradle-of-civilization-nbsp">Cradle of civilization&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Historically, the Ganges has been a cradle of civilization, supporting agriculture and sustaining major cities along its banks, such as Varanasi, Haridwar, and Kolkata.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The fertile plains of the Ganges basin have been vital for India's food production, particularly in growing rice and wheat.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-threats-nbsp">Environmental threats&nbsp;</h3>



<p>However, the river faces significant environmental challenges, including pollution from industrial waste, sewage, and religious offerings, which threaten its ecosystem and the health of those who depend on its waters.</p>



<p>Efforts to clean and conserve the Ganges have been ongoing, with government initiatives like the National Mission for Clean Ganga aiming to reduce pollution and restore its ecological balance.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Despite these challenges, the Ganges remains a symbol of life, spirituality, and resilience for millions of people.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-47786-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Massive earthquake changed the course of the Ganges River

A major earthquake 2,500 years ago caused a dramatic course...

<p>A unique celestial "lunar standstill" event will be observed at Stonehenge this week, with a live stream available on YouTube at 21:30 BST (16:30 EST) on Friday, June 21. </p>



<p>The famous monument is known for its alignment with the sunrise on the summer solstice, which occurs this year on Thursday, June 20. </p>



<p>This year, however, there is an added phenomenon: one of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-weekends-strawberry-moon-is-the-sweetest-of-the-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">southernmost moonrises</a> during a rare lunistice, or “major lunar standstill.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-lunar-standstill-nbsp">Rare lunar standstill&nbsp;</h2>



<p>In addition to the sun rising behind Stonehenge's Heel Stone on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/summer-solstice-midsummer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">summer solstice</a>, the moonrise on the same day will also be significant due to the major lunar standstill.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Occurring every 18.6 years, this event happens when both Earth and the moon are at their maximum tilts. This results in the moon rising and setting at its most extreme positions on the horizon.</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/stonehenge/things-to-do/major-lunar-standstill/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">English Heritage</a>, the four Station Stones at Stonehenge align with the direction of the southernmost moonrise during the major lunar standstill.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Stonehenge’s architectural connection to the Sun is well known, but its link with the moon is less well understood,” said Clive Ruggles, emeritus professor of archaeoastronomy at the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The four Station Stones align with the moon’s extreme positions, and researchers have debated for years whether this was deliberate, and - if so - how this was achieved and what might have been its purpose.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-the-moon-aligns-with-stonehenge">When the moon aligns with Stonehenge </h2>



<p>The major lunar standstill is challenging to capture because the extreme points of moonrise do not coincide conveniently with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-weekends-strawberry-moon-is-the-sweetest-of-the-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">full moons</a> but occur randomly during various moon phases from 2024 into 2025.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The most extreme points are near the equinoxes, not the solstices, making this week’s near-full moonrise on the solstice a rare and dramatic event.</p>



<p>Scientists will be stationed at Stonehenge throughout the “standstill season” to document the moon's alignments with the Station Stones. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-minor-lunar-standstills">Minor lunar standstills</h2>



<p>A minor lunar standstill is a similar astronomical event that occurs approximately halfway between two major lunar standstills, which happen every 18.6 years. During a minor lunar standstill, the Moon's monthly path swings less far north and south in the sky compared to a major lunar standstill.</p>



<p>This phenomenon occurs because the Moon's orbit is tilted by about 5 degrees relative to the Earth's equator. As the Earth rotates around the Sun, the direction of the Moon's orbital tilt gradually shifts over a period of 18.6 years. </p>



<p>Halfway through this cycle, or about 9.3 years after a major lunar standstill, the Moon's orbit aligns in such a way that its monthly declination range is at its minimum, resulting in a minor lunar standstill.</p>



<p>During a minor lunar standstill, the Moon still rises and sets at different points on the horizon throughout the month, but the range of these positions is smaller than during a major lunar standstill.</p>



<p> As a result, the Moon's path in the sky appears less extreme, and it does not rise or set as far north or south as it does during a major standstill.</p>



<p>Astronomers and sky enthusiasts observe minor lunar standstills to better understand the complex motion of the Moon and its relationship to the Earth and the Sun. </p>



<p>While minor lunar standstills may not be as visually striking as major ones, they still offer opportunities to witness the Moon's unique behavior in the sky.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experiencing-the-extreme-moonrise-nbsp">Experiencing the extreme moonrise&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“Unlike the Sun, tracking the Moon’s extremes isn’t straightforward, requiring specific timing and weather conditions,” said Amanda Chadburn from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>’s Kellogg College.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We want to understand something of what it was like to experience these extreme moonrises and sets and to witness their visual effects on the stones - for example, patterns of light and shadow - and consider modern influences like traffic and trees, and to document all of this through photography for future study,” she concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-stonehenge-nbsp">More about Stonehenge&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Stonehenge is an ancient prehistoric monument located in Wiltshire, England. It's composed of a ring of standing stones, each around 13 feet high, seven feet wide, and weighing approximately 25 tons.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Archaeologists believe that Stonehenge was constructed from 3000 BC to 2000 BC. The site is part of a larger complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in the area, including several hundred burial mounds.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-purpose">Mysterious purpose</h3>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stonehenge-has-a-mysterious-connection-with-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">purpose</a> of Stonehenge remains a topic of debate among scholars, with theories ranging from its use as an astronomical observatory to a ceremonial site for ancient rituals.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origin-of-the-stones">Origin of the stones</h3>



<p>The stones are thought to have been transported from long distances, with the smaller bluestones originating from the Preseli Hills in Wales, about 150 miles away.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This feat would have required significant human effort and ingenuity, highlighting the organizational skills of the ancient builders.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-construction-nbsp">Construction&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Stonehenge's construction occurred in several stages, beginning with a circular earthwork enclosure in 3000 BC.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The iconic stone circle we see today was erected in the late Neolithic period, around 2500 BC. Subsequent modifications continued into the Bronze Age, reflecting the site's ongoing importance to successive cultures.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-heel-stone-nbsp">The Heel Stone&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The alignment of Stonehenge's stones has fascinated many, as some align with the movements of the sun.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For example, during the summer solstice, the sun rises over the Heel Stone, situated outside the main circle. This alignment has led to theories that Stonehenge served as a solar calendar or a place of sun worship.</p>



<p>Today, Stonehenge is a UNESCO World Heritage site, attracting over a million visitors annually.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Despite extensive research, it continues to hold many secrets, captivating the imagination of people worldwide with its mysterious origins and purpose.</p>



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Rare lunar standstill will illuminate Stonehenge this week

A unique celestial "lunar standstill" event will be observed at...

<p>The migratory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-dramatically-increases-the-threat-of-desert-locusts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">locust</a>, <em>Locusta migratoria</em>, a notorious crop pest, has long been known for its devastating swarms that threaten agriculture and food security, particularly in Africa and Asia. </p>



<p>Recent research by scientists at the <a href="https://www.ice.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology</a> has revealed the unique olfactory brain structure of these locusts. </p>



<p>Unlike other insects, migratory locusts have over 2,000 glomeruli in their antennal lobe, compared to 20-300 in most insects. This distinctive feature enables complex odor processing in the locusts, crucial for their behavior and swarming.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-odor-processing">Complex odor processing </h2>



<p>Migratory locusts’ antennal lobes, essential for odor processing, exhibit a complex neuronal architecture. This complex structure, with more than 2,000 spherical functional units known as glomeruli, differs significantly from the much lower number of glomeruli found in other insects.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This unique configuration has puzzled scientists for decades. Now, the experts aimed to decode how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-nose-is-a-clever-smell-prediction-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odors</a> are encoded within this extensive network of glomeruli.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-brain-activation-in-locusts">Mapping brain activation in locusts</h2>



<p>The introduction of CRISPR/Cas9 was a game-changer for the researchers, enabling the development of the first transgenic migratory locusts expressing GCaMP, a genetically encoded calcium sensor. This sensor fluoresces upon binding calcium, released when cells are active.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Using functional 2-photon calcium imaging, the team could map spatial activation patterns in the locusts’ antennal lobes for a variety of ecologically relevant odors across all six developmental stages.</p>



<p>“Our results reveal an unusual functional ring-shaped organization of the antennal lobe,” explained Silke Sachse, head of the Olfactory Coding Research Group at Max Planck.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This structure consists of specific glomerular clusters consistently present throughout the locust's development, from nymph stages to adulthood.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-research-nbsp">Challenging research&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Achieving gene transformation in migratory locusts, which are not standard model organisms like <em>Drosophila melanogaster</em>, was particularly challenging.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The large brain volume of locusts further complicated imaging and data analysis. “We are the first group in the world to successfully apply the site-specific knock-in method to locusts,” Jiang said.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spatial-odor-coding-in-locusts-nbsp">Spatial odor coding in locusts&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Interestingly, the locust’s spatial odor coding reflects the chemical structure of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-the-smell-of-fear-to-control-garden-pests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odors</a> rather than their valence. This is unlike flies, where the valence (pleasant or repulsive) is represented in the antennal lobe. </p>



<p>“We have observed that odors of certain chemical classes evoke a certain pattern: For example, aromatic compounds with similar chemical structure but opposite behavioral significance evoke stronger responses in the peripheral regions of the antennal lobe,” noted co-lead author Bill Hansson, Director of the Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology at Max Planck.</p>



<p>“We conclude that the representation of odor valence is not encoded in the antennal lobe, but in higher brain centers such as the mushroom body and the lateral horn.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-odor-perception-in-locusts-nbsp">Understanding odor perception in locusts&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The unique ring structure of the olfactory code in migratory locusts raises questions about its advantages or disadvantages compared to other insects. Future studies aim to investigate if other locust species exhibit similar coding patterns.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Understanding odor perception and processing in locusts is crucial for comprehending their ecological interactions and could aid in developing better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pest-control-product-nemaslug-could-harm-beneficial-snails/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pest control</a> strategies. </p>



<p>“We believe that a better understanding of the odor coding mechanisms in the primary olfactory center of the locust brain will significantly deepen our knowledge of the neuronal modulation underlying olfaction-mediated behaviors, such as the formation of locust swarms,” Hanssen concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sense-of-smell-in-migratory-locusts-nbsp">Sense of smell in migratory locusts&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Migratory locusts possess a highly developed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense of smell</a>, which plays a crucial role in their survival and behavior. Their olfactory system allows them to detect and respond to a variety of chemical cues in their environment. </p>



<p>Their sophisticated sense of smell helps the locusts locate food sources, identify suitable habitats, and communicate with other locusts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The antennae of migratory locusts are equipped with numerous sensory receptors that can detect specific chemical compounds, enabling them to navigate and make decisions critical for their migration and swarming behavior.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Their ability to sense pheromones also facilitates the coordination of mass movements and the formation of large swarms, which are characteristic of migratory locusts.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2024.05.036" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Cell</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<p>-----</p>



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Locusts have brains built for complex odor processing 

The migratory locust, Locusta migratoria, a notorious crop pest, has...

<p>As life on Earth dramatically expanded over 500 million years ago during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-explosion-fossil-sponges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian explosion</a>, tectonic plate activity began to significantly shape the planet, according to a recent study. The collision of these plates caused mountains to form and initiated a sequence of events that led to a mass extinction known as the “Sinsk event.” </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tectonic-activity-and-rapid-climate-change">Tectonic activity and rapid climate change</h2>



<p>These tectonic movements allowed magma to reach the surface, releasing large amounts of greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere and triggering rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-change-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. This catastrophic event wiped out various animal groups, such as archaeocyathids and hyoliths.</p>



<p>“It's unusual to point to a tectonic cause for an extinction event, but the evidence is compelling,” said study co-author John Goodge, a professor emeritus at the <a href="http://d.umn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Minnesota Duluth</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sinsk-event-extinction-nbsp">Sinsk event extinction&nbsp;</h2>



<p>According to the study authors, the Sinsk event extinction was triggered by initial Ross/Delamerian supracrustal contraction along the edge of Gondwana, which caused a cascading series of geodynamic, paleoenvironmental, and biotic changes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These changes included loss of shallow marine carbonate habitats along the Gondwanan margin, tectonic transformation within the Gondwanan interior, and the extrusion of the Kalkarindji large igneous province.</p>



<p>There was also a release of large volumes of volcanic gases and rapid climate change, including incursions of marine anoxic waters and collapse of shallow marine ecosystems, noted the researchers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-records-of-mountain-building">Records of mountain building</h2>



<p>Goodge and his colleagues discovered the connection to plate tectonics by comparing field notes from Antarctica and southern Australia. These two regions, once part of the supercontinent Gondwana near the equator, showed nearly identical records of mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-mountains-form-new-theories-for-an-age-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">building</a> just before the extinction event.</p>



<p>The research, which began in the 1990s, has recently been published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adl3452" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Science Advances</em></a>. Goodge and other scientists set up camps on a glacier in Antarctica, traveling by helicopter and snowmobile to the Holyoake Range. </p>



<p>The experts examined fossils from carbonate reef structures to trace the timeline of the extinction. A separate team found similar evidence in Australia in 2011.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-series-of-cascading-events">A series of cascading events</h2>



<p>“You never know when something you did decades ago is going to come together in a new way,” Goodge said.</p>



<p>Thus, as the author concluded, tectonic movements during mountain building “caused a series of cascading environmental processes that resulted in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-sediments-predict-the-impacts-of-ocean-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean warming</a>, reduced oceanic turnover, widespread bottom-water anoxia in marginal and epicontinental seas, and, ultimately, the Sinsk extinction.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-mountain-building-nbsp">More about mountain building&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Mountain building, also known as orogeny, is a complex geological process that involves the formation of mountain ranges. This phenomenon primarily results from the movement of tectonic plates, which are massive slabs of Earth's lithosphere.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As these plates interact, they can converge, diverge, or slide past each other, leading to various geological activities.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-mountain-ranges">Formation of mountain ranges</h3>



<p>When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-volcanic-events-linked-to-the-slowing-of-tectonic-plates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tectonic plates</a> converge, one plate may be forced over another, causing the crust to crumple and fold. This is how many of the world's major mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas, were formed. </p>



<p>The immense pressure and heat generated during this process can also cause the rocks to undergo metamorphism, further contributing to mountain formation.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-activity-nbsp">Volcanic activity&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Another mechanism of mountain building is volcanic activity. When magma from the Earth's mantle rises to the surface, it can build up layers of lava and ash, creating volcanic mountains.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The Andes in South America are a prime example of mountains formed by the subduction of an oceanic plate beneath a continental plate, leading to significant volcanic activity.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-mountain-ranges-nbsp">Dynamic mountain ranges&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Erosion and weathering also play a crucial role in shaping mountains. Over time, these forces can wear down the peaks and ridges, redistributing the material to form valleys and other features.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This ongoing interaction between tectonic activity and surface processes ensures that mountain ranges are dynamic and continually evolving.</p>



<p>Overall, mountain building is a multifaceted process driven by the movement of tectonic plates and volcanic activity, with subsequent modification by erosion and weathering. These forces combine to create and reshape the majestic mountain ranges that define Earth's topography.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Mountain building triggered a mass extinction event

As life on Earth dramatically expanded over 500 million years...

<p>In the depths of the East Pacific Rise, a unique environment of extreme temperatures, intense pressures, and toxic carbon compounds, thrives <em>Riftia pachyptila</em>, a giant hydrothermal vent tubeworm.</p>



<p>Growing up to 6 feet tall with a striking deep-red plume, Riftia tubeworm lacks a digestive system and relies on a symbiotic relationship with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-simplest-organisms-like-worms-have-unique-personalities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> within its body.</p>



<p>These bacteria convert carbon dioxide into sugars, sustaining both themselves and the tubeworm.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-fixation-in-riftia-tubeworms">Carbon fixation in Riftia tubeworms</h2>



<p>Unlike most autotrophic organisms that use a single carbon fixation pathway, Riftia pachyptila’s bacterial symbionts utilize two: the Calvin-Benson-Bassham (CBB) cycle and the reductive tricarboxylic acid (rTCA) cycle. </p>



<p>Until recently, scientists had limited understanding of how these pathways function and integrate with other metabolic processes.</p>



<p>New research from Harvard University’s Department of <a href="https://oeb.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Organismic and Evolutionary Biology</a> has uncovered how these two pathways are coordinated, revealing a sophisticated adaptation that allows Riftia's symbionts to thrive.</p>



<p>The study, published in <em>Nature Microbiology</em>, involved collecting tubeworms from the East Pacific Rise and mimicking their natural environment in the lab, including pressures of 3,000 PSI and near-toxic sulfur levels. </p>



<p>“This paper is really a tour de force of going from studying living organisms and measuring their metabolic rates and allying them directly to transcripts in a way that allowed the research team to show that the pathways are very likely being run in parallel,” said senior co-author, professor of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Peter Girguis. </p>



<p>“The paper shows that the dual pathways are biased by the environmental conditions, and that there are other metabolic systems in orbit around each of these two.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-sea-carbon-fixation-mechanics">Deep-sea carbon fixation mechanics</h2>



<p>Carbon fixation, the process of converting carbon dioxide to sugars, is essential for sustaining life. </p>



<p>While photosynthetic organisms like plants use sunlight for this process, <em>Riftia pachyptila</em>’s chemoautotrophic symbionts use energy from hydrogen sulfide.</p>



<p>By varying the experimental conditions for Riftia, the research team identified how environmental changes influence the coordination of the two carbon pathways.</p>



<p>“This is the most in-depth analysis of bacteria that has two carbon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nitroplast-discovery-first-nitrogen-fixing-organelle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fixation</a> pathways, the rTCA and CBB,” said lead author and postdoctoral scholar Jessica Mitchell.</p>



<p>“This is also the first network analysis done on a hydrothermal vent symbiosis and the first network analysis done on a dual carbon fixation pathway system.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tubeworms-metabolic-insights">Tubeworms metabolic insights </h2>



<p>Network analysis allowed the team to detect patterns in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crown-of-thorns-starfish-gene-expression-may-help-protect-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene</a> expression data, providing a comprehensive view of the system.</p>



<p>They identified metabolic hub genes crucial for maintaining and regulating the complex network of metabolic reactions within cells.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-roles-in-metabolic-function">Distinct roles in metabolic function</h2>



<p>The study found significant differences in the transcriptional patterns of the rTCA and CBB cycles in response to varying geochemical conditions. </p>



<p>The rTCA cycle is linked with hydrogenases and dissimilatory nitrate reduction, crucial for processing hydrogen and nitrates without oxygen, indicating its key role under low-energy conditions.</p>



<p>In contrast, the CBB cycle is associated with sulfide oxidation and assimilatory nitrate reduction, vital processes in the sulfide-rich environment of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/five-new-hydrothermal-vents-discovered-in-the-pacific-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrothermal vents</a>.</p>



<p>This linkage allows the symbionts to utilize available chemical energy to fix carbon effectively.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complementary-carbon-pathways">Complementary carbon pathways</h2>



<p>One of the study’s most intriguing findings is the complementary nature of the two pathways in the tubeworm.</p>



<p>The rTCA cycle is particularly important under conditions where sulfide and oxygen are limited, highlighted by the role of a Group 1e-hydrogenase. </p>



<p>This flexibility gives the tubeworms a significant advantage, enabling them to thrive in the variable conditions of hydrothermal vents.</p>



<p>The high carbon fixation rates measured during the study support Riftia pachyptila’s rapid growth and survival. </p>



<p>The dual carbon fixation pathways, each optimized for different environmental conditions, help maintain metabolic stability during environmental shifts.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-tubeworms-and-carbon-capture">Understanding tubeworms and carbon capture</h2>



<p>This research opens new avenues for understanding biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turning-plants-into-carbon-capture-machines-with-cyanobacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon capture</a> and basic biochemistry.</p>



<p>The findings could have practical applications in biotechnology, where these pathways might be harnessed to develop more efficient systems for carbon fixation. </p>



<p>“This study really paves the way for future studies, and understanding how these dual pathways are enabling this organism to fix this amount of carbon,” Mitchell said.</p>



<p>By uncovering the mechanisms behind <em>Riftia pachyptila</em>'s extraordinary ability to thrive in such a hostile environment, this research deepens our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-deep-sea-worm-discovered-off-costa-rica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea</a> ecosystems and has the potential to inform advancements in sustainable technologies and our knowledge of life's adaptability.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-024-01704-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Microbiology</a></em>.</p>



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How giant tubeworms survive on deep-sea hydrothermal vents

In the depths of the East Pacific Rise, a unique...

<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Red Planet</a> has always been a source of fascination for scientists and the general public alike, with its dusty landscapes and potential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-may-have-once-been-a-cradle-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">harboring life</a>. </p>



<p>Recent discoveries of mysterious holes on Mars have reignited our curiosity, sparking speculation about their origins and what they might hold.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-holes-and-volcanic-past">Mars holes and volcanic past</h2>



<p>Scientists first captured images of these intriguing holes using the HiRISE camera in 2022, but their formation remains a subject of ongoing research. </p>



<p>One prevailing theory suggests that these holes are "skylights" formed when the ground above ancient lava tubes collapsed. </p>



<p>Lava tubes, akin to long caves, are created during volcanic eruptions as lava flows downhill, leaving behind empty tunnels as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-surface-contains-more-organic-matter-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface</a> cools and hardens.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars-hole_arsia-mons_comparison_UArizona_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mars-hole_arsia-mons_comparison_UArizona_NASA_1s.jpg" alt="Pit crater on Arsia Mons captured by Mars Recon Orbiter. Credit: NASA/JPL/UArizona" class="wp-image-1936866"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Pit crater on Arsia Mons captured by Mars Recon Orbiter. Credit: NASA/JPL/UArizona</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>"There's more than one of these [pits] on Mars that we've seen," said Brandon Johnson, a geophysicist at <a href="https://www.purdue.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University</a> who studies impact craters across the solar system. "But they're really interesting because they're places where astronauts might be able to go and be safe from radiation."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-refuge-from-mars-harsh-radiation">A refuge from Mars' harsh radiation</h2>



<p>Mars' thin atmosphere and lack of a global magnetic field like Earth's leave it exposed to dangerous levels of radiation. This poses a significant challenge for future human missions to the planet. </p>



<p>However, these newly discovered holes offer a glimmer of hope. If they lead to sufficiently large lava tubes, they could provide astronauts with much-needed protection from the harsh Martian environment.</p>



<p>"On Earth, these lava tubes can be large enough to walk around in, but they can also be small or the voids can be discrete or discontinuous," explained Ross Beyer, a planetary scientist with the <a href="https://www.seti.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SETI Institute</a>.</p>



<p>"So these pits we see could open into larger caves, or they could just be isolated pits. There's no way to know what's in them until we explore them in more detail."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-depths-with-mars-holes">Exploring the depths with Mars holes</h2>



<p>While there is no concrete timeline for sending humans to Mars, scientists are exploring alternative methods to delve into these mysterious pits. </p>



<p>One possibility involves deploying robots to descend into the holes and investigate their interiors.</p>



<p>"There are missions proposed to essentially have a robot go on a line and drop down into one of these skylights and be able to explore what's inside of them," said Johnson, although he noted that no such mission is currently underway.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-are-we-alone-in-the-universe">Are we alone in the universe?</h2>



<p>While the discovery of these pits on Mars does not definitively confirm the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/searching-for-life-on-mars-quest-continues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">existence of life</a>, it opens up a realm of exciting possibilities. </p>



<p>Lava tubes, with their inherent ability to maintain stable temperatures and shield against harmful radiation, could have served as sanctuaries for lifeforms in Mars' past.</p>



<p>It is conceivable that these subterranean environments might still harbor remnants of these lifeforms, either dormant or actively adapting to the challenging Martian conditions.</p>



<p>This discovery underscores the importance of further exploration and investigation of these pits to determine if they hold the key to unlocking the secrets of life beyond Earth.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-mars-exploration">Future of Mars exploration</h2>



<p>As technology advances and our understanding of Mars deepens, the prospect of sending humans to explore these mysterious holes becomes increasingly tangible. </p>



<p>The potential for discovering life, or at the very least, finding suitable shelters for future astronauts, makes these Martian pits an exciting frontier in our ongoing quest to unravel the secrets of the universe.</p>



<p>In the meantime, scientists continue to analyze data and images from Mars, hoping to gain further insights into these enigmatic formations. </p>



<p>The mysteries surrounding these holes only fuel our fascination with the Red Planet and drive us to continue exploring its vast and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/manganese-discovery-ancient-mars-earth-like-water-lake-habitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unknown landscapes</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-considerations">Challenges and considerations </h2>



<p>While the prospect of finding life or astronaut havens in Martian lava tubes is captivating, there are numerous challenges to overcome before humans can venture into these subterranean realms. </p>



<p>The extreme temperatures, lack of atmosphere, and potential hazards within the caves pose significant risks that require careful planning and technological advancements.</p>



<p>Moreover, the ethical implications of exploring and potentially disturbing a pristine Martian environment must be carefully considered. </p>



<p>The search for life beyond Earth raises profound questions about our place in the universe and the responsibilities that come with such discoveries.</p>



<p>Overall, the mysterious holes on Mars serve as a reminder of the vast unknowns that still exist within our own solar system. They beckon us to explore, to seek answers to fundamental questions about life and our place in the cosmos.</p>



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Mysterious holes on Mars might harbor life and are crucial for exploration

The Red Planet has always been a source of fascination...

<p>A new study reveals that consuming small fish whole may reduce the risk of all-cause and cancer mortality in women.</p>



<p>The research, conducted by a team from <a href="https://www.med.nagoya-u.ac.jp/medical_E/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine</a>, highlights the potential life-extending benefits of this dietary habit.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-nutritional-profile-of-small-fish">Unique nutritional profile of small fish</h2>



<p>Japanese <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-diets-offer-health-benefits-and-lower-carbon-footprint/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cuisine</a> often includes small fish such as whitebait, Atlantic capelin, Japanese smelt, and small dried sardines.</p>



<p>These fish are typically eaten whole, including the head, bones, and organs, which are rich in micronutrients like calcium and vitamin A. </p>



<p>The practice of eating small fish whole is believed to be a key factor in the health benefits observed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-impact-of-eating-small-fish">Health impact of eating small fish</h2>



<p>"Previous studies have revealed the protective effect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-fish-lowers-risk-of-recurrent-cardiovascular-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish intake</a> on health outcomes, including mortality risks. However, few studies have focused on the effect of the intake of small fish specifically on health outcomes,” said Dr. Chinatsu Kasahara, who led the study.</p>



<p>“I was interested in this topic because I have had the habit of eating small fish since childhood. I now feed my children these."</p>



<p>The research team conducted a comprehensive study involving 80,802 participants (34,555 men and 46,247 women) aged 35 to 69 years across Japan. Small fish consumption was assessed using a food frequency questionnaire.</p>



<p>The participants were followed up on for an average of nine years, during which 2,482 deaths were recorded, with about 60% (1,495 deaths) being cancer-related.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significant-findings-among-women">Significant findings among women</h2>



<p>One of the most striking findings was the significant reduction in all-cause and cancer mortality among women who habitually eat small fish. </p>



<p>Women who consumed small fish 1-3 times a month, 1-2 times a week, or 3 times or more a week had a significantly reduced risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-cancer-rates-in-young-adults-linked-to-accelerated-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cancer</a> mortality.</p>



<p>After controlling for factors such as age, smoking, alcohol consumption, BMI, and intake of various nutrients and foods, the researchers found that frequent consumption of small fish was associated with a lower risk of death from any cause among women. </p>



<p>This suggests that incorporating small fish into one's daily diet could be a simple yet effective strategy to live a longer, healthier life.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-among-men">Observations among men</h2>



<p>The study also observed a similar trend in men, although the results were not statistically significant. </p>



<p>The researchers speculated that the limited number of male subjects or other unmeasured factors, such as portion size, might have influenced the results.</p>



<p>"One of the reasons underlying the difference in the effects of consumption of small fish on the risk of all-cause and cancer mortality between sexes in this study might be the difference in the cancer type causing cancer mortality among sexes; however, other reasons are unknown," noted the study authors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-future-research">Implications and future research</h2>



<p>Dr. Kasahara believes the results of the study could be significant for other populations as well. “While our findings were only among Japanese people, they should also be important for other nationalities,” she said.</p>



<p>Previous studies have pointed out that small fish are an affordable and vital source of nutrients, especially in developing countries facing severe nutrient deficiencies. </p>



<p>This latest study adds to the growing body of evidence supporting the health benefits of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mindfulness-improves-health-by-helping-people-make-smart-dietary-choices/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dietary practices</a> which include frequent fish consumption.</p>



<p>“Small fish are easy for everyone to eat, and they can be consumed whole, including the head, bones, and organs. Nutrients and physiologically active substances unique to small fish could contribute to maintaining good health," noted Dr. Kasahara.</p>



<p>"The inverse relationship between the intake of small fish and the mortality risk in women underscores the importance of these nutrient-dense foods in people's diets."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-fish-a-potential-lifespan-booster">Small fish: A potential lifespan booster</h2>



<p>“The habit of eating small fish is usually limited to several coastal or maritime countries, such as Japan,” said Professor Takashi Tamura.</p>



<p>“However, we suspect that the intake of small fish anywhere may be revealed as a way to prolong life expectancy. Further evidence is necessary to elucidate the potential role of the intake of small fish in mortality risk.”</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/association-between-consumption-of-small-fish-and-allcause-mortality-among-japanese-the-japan-multiinstitutional-collaborative-cohort-study/47E8745FA2D52366394DF85A6A9A0674" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Public Health Nutrition</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Eating small fish whole reduces cancer risk in women

A new study reveals that consuming small fish whole may...

<p>The rapid expansion of satellite "megaconstellations" is jeopardizing the recovery of the ozone hole.</p>



<p>As satellites fall into Earth's atmosphere and burn up, they release tiny particles of aluminum oxide. These particles can severely damage Earth's protective ozone layer. </p>



<p>A recent study revealed that aluminum oxides increased eight-fold between 2016 and 2022, with more accumulation expected as the number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-low-earth-orbit-leo/">low-Earth-orbit satellites</a> continues to rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellite-megaconstellations">Satellite megaconstellations</h2>



<p>Megaconstellations are large groups of low Earth orbit satellites working together for global coverage. Companies like <a href="https://www.spacex.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SpaceX</a> and Amazon lead this effort, aiming to provide high-speed internet worldwide. Starlink, SpaceX's project, plans up to 42,000 satellites. </p>



<p>Amazon's <a href="https://www.aboutamazon.com/what-we-do/devices-services/project-kuiper" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Project Kuiper</a> will launch thousands more. These satellites orbit closer to Earth, reducing signal delay and improving internet access in remote areas.</p>



<p>However, megaconstellations pose environmental and space traffic risks. When satellites re-enter the atmosphere, they release aluminum oxides, threatening the ozone layer. </p>



<p>The rapid increase in satellite numbers raises concerns about space debris, which can cause collisions and damage other satellites.</p>



<p>Despite these challenges, megaconstellations represent a significant technological advance, potentially revolutionizing global communication. Balancing their benefits with environmental and safety considerations is crucial for sustainable space development.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrinking-ozone-hole">Shrinking ozone hole</h2>



<p>The 1987 Montreal Protocol successfully regulated ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), resulting in a shrinking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ozone-hole-exposes-wildlife-to-harmful-uv-radiation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ozone hole</a> over Antarctica.</p>



<p>Full recovery was anticipated within fifty years. However, the unexpected rise in aluminum oxides may halt this progress in the coming decades.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proliferation-of-low-earth-orbit-satellites">Proliferation of low-earth-orbit satellites</h2>



<p>Currently, there are 8,100 objects in low Earth orbit, with 6,000 of them being Starlink satellites that were recently launched.</p>



<p>The demand for global internet coverage drives the rapid increase in the number of small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/communications-satellites-may-disrupt-astronomical-observations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication satellites</a>.</p>



<p>SpaceX leads this effort, with permission to launch another 12,000 Starlink satellites and plans for up to 42,000 in total.</p>



<p>Companies like Amazon are also planning constellations ranging from 3,000 to 13,000 satellites.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ozone-threat-from-satellite-lifespans">Ozone threat from satellite lifespans</h2>



<p>Internet satellites in low Earth orbit have a short lifespan of about five years. To maintain internet service, companies must continually launch replacement satellites, perpetuating a cycle of planned obsolescence and unplanned pollution.</p>



<p>Aluminum oxides from these satellites trigger destructive reactions between ozone and chlorine, depleting the ozone layer. </p>



<p>These oxides persist in the atmosphere for decades, continually destroying ozone molecules.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-attention-to-satellite-pollutants">Lack of attention to satellite pollutants</h2>



<p>Despite the potential damage, little attention has been paid to pollutants formed when satellites burn up in the upper atmosphere. </p>



<p>Previous studies focused on the consequences of launching vehicles into space, such as the release of rocket fuel. </p>



<p>The new study by researchers from the University of Southern California <a href="https://viterbischool.usc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Viterbi School of Engineering</a> provides the first realistic estimate of the extent of long-lived pollution in the upper atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellite-pollution-and-ozone-damage">Satellite pollution and ozone damage</h2>



<p>“Only in recent years have people started to think this might become a problem,” said Joseph Wang, a researcher in astronautics at the University of Southern California and corresponding author of the study. “We were one of the first teams to look at what the implication of these facts might be.”</p>



<p>The experts used advanced modeling to estimate pollution from satellite re-entry. Previous estimates based on micrometeoroids were inaccurate due to the low aluminum content in micrometeoroids compared to satellites.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ozone-depletion-and-satellite-re-entry">Ozone depletion and satellite re-entry</h2>



<p>In 2022, re-entering satellites increased atmospheric aluminum by 29.5% over natural levels.</p>



<p>The study found that a typical 250-kilogram satellite, with 30% of its mass as aluminum, generates about 30 kilograms of aluminum oxide nanoparticles during re-entry. </p>



<p>Most of these particles are created in the mesosphere, 50-85 kilometers above Earth’s surface.</p>



<p>The researchers estimate that it will take up to 30 years for these particles to drift down to the stratosphere, where 90% of Earth's ozone is located.</p>



<p>By the time the planned <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/see-the-satellite-constellations-posing-risks-to-night-sky-observations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">satellite constellations</a> are complete, approximately 912 metric tons of aluminum will fall to Earth annually, releasing around 360 metric tons of aluminum oxides each year, a 646% increase over natural levels.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ozone-layer-recovery-at-risk">Ozone layer recovery at risk</h2>



<p>The rapid expansion of satellite megaconstellations poses a significant threat to the recovery of the ozone layer. </p>



<p>Immediate attention and further research are crucial to mitigate this emerging environmental challenge and ensure the continued protection of Earth's ozone layer.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL109280" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



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Burning up of satellites severely harms ozone recovery

The rapid expansion of satellite "megaconstellations" is jeopardizing the recovery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



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Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



<p id="block-9bd989d6-2fd3-4580-957f-6cacce134f08">-----</p>



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<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>



<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.</p>



<p>“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. </p>



<p>The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.</p>



<p>“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”</p>



<p>The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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