Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. 



In new work, researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals.



The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form.



Researchers have debated and re-examined soft, stretchy tissues from these same specimens for nearly two decades. 



Teams have used high-resolution imaging, antibodies, and protein sequencing to argue that the materials are genuine remnants of dinosaur biology rather than modern contaminants. The latest study adds another tool - and another confirmation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-unlocks-dinosaur-chemistry">Light unlocks dinosaur chemistry</h2>



The team turned to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/resonance-raman-spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopy</a>. In this method, laser light is tuned to a molecule’s electronic transitions. This causes only that molecule to “sing” back with a strong signal.



“Raman spectroscopy essentially uses light waves to identify a molecule’s energetic ‘fingerprint,’” said physicist Hans Hallen, the study’s corresponding author. 



“Resonance Raman, which we use here, takes that process one step further by using light already tuned to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-the-origins-of-the-molecule-that-made-the-universe/">molecule</a> of interest - so only that type of molecule will resonate.”



That resonance dramatically boosts the signal from specific bonds - crucial when your targets are rare, damaged molecules embedded in a complex fossil matrix.



“This strong signal allows us to find the needle (hemoglobin remnants) in the haystack (messy fossil) to see how this molecule has changed from the functional living state, revealing the chemical changes molecules undergo in deep time,” Hallen added.



RR spectra from T. rex and Brachylophosaurus extracts showed signatures consistent with heme still bound to globin proteins. In addition, they indicated heme bound to goethite, an iron oxide mineral linked to oxidized iron.



The researchers cross-checked those signals against demineralized modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">ostrich</a> bone and human blood to anchor their interpretations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-molecules-traced-to-dinosaurs">Blood molecules traced to dinosaurs</h2>



Because Raman detects bonds rather than whole molecules, skeptics often point out that generic signals could arise from modern microbes or other contaminants. 



That’s where the extra selectivity of RR - and the structural information in the spectra - matters.



“RR identifies both bonds and structure," said paleobiologist Mary Schweitzer, a co-author on the work. 



"We know that heme is there and that it is still bound to hemoglobin protein - contaminants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reusable-water-bottles-are-breeding-ground-for-strep-and-fecal-bacteria/">bacteria</a> don’t have those specific bonds, so we can say that the molecules are from the animal, or in this case, the dinosaur,”



The team also mapped how those spectral fingerprints shift as hemoglobin decays. After death, the protein breaks down, damaging the heme ring and oxidizing the iron inside it. 



RR data show that goethite forms on that iron, and the heme can bind to the mineral surface.



Tellingly, the researchers observed the early stages of the same degradation pathway in modern samples, suggesting that key steps happen relatively quickly and then stabilize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-blood-survived-fossilization">Dinosaur blood survived fossilization</h2>



Beyond confirming what the molecules are, the spectral changes reveal a plausible route for how they survived. 



Goethite is a bio-related mineral - it often forms in association with biological activity - and the new data hint that it doesn’t just grow near proteins; it can latch onto and stabilize fragments. "We didn’t know that it could bind to and stabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/">protein</a> fragments,” Hallen said.



That matters because it shows a mechanism that locks delicate organics in place and protects them during fossilization. 



Researchers already know that heme persists in sediments far older than the age of dinosaurs, but the path from fresh blood to ancient rock has remained murky.



Pinning down the chemistry helps explain why hemoglobin, in particular, shows up as a survivor - and why some fossils preserve molecular vestiges while others do not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-view-of-fossil-preservation">A new view of fossil preservation</h2>



The study reinforces a shift in paleontology: under the right conditions, original biochemistry can endure deep time, and modern tools can detect and interpret it. 



Instead of a binary “preserved or not,” researchers are piecing together degradation pathways, mineral partnerships, and microenvironments that favor survival.



For dinosaur biology, that means more than just curiosity. Hemoglobin and heme in blood play key roles in metabolism, oxygen transport, and overall physiology. 



Their presence, and the way they degrade, defines how tissues fossilize and what information we can still extract.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1s.webp" alt="Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Credit: NC State University" class="wp-image-1985867"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NC State University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-chemistry-spans-eons">Blood chemistry spans eons</h2>



For dinosaur fossil science, mineral–organic interactions like heme–goethite may help preserve blood proteins and molecular fragments throughout Earth’s history.



“Heme has been identified in sediments that are much, much older than dinosaurs, so we know that it persists,” Schweitzer noted. 



“Understanding why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-human-genetics-could-optimize-medical-care/">hemoglobin</a> preserves, and the role that heme plays in the process, is really important if we want to know how these ancient molecules survive through time.”



The upshot is both practical and provocative. Resonance Raman pinpoints specific ancient molecules within messy fossils, and the chemistry it reveals also serves as a preservation roadmap. 



That’s a powerful combination for anyone trying to read life’s oldest diaries written in stone.



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2025.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Hemoglobin and other blood molecules found preserved in dinosaur fossils

Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. In new work, researchers at North Carolina State University identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals. The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form. Researchers...

October 20th is almost here, and that's no ordinary day. International Sloth Day is headed our way, a day to cast a slow but steady spotlight on one of nature's most intriguing animals, the sloth. 



Known for their chilled-out vibes and a love for trees, sloths aren't just the animal world's laid back lounge-lizards. They also play a crucial role in the ecosystems of Central and South America.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marking-international-sloth-day">Marking International Sloth Day</h2>



It was the year 2010 when the <a href="https://aiunau.org/en/home-2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AIUNAU Foundation</a>, a non-profit based in Colombia that champions wildlife conservation, introduced us all to International Sloth Day. But why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sloths-are-struggling-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sloths</a>, and why a whole day just for them?



The idea behind dedicating a day to the sloth is to amp up awareness about these creatures, their habitats, and their role in the natural world. It's a nudge to learn more about sloths, helping conservation efforts, and marvel at their complex existence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-getting-to-know-sloths">Getting to know sloths</h2>



Dive into the rainforests of Central and South America and you'll probably spot one of the six species of sloths. They're divided into two categories: three-toed sloths and two-toed sloths. 



But the difference isn't just about the digits on their front limbs. Size and behaviors also set the two-toed sloths (who are peppy and larger) apart from their three-toed relatives.



Sloths are designed to thrive in the treetops. Their long, coarse fur grows differently from most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a>, acting like a nature-made brolly when it pours. 



And there's more to their unique fur. It's a cozy home to organisms like algae, fungi, beetles, moths, and more.&nbsp;International Sloth Day&nbsp;brings attention to how these tenants help sloths blend into their green canopies and ward off predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-medical-marvels-of-sloths">Medical marvels of sloths</h2>



Sloths produce compounds with anti-cancer and antibiotic properties. The relationship between sloths and the organisms in their fur could potentially offer useful insights for new medicines.



In Panama, for example, chemicals isolated from fungi in the fur of three-toed sloths were found to be active against breast cancer and parasites that cause malaria and Chagas disease.



Plus, the complex digestive system of sloths may improve our understanding of digestive disorders. The primarily leaf-eating sloths have a multi-compartment stomach, much like cows. International Sloth Day&nbsp;is dedicated to raising awareness about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sloths-may-hold-a-secret-weapon-against-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">these unique traits</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-faced-by-sloths">Threats faced by sloths</h2>



Sloths spend most of their lives upside down, hanging around on trees, all thanks to their specialized tendons that lock their claws onto branches. They might not break any land speed records, but put them in water, and these sloths can swim three times faster than they can move on land.



But just like everyone else, life for sloths isn't always a picnic. The main threat they face is habitat destruction. Deforestation in Central and South America is eating away the natural habitats of sloths, pushing some species to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-wildlife-overlap-is-rapidly-rising-across-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">edge of extinction</a>. 



Add to that the roads cutting through rainforests and urban expansion, and sloths often face dangerous, even fatal, accidents. But it's not all doom and gloom, as organizations like the AIUNAU Foundation work around the clock to reduce these risks and raise awareness on&nbsp;International Sloth Day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-survival-strategies-of-sloths">Unique survival strategies of sloths</h2>



Sloths, often perceived as the epitome of lethargy, embody a unique energy conservation strategy adapted to their niche environments.



Their slow movements serve as an evolutionary advantage, enabling them to avoid detection by predators while residing predominantly in high treetops. This arboreal lifestyle is complemented by their low metabolic rate, which aligns with their nutritionally sparse diet of leaves. 



By digesting food slowly, spanning over several days, sloths maximize nutrient absorption. Furthermore, their infrequent descent to the forest floor, approximately once a week for defecation, minimizes exposure to threats. 



Understanding these behaviors provides deeper insight into their survival tactics, emphasizing the importance of preserving their natural habitats. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pitching-in-for-international-sloth-day">Pitching in for International Sloth Day</h2>



Conservation efforts for sloths need to pick up the pace. With rainforests shrinking, it’s up to us to help sloths thrive in their homes. 



Joining in on the celebration of International Sloth Day is easy. Educate yourself and others about these gentle creatures.



Support conservation efforts with your time or donations. Even a simple share on social media can help raise awareness about sloth conservation.



On October 20th, let’s not just admire these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-animal-day-2024-building-a-legacy-of-compassion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique animals</a> - let's embrace their slower pace of life and appreciate the art of doing nothing.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

International Sloth Day 2024: Embracing a slower pace of life

October 20th is almost here, and that's no ordinary day....

For years, the coastline of Maine has been home to an abundance of American lobsters, providing a powerhouse of economic activity through the fishing industry. 



Our understanding of these crustaceans' preferred habitats, namely the boulder shelter regions, has shaped conservation measures for this $740 million industry. However, climate change is now influencing these habitats and lobster behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lobster-habitat-and-climate-change">Lobster habitat and climate change</h2>



Researchers at the University of Maine (UMaine) have discovered some intriguing changes. Between 1995 and 2021, the scientists observed a 60% decline in the lobster population in boulder habitats.



But, where did they go? Well, those naturally shy lobsters have made a surprising shift to sediment or featureless ledge habitats, which have increased in lobster <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-solve-lobster-farming-secrets-after-120-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">occupancy</a> by a whopping 633% and 280% respectively.



These areas have minimal geological features to use as shelters, yet more lobsters are calling them home.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-choices-of-lobsters">Habitat choices of lobsters</h2>



Overall, the l<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hybrid-lobster-species-discovered-with-new-genetic-test/">obster</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hybrid-lobster-species-discovered-with-new-genetic-test/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> population</a> density across all habitats took a nosedive as it became more spread out. It's like they've taken social distancing to heart. 



At the same time, the age group seems to have shifted as well, with more senior lobsters in the mix. Let's not forget our main culprit here – increasing water temperatures.



From 1995-2021, these habitats saw a nearly 3-degree Celsius (5.4-degree Fahrenheit) rise. The lobsters are no fans of the heat and it looks like this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-is-likely-the-hottest-year-in-recorded-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> is playing a part in their habitat choices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lobsters-hosting-changes">Lobsters hosting changes</h2>



The changing environment has also seen kelp playgrounds diminish while algal turfs, those small green mats containing various algae species, have multiplied. 



This greener landscape may be influenced by the rising temperatures, but the impact this has on our lobsters remains a fascinating enigma.



“These differences in the way lobsters use their habitats provide context for the lobster stock assessment that helps to determine the health of the entire lobster population,” said study lead author Robert Jarrett, a PhD student in marine biology.



“Some of the annual lobster surveys used in the assessment, like those from the Maine Department of Marine Resources, are restricted in the types of habitats that they can sample, so these findings about habitat help fill in some information gaps and show that over time the lobsters may be shifting between which surveys catch them better.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research">Focus of the research</h2>



The team's investigation involved counting and measuring lobsters and reviewing historical data dating back to the 90s.



While lobster population density has waned, adult lobsters have seemingly hit the gym, with greater mean sizes observed in 2021 compared to 1996. These larger lobsters could be due to a decrease in their juvenile kin residing in these habitats. 



Despite this change in size, the lobsters are still on the smaller side, with 93% of them being under 83 millimeters - the legal minimum to be caught and sold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-venturing-into-more-open-habitats">Venturing into more open habitats </h2>



In a shocking fashion switch, lobsters are ditching their usual rocky shelters for more open areas within their habitats, and even beds of algae. 



In fact, the number of lobsters found under rocky shelters plummeted by 34% from 2000-2019, while those preferring the open space lifestyle rose by 168%. The lobsters hiding under algae blankets have also increased by 160%.



These changes could very well be due to fewer baby lobsters making it to the seafloor or less competition between individual lobsters. 



The absence of predators might also have encouraged our lobsters to say goodbye to their comfortable boulder homes and venture into more open habitats, choosing algae as their new hideouts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-habitats-of-lobsters">Changing habitats of lobsters</h2>



This fascinating shift under the sea is just another reminder of the impacts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/report-earth-is-headed-for-an-irreversible-climate-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental changes</a> on the marine ecosystem. 



Steneck expressed his awe at the continuous surprises from the world of lobsters, despite them being one of the best-studied commercially important marine species.



At UMaine, students and faculty are dedicated to preserving and propelling the state's blue economy. The findings, like this study on lobsters, provide invaluable insights into the ecological and sociological alterations affecting coastal communities and businesses.



Armed with this knowledge, the researchers are exploring opportunities for new sectors, markets, and resources to mitigate the impacts of climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-lobsters-from-climate-change">Saving lobsters from climate change</h2>



UMaine's Marine Aligned Research, Innovation, and nationally-recognized Education (MARINE) Initiative is at the forefront of this effort, fostering collaboration among researchers, industry, government, and communities.



The combined effort is working to enhance the socioeconomic well-being of people in Maine and beyond.



This study highlights how <a href="https://umaine.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UMaine</a> is bolstering Maine's blue economy. As the Gulf of Maine changes, the sustainable management of North America's largest fishery requires us to understand how lobsters are adapting to their habitats.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v746/p87-98/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Ecology Progress Series</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Lobsters are ditching their old habitats for open water

For years, the coastline of Maine has been home to...

For years scientists have puzzled over the purpose of the unique ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) produced by rats. Many of them have assumed these sounds to be a form of rats social communication, a subtle courtship ritual, much similar to the exquisite songs rendered by birds.



This comparison, however, might not be entirely accurate, as a new perspective suggests rodents could be using these sounds to enhance their olfactory world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unconventional-proposal">Unconventional proposal</h2>



An innovative proposition from an expert in bioacoustics from the <a href="https://www.buffalo.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University at Buffalo</a> presents a new perspective. 



The study, published in the journal Neuroscience &amp; Biobehavioral Reviews, indicates that rats might not be communicating through these sounds as we assumed but are using them to stir their environment.



This stirring affects how tiny particles are inhaled into their noses, implying that sound could be an essential tool in enhancing their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-nose-is-a-clever-smell-prediction-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense of smell</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-molecular-interactions-of-particles">Controlling molecular interactions of particles</h2>



"This phenomenon has never been observed before, or I believe even suspected, in any animal," said Dr. Eduardo Mercado III, a professor of psychology in the UB College of Arts and Sciences. "They're creating new pathways of information by manipulating their environment and controlling the molecular interactions of particles around them."



This means that these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-that-rats-have-an-imagination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats</a> might not be flirting but surveying their surroundings using a process that could revolutionize our understanding. 



"It's so far off the scale of what we know that it's like we're observing 'Jedi' rats," said Mercado. "It almost seems like magic."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rats-identify-others-through-sound">Rats identify others through sound</h2>



Rodent exploration involves stroking surfaces with their whiskers, visually scanning, and perpetually <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-sniff-the-air-and-ground-to-track-the-source-of-a-scent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sniffing</a>. 



Mercado discovered that rodents consistently sniffed right after producing each USV. This observation led to the hypothesis that ultrasound could be used to manipulate particles, a technique known in the field of vibroacoustics.



Artificially produced ultrasonic vibrations, or vibroacoustics, cause airborne particles to cluster. With this in mind, rodents might be using USVs to create "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tricking-animals-with-odor-could-save-plants-from-browsing-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odor</a> clusters," thereby enhancing the reception of pheromones.



This indicates that the rats' sounds are making it easier for them to detect and identify friends, strangers, and competitors in their surroundings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-manipulating-nanoparticles-with-sound">Manipulating nanoparticles with sound</h2>



Rodent vocalizations have critical implications in research related to various human disorders, especially those relating to communication, social behavior, and emotional processing. These include conditions such as anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and autism. 



But, if this new hypothesis stands the test, it will necessitate a reevaluation of findings from these studies.



"Rodents, especially rats and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mummified-mice-found-on-volcano-summits-were-extreme-mountaineers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mice</a>, are the unsung heroes of the scientific world," said Jessica Zhou, a student researcher at Harvard University and co-author of the paper.



From an evolutionary perspective, there is evidence to suggest that the use of smell in exploration drove the evolution of attention and memory. This new understanding can also potentially lead to groundbreaking technologies. 



"The fact that we were oblivious to anything like this being possible means we don't have the understanding yet for how nanoparticles might be sonically manipulated for complex uses," said Mercado. But, if nature has already solved the problem for us, it could give us a significant head start.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rats-using-ultrasonic-sound">Rats using ultrasonic sound</h2>



The discovery of rodents using ultrasonic vocalizations to manipulate their environment could pave the way for groundbreaking innovations in both biology and engineering.



This newfound mechanism has the potential to inspire the development of technologies in fields such as particle manipulation, nanotechnology, and even air filtration systems.



The ability of rats to influence particles through ultrasonic sound waves suggests that similar principles could be applied in designing devices to control or cluster particles.



This could lead to advancements in areas like air quality monitoring, where precise manipulation of particles is crucial, or in developing odor detection technologies for security or medical applications.



Additionally, the findings open the door for further exploration of how other animals might use sound in unexpected ways to interact with their surroundings. 



Future research may reveal similar phenomena in other species, prompting a reevaluation of how animals engage with their environments and the role of sound in sensory processing.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0149763424003774" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuroscience &amp; Biobehavioral Reviews</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

'Jedi rats' manipulate sound to supercharge their sense of smell

For years scientists have puzzled over the purpose of the...

Have you ever heard tales of the full moon's mysterious power, casting a spell over everything from werewolves to mischievous spirits? Well, there's a new story in town, and it has its roots in reality. New research suggests that moonlight deeply impacts the behavior of tropical animals.



The new findings reveal a startling truth: around half of the mammal species in tropical forests alter their behaviors in sync with the moon's phases and the resulting changes in light levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-degradation-and-tropical-animals">Habitat degradation and tropical animals</h2>



The study was led by Lydia Beaudrot, an ecologist at Michigan State University (<a href="https://msu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MSU</a>) who specializes in tropical ecology and conservation. Beaudrot was part of a global team of researchers taking part in this enlightening study.



With human development aggressively intruding on some of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-mammals-live-depends-more-on-climate-than-human-activities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">darkest corners of our planet</a> - including the shadowy underbellies of tropical forests - scientists are hustling to understand what's happening in these ecosystems when the sun goes down.



“This research has implications for how habitat degradation may impact some tropical animals,” Beaudrot said.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-photography">Role of photography</h2>



To grasp how tropical animals respond to natural moonlight changes, the research team had a look at over 2.1 million photos. These snapshots were captured by automatic wildlife cameras installed across 17 protected forests spread over three continents.



The bulk of these images were sourced from the Tropical Ecology &amp; Assessment and Monitoring network (TEAM), which Beaudrot describes as an "incredible resource for the scientific community."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moonlight-impact-on-tropical-animals">Moonlight impact on tropical animals</h2>



By pouring over these images, the researchers teased out how 86 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammal-evolution-kicked-off-with-daring-experiments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammal species</a> altered their nocturnal habits based on changing nighttime light levels. What they found was that around half of the species examined changed their activity levels, timing, or both in response to fluctuations in light levels.



Among the 86 species studied, 12 remarkably avoided moonlight, while three were more likely to come out when the moon was lighting up the night.



Richard Bischof, a professor at the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (<a href="https://www.nmbu.no/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NMBU</a>) and a first author on the paper, said these species exhibited the most pronounced reactions. 



"For tropical forest animals that are awake at night, not all nights are the same. In fact, which species are active depends a lot on the moon,” explained Professor Bischof. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-responses-to-lunar-phases">Responses to lunar phases</h2>



Interestingly, about half of the species studied showed some change in behavior in response to lunar phases. Overall, 30% of species steered clear of the moonlight, while around 20% seemed attracted to it.



Increased illumination might make food easier to find and terrain simpler to navigate. But it also makes an animal more visible - a disadvantage for species that rely on the cover of night to move around undetected.



The startling impact of light even in the dim forest understory raises concerns about how habitat degradation and fragmentation might reshape forest communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moonlight-and-mammal-evolution">Moonlight and mammal evolution </h2>



As we hunt deeper into the moon's impact on tropical mammals, it's important to consider the evolutionary adaptations that may have shaped these responses. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-official-earth-now-has-two-moons-captured-asteroid-2024-pt5/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a> has been a consistent presence over millennia, casting its glow upon the earth and subtly influencing the survival strategies of nocturnal creatures. 



Animals that have evolved under these conditions may possess heightened sensitivities to changes in lunar luminosity, enabling them to make crucial decisions about movement and activity. 



Such adaptations could confer advantages in predator avoidance and resource acquisition, but they also underscore the delicate balance these species maintain with their environment. 



Understanding these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-mammals-have-evolved-over-66-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary nuances</a> provides invaluable insight into the intricate web of life within tropical ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



With the compelling evidence of the moon's role in shaping nocturnal behaviors, it becomes imperative for conservation efforts to consider lunar influences when devising strategies to protect tropical wildlife. 



As human encroachment continues to fragment these delicate ecosystems, safeguarding areas that preserve natural light cycles is crucial. 



Effective conservation plans must address the dual threats of habitat degradation and artificial light pollution, which can further disrupt these natural patterns. 



Collaborating with local communities to enhance awareness and involvement is key to promoting sustainable practices that harmonize human activities with ecological preservation. 



Only through concerted global efforts can we ensure that the moon's timeless dance with the tropical night continues to guide the rhythms of its inhabitants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-mammals-and-mankind">Moon, mammals, and mankind</h2>



As human activity continues to degrade and fragment habitats, biodiversity may hang in the balance. With forests cleared and natural resources plundered, pollution poses ominous threats to soil, water, and air. 



Even our nocturnal animal friends, relying on darkness for safety and stealth, find their sacred night disrupted.



In these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-geographic-isolation-shaped-global-species-habitat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transformed environments</a>, thinned forest canopies provide less cover from natural light, and artificial light sources throw natural cycles off balance.



The result of these changes? Some animals may miss crucial opportunities to find food or explore new locations. Consequently, many species might struggle to adapt, and entire ecological communities could suffer a loss.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.0683" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tropical animals change their behavior in response to moonlight

Have you ever heard tales of the full moon's mysterious...

The migration of the monarch butterfly is one of the natural world’s most impressive spectacles. Each autumn, a new generation of monarchs is born in the northern United States and southern Canada.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-monarch-migration">Massive monarch migration</h2>



Hundreds of millions then embark on a journey spanning between 4,000 km and 4,800 km to reach their overwintering sites in the high-altitude forests of Central Mexico.&nbsp;



These butterflies depend on the dense canopy of the sacred fir tree, Abies religiosa, for survival during the winter months.



However, climate change threatens this delicate balance. As global temperatures rise, the sacred fir forests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-monarch-butterflies-vanishing-in-the-winter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monarch butterflies</a> rely on are predicted to move upward along the mountain slopes.&nbsp;



By 2090, these forests could reach the peak of their current habitat, leaving no room to migrate further up. As a result, it may become necessary to establish new forests outside their current range, such as on taller mountains to the east.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assisted-migration-for-monarchs">Assisted migration for monarchs</h2>



A recent study led by Dr. Cuauhtémoc Sáenz-Romero, a professor at the <a href="https://www.umich.mx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo</a> in Mexico, explored the potential of creating forests to support monarch migration. 



“Here we show the feasibility of planting new sacred fir <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-forests-which-tree-species-can-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a> on a nearby volcano, Nevado de Toluca, at altitudes between 3,400 and 4,000 meters,” said Sáenz-Romero. 



This approach, called “assisted migration,” involves planting seedlings grown from seeds collected from existing sacred fir populations in new locations. These sites are selected based on climate models predicting that they will have a suitable climate by 2060 due to global warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planting-on-the-slopes-of-nevado-de-toluca">Planting on the slopes of Nevado de Toluca</h2>



In 2017, Sáenz-Romero and his colleagues collected seeds from eight stands of sacred fir in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve (MBBR) at elevations between 3,100 and 3,500 meters.&nbsp;



The team grew these seedlings initially in a shade-house at 1,900 meters altitude for two years and then transferred them to a nursery at 3,000 meters for another year.&nbsp;



In July 2021, they transplanted the seedlings to four experimental sites along an elevation gradient on the northeast slope of Nevado de Toluca, a Protected Natural Area.



Nevado de Toluca, the mountain chosen for this experiment, is the closest high-altitude site to the MBBR. Its summit reaches 1,130 meters higher than the highest sacred fir sites in the biosphere reserve.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hundreds-of-seedlings">Hundreds of seedlings</h2>



The researchers planted a total of 960 seedlings at four different altitudes: 3,400, 3,600, 3,800, and 4,000 meters.&nbsp;



The highest planting point, at 4,000 meters, aimed to test the uppermost limit at which sacred firs could survive under current conditions.



To protect the seedlings from extreme conditions such as intense sunlight and cold, the team planted them beneath “nurse plants.”



At lower altitudes (up to 3,800 meters), Senecio cinerarioides shrubs served this role, while at 4,000 meters, the shrubs were supplemented with Lupinus montanus and Pinus hartwegii trees.



Over the next two years, from September 2021 to December 2023, Sáenz-Romero and his team - including graduate students and local foresters from the Matlatzincas Native Indian community - monitored the performance of the transplanted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainforests-replanted-seedlings-after-logging-do-not-recover-well/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seedlings</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-seedling-survival-and-growth">Measuring seedling survival and growth</h2>



The researchers recorded survival rates, growth in height, and changes in stem diameter every two months. Since the primary goal of the project was conservation rather than timber production, survival rates were considered the most critical measure of success.



The results revealed that the transplanted seedlings’ performance declined as the difference between the original and new environments increased. This “ecological distance” encompassed variations in temperature, precipitation, and dryness between the seed collection sites in the MBBR and the new planting locations.&nbsp;



The seedlings faced the most significant challenges at higher, colder altitudes, with many showing signs of frost damage and little to no growth at 4,000 meters.



Between 3,600 and 3,800 meters, seedlings displayed 54% less vertical growth, 27% less biomass, and 27% lower survival rates compared to those planted at 3,400 meters.&nbsp;



Despite the reduced growth at these higher altitudes, the researchers considered the survival rate “very acceptable,” suggesting that these elevations could be viable for future forest growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-new-habitats-for-monarchs">Potential new habitats for monarchs</h2>



“These planted stands could ultimately serve as overwintering sites for the Monarch butterfly under warmer climates,” Sáenz-Romero said.&nbsp;



Recent observations show that monarchs have begun forming new colonies in cooler regions of Nevado de Toluca, indicating that they may already be searching for new winter habitats as their traditional sites grow too warm.



The scientists hope that once the planted firs mature, the butterflies will discover these new habitats and adapt to overwintering there. However, they stress that this approach is not a replacement for preserving the existing habitat within the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve.&nbsp;



Instead, it should be viewed as a complementary strategy, ensuring that monarchs have alternative options for survival in a changing climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-efforts-beyond-assisted-monarch-migration">Efforts beyond assisted monarch migration</h2>



The study’s findings underscore the importance of both preserving existing overwintering habitats and preparing new sites for future climate conditions.&nbsp;



Assisted migration offers a proactive way to ensure the survival of both the monarch butterfly and the sacred fir forests they rely on.&nbsp;



At the same time, continued efforts to protect the MBBR remain crucial to maintaining the ecological balance that supports this unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-butterfly-migration-sparked-by-a-surge-in-vegetation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a>.



By taking action now, researchers hope to secure a future where monarchs can continue their extraordinary journey for generations to come, adapting to new landscapes as the world changes around them.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Creating new forests to assist monarch butterfly migration

The migration of the monarch butterfly is one of the...

Artificial nests can significantly boost the breeding success of endangered African penguins, but their effectiveness varies depending on the colony.&nbsp;



A new study led by researchers from South Africa and the UK highlights how different artificial nest designs offer varying benefits depending on local conditions at different penguin colonies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breeding-success-of-african-penguins">Breeding success of African penguins</h2>



The study, led by <a href="https://www.mandela.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nelson Mandela University</a>, monitored the breeding success of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-penguins-grave-outlook-for-an-endangered-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">African penguins</a> over 12 years across South Africa. 



The findings show that artificial nests improved breeding outcomes, increasing breeding success by 16.5% compared to natural nests.&nbsp;



These artificial nests, deployed at various penguin colonies, offered a safe and controlled environment for the penguins to lay eggs and raise chicks, compensating for the loss of natural nesting sites.



However, the experts also found that no single design of artificial nests was universally effective across all colonies.&nbsp;



The newly developed double-layered ceramic nests generally outperformed earlier designs, but their success varied based on the specific challenges each colony faced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colony-needs-of-african-penguins">Colony needs of African penguins </h2>



Study lead author Lorien Pichegru, a professor at the Institute for Coastal and Marine Research at Nelson Mandela University, emphasized the need for colony-specific conservation strategies.&nbsp;



“The most effective designs of artificial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-behavior-beak-shape-can-predict-nest-materials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nests</a> were colony-specific, with different colonies facing different threats,” Pichegru explained. 



“Penguins at land colonies such as Boulders Beach face threats from mammals, whereas penguins at colonies devoid of vegetation such as Bird Island face sun exposure. Different artificial nest designs were more suited to responding to different threats.”



The ceramic nests, featuring slanted roofs and a 5 cm air gap between layers for better insulation, were particularly effective at regulating temperature in colonies exposed to direct sunlight.&nbsp;



In contrast, more traditional A-frame plywood nests, cement nests made from fiberglass and cement mixtures, and fiberglass burrows that mimic natural burrows each had their own advantages in different environments.&nbsp;



These findings suggest that conservation efforts cannot adopt a one-size-fits-all approach when it comes to nest design.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-food-shortages-and-other-threats">Addressing food shortages and other threats</h2>



While artificial nests have proven beneficial, the researchers stress that they are only part of a broader conservation strategy needed to halt the decline of African penguins since these seabirds face numerous challenges.



“The main causes of the recent decline in African penguin numbers are poor food availability, oil spills, underwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-noise-is-getting-louder-what-does-this-mean-for-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">noise pollution</a>, and predation,” Pichegru said. “Biologically meaningful fishing exclusion zones around their major colonies are urgently needed.” 



These protected zones would help ensure that penguins have adequate access to their primary food sources, such as sardines and anchovies, which are critical for their survival and breeding success.



African penguins have experienced a dramatic population decline of 90% over the past 70 years, with their numbers now down to approximately 8,500 breeding pairs.&nbsp;



This decline has elevated them to one of the most threatened seabird species worldwide, facing a high risk of extinction if effective conservation measures are not implemented.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breeding-success-across-different-nests">Breeding success across different nests</h2>



In their research, the team observed both natural nests and four types of artificial nests across the eight largest African penguin colonies in South Africa.&nbsp;



Weekly monitoring was conducted from egg-laying to either chick fledging or nest failure, providing a comprehensive picture of breeding outcomes.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-artificial-nests">Artificial nests</h3>



Artificial nests included the new ceramic designs, A-frame pine plywood nests (the oldest design), cement nests made with a fiberglass mix, and fiberglass burrows that replicate the structure of natural burrows.&nbsp;



Each design aimed to address specific environmental challenges, such as temperature regulation and predator protection.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-nests">Natural nests</h3>



The researchers noted that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-snowstorms-impact-breeding-success-of-petrels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding success</a> in natural nests might have been slightly underestimated due to logistical challenges. 



Natural nests that were more accessible for monitoring could also be more vulnerable to weather and predators, potentially skewing the data.&nbsp;



“We also weren’t always able to follow the fate of individual birds or breeding pairs closely over multiple years in this study,” said Richard Sherley, a co-author from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>. 



“That means we can’t be certain how much of the benefit we measured comes from the ‘best’ penguins actively choosing to breed in artificial nests.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-conservation-efforts-for-african-penguins">Future conservation efforts for African penguins </h2>



Understanding what makes certain artificial nests more appealing to penguins could further enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> strategies. 



Sherley pointed out that knowing why penguins prefer particular nest types could guide the design of even more effective artificial nests in the future.&nbsp;



This includes studying whether penguins are attracted to nests due to improved protection from predators, better temperature control, or other factors. Pichegru agreed that future research could refine artificial nest designs. 



“Understanding the mechanisms by which artificial nests improve breeding success at different colonies could help to improve future artificial nest designs. For instance, is it improved protection from predators, is it decreased heat loads on eggs, or something else?” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-step-forward-in-african-penguin-conservation">A step forward in African penguin conservation</h2>



The study demonstrates the potential of artificial nests as a vital tool in conserving the African penguin population, but it also highlights the need for tailored approaches that account for the unique challenges of each colony.&nbsp;



As the threats to these iconic seabirds continue to grow, combining habitat improvement with broader conservation measures like fishing exclusion zones may offer a pathway to stabilizing and ultimately increasing their populations.



By deploying targeted strategies, researchers hope to give African penguins a better chance of survival, ensuring that these charismatic birds continue to thrive along South Africa's coasts for generations to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2688-8319.12388" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Solutions and Evidence</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Can artificial nests help save African penguins? 

Artificial nests can significantly boost the breeding success of endangered...

A recent discovery about "marine snow" is altering our theories on how Earth's oceans store carbon and help mitigate climate change. 



Scientists have found that microscopic marine organisms produce mucus "parachutes" that slow down their descent to the ocean floor. 



This finding could change our understanding of carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere.



<a href="https://web.stanford.edu/group/prakash-lab/cgi-bin/labsite/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Manu Prakash</a>, an associate professor of bioengineering and of oceans at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>, led the study. His team's work suggests we've been missing a crucial piece of the puzzle.



Prakash and his colleagues have been exploring the mysteries of the ocean for years. Their research focuses on tiny particles and organisms that play a big role in our planet's health. 



By observing these minute details, they hope to gain insights that could help combat climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-microscopic-marine-organisms">Understanding microscopic marine organisms</h2>



Tiny ocean organisms, like phytoplankton and zooplankton, play a crucial role in our oceans' health and the planet's climate. 



These tiny creatures drift through the water, performing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-microalgae-show-photosynthesis-is-possible-in-near-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a> to produce oxygen and form the base of the marine food web. 



Without them, larger marine animals wouldn't have the sustenance they need to survive. Phytoplankton alone contribute to about half of the world's oxygen supply, making them indispensable for life on Earth.



Beyond their role in producing oxygen, these microorganisms are vital in regulating carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. 



As they consume carbon during photosynthesis, they help reduce greenhouse gases, mitigating the effects of climate change. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-marine-snow">Mystery of marine snow</h2>



Marine snow is a mix of these microscopic dead organisms, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-help-predict-ocean-biodiversity-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a>, bacteria, fecal pellets, and other organic particles. It absorbs about a third of human-made carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. 



This material sinks to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-oxygen-discovery-deep-ocean-no-photosynthesis-baffles-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean floor</a>, where the carbon is locked away for thousands of years. Scientists call this process the biological pump.



Until now, the exact way these particles fall through the ocean's depths -- averaging about 2.5 miles -- wasn't fully understood. Prakash's team set out to change that.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="sW30HMSmdv-3926652-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rotating-microscope">Rotating microscope</h2>



The researchers developed a unique device called a rotating microscope. 



This invention simulates vertical movement, allowing them to observe how organisms travel through the water. It adjusts temperature, light, and pressure to match specific ocean conditions.



Over five years, the team took this microscope on research vessels across all major oceans -- from the Arctic to Antarctica. They collected samples of marine snow and analyzed how it sinks in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-role-of-mucus-parachutes">Surprising role of mucus "parachutes"</h2>



What they found was unexpected. Sometimes, marine snow forms parachute-like mucus structures. 



These mucus parachutes slow down the sinking process, doubling the time the particles spend in the upper 100 meters of the ocean.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/marine-snow_flow-field_ocean-carbon-storage_Stanford_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/marine-snow_flow-field_ocean-carbon-storage_Stanford_1s.webp" alt="Marine snow sedimentation with flow field. Artistics rending of real imaging data collected across Gulf of Main using a rotating microscope. Credit: PrakashLab/Stanford" class="wp-image-1947719"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Marine snow sedimentation with flow field. Artistics rending of real imaging data collected across Gulf of Main using a rotating microscope. Credit: PrakashLab/Stanford</figcaption></figure>



"We haven't been looking the right way," Prakash said. This extended suspension means more microbes can break down the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-may-flip-plankton-into-carbon-emitters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organic carbon</a> in marine snow. 



Instead of sinking and storing carbon away, the carbon gets recycled back into the ocean, reducing the amount removed from the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-snow-and-ocean-carbon">Marine snow and ocean carbon</h2>



Since marine snow is a living ecosystem, studying it at sea is crucial. The rotating microscope allowed the team to see these processes in detail, right where they happen.



<a href="https://profiles.stanford.edu/rahul-chajwa" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rahul Chajwa</a>, a postdoctoral scholar in Prakash's lab and the study's lead author, was amazed by the findings. 



“Theory tells you how a flow around a small particle looks like, but what we saw on the boat was dramatically different,” Chajwa explained. “We are at the beginning of understanding these complex dynamics.”



These mucus parachutes mean that previous estimates of the ocean's ability to sequester carbon might be too high. 



If more carbon is recycled near the surface, less is stored deep in the ocean. This could have significant impacts on climate models and policies aimed at reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-weaker-ocean-will-release-more-carbon-into-the-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric carbon dioxide</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-natural-environments">Studying natural environments</h2>



“We cannot even ask the fundamental question of what life does without emulating the environment that it evolved with,” Prakash explained. 



“In biology, stripping it away from its environment has stripped away any of our capacity to ask the right questions.”



For too long, scientists have studied organisms in artificial settings, like slides under microscopes. By taking their tools to the high seas, Prakash's team is changing that approach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-ocean-carbon-models">Refining ocean carbon models</h2>



The researchers are now working to improve their models and integrate their findings into larger climate models. 



They plan to release an open dataset from their six global expeditions -- the largest of its kind on marine snow sedimentation.



They're also investigating what factors influence the production of these mucus parachutes. This could include environmental stressors or specific bacteria species.



Despite the challenges, Prakash remains optimistic. On a recent trip off the coast of Northern California, the team found processes that might speed up carbon sequestration.



"Every time I observe the world of plankton via our tools, I learn something new," he said. These discoveries could lead to new strategies for enhancing the ocean's ability to absorb carbon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-snow-parachutes-and-ocean-carbon">Marine snow, parachutes, and ocean carbon</h2>



Beyond the scientific implications, this study highlights the wonder of natural processes. 



“We take for granted certain phenomena, but the simplest set of ideas can have profound effects. Observing these details -- like the mucus tails of marine snow -- opens new doors to understanding the fundamental principles of our world," Prakesh concluded.



By paying attention to the small details, we can uncover secrets that have a big impact on our world. This research is a reminder of the importance of curiosity and the pursuit of knowledge.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adl5767" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

'Marine snow' using tiny 'parachutes' has a big impact on ocean carbon storage

A recent discovery about "marine snow" is altering our theories...

New research by scientists from South Africa and Brazil reveals that rival plants may compete for space on pollinators, with pollen grains vying for the chance to be carried to the next flower.&nbsp;



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/732797" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The American Naturalist</a>, suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-twist-in-the-evolution-of-plant-pollinator-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> have developed sophisticated mechanisms to manipulate pollen placement on pollinators, similar to how some animals manipulate sperm during reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-and-competitive-pollen-removal-nbsp">Plants and competitive pollen removal&nbsp;</h2>



Unlike animals, where mating involves direct contact, plants rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/%C3%B9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> such as birds and insects to transport pollen from one flower to another. In this context, plants need to find ways to ensure their pollen makes it to the pollinator and, eventually, to the next flower. 



According to the study’s lead author, professor Bruce Anderson of <a href="http://www.sun.ac.za/english" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stellenbosch University</a>, the strategy plants have developed can be compared to male-male competition in animals.



“Flowers visited by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-amazing-sense-of-touch-for-precise-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbirds</a> deposit their pollen on the hummingbird bills, but there is very little place for the pollen to be deposited,” Anderson explained. 



“Flowers have evolved a catapult mechanism where pollen is shot at the bill of the hummingbird. The force of the ballistic grains dislodges previously deposited grains from rival plants, allowing the flower to place its own grains onto a cleaner bill, thus increasing its chances of reproductive success.”



This finding supports the idea of competitive pollen removal, where flowers actively remove rival pollen from pollinators before securing a spot for their own pollen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explosive-pollen-placement-in-action">Explosive pollen placement in action</h2>



To demonstrate this mechanism, the researchers conducted experiments with Hypenea macrantha, a red flower native to Brazil. Using slow-motion video footage, they captured the flower’s explosive pollen placement mechanism in action.&nbsp;



The flower essentially “catapults” its pollen onto the bill of a hummingbird, dislodging the pollen of competing plants in the process.



This mechanism, known as explosive pollen placement, is not new in the plant kingdom, but this study marks the first time researchers have provided empirical evidence of its effectiveness.&nbsp;



By labeling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-alters-cloud-formation-and-changes-weather-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollen</a> with quantum dots and counting how much was displaced by the explosion, the team was able to confirm the success of the mechanism.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="ZwJf9SY4md-3926185-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-floral-competition">A new perspective on floral competition</h2>



Traditionally, floral explosion has been viewed as a strategy to help plants efficiently place their pollen on pollinators or to startle pollinators into flying to other plants, thereby dispersing the pollen over greater distances.&nbsp;



However, this new research shows that explosive pollen placement may serve an additional function: removing rival pollen to improve a plant’s reproductive success.



“Our data suggest, however, that this mechanism may actually displace pollen from previous flowers, enhancing male reproductive success by increasing competition for space on the pollinators’ bodies,” said co-author Vinícius Brito, a botanist at the <a href="https://ufu.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of Uberlândia</a> in Brazil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-reproduction-and-pollen-rivalry">Plant reproduction and pollen rivalry</h2>



The research highlights a previously unrecognized form of competition between plants. In contrast to animals, where males may use physical structures to remove rival sperm from females, plants must manipulate the placement of their pollen on pollinators before it reaches the next flower. 



As Anderson explained, “until recently, no one has ever thought of looking for these kinds of structures in plants.”



This form of competition occurs on the pollinator’s body. When a pollinator, such as a hummingbird, arrives at a flower, it may already be covered in pollen from previously visited plants.&nbsp;



This makes it challenging for the new flower to place its pollen, as space is limited. Even if the flower does manage to place its pollen, it must then compete with rival pollen grains for access to the ovules of the next flower.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-understanding-plant-evolution">Implications for understanding plant evolution</h2>



This discovery offers new insights into how plants may compete with one another for reproductive success in ways that were previously unimagined. Anderson and his colleagues suggest that plants may evolve strategies akin to those in animals, where physical adaptations aid in removing rival sperm.



As the researchers continue to explore this phenomenon, their findings could reshape our understanding of how plants have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolved</a> complex mechanisms to increase their chances of reproductive success. 



By manipulating pollen on the bodies of pollinators, flowers may be competing in a hidden but highly effective battle for space and, ultimately, for the continuation of their species.



In conclusion, this study adds a fascinating new dimension to our understanding of plant reproduction and competition. As Brito points out, these discoveries highlight the importance of further research into how plants interact with their environment, pollinators, and even each other in their quest for survival.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Pollen wars: Plants compete for space on pollinators

New research by scientists from South Africa and Brazil reveals...

A new study has revealed an intriguing phenomenon that could be contributing to the increasing consumption of plastic waste by whales. 



It all starts within the mysterious depths of the ocean where sunlight does not venture. This is where the likes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-have-the-sperm-whales-gulf-gone-gulf-jumbo-squid-scientists-think-they-know/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sperm whales</a> and goose-beaked whales forage for food, relying on their intricate soundwave-based navigation system to find their next meal.



But there seems to be a hitch - a torn plastic party balloon can sound remarkably similar to a delicious squid in these lightless depths.



A recent study has found a potential reason why whales might mistake plastic for prey – they sound the same underwater.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-acoustic-signatures-in-the-deep-sea">Acoustic signatures in the deep sea</h2>



What exactly are these acoustic signatures? Well, when a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-whales-continue-their-battle-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale</a> sends out clicks and buzzes from a vocal cord-like structure near their blowholes, the sounds bounce off objects in the water. 



The sounds that return carry information about the size, shape, and nature of those objects. This is how the whales "see" and interpret their surroundings. And to their acoustic perception, their favorite squid sounds eerily similar to a plastic bag.



"There are hundreds of types of plastic, and the various material properties including polymer (chemical) composition, additives, shape, size, age/weathering, and degree of fouling likely play a role in the frequency-specific responses observed," noted the study authors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-pollution-and-whales">Plastic pollution and whales </h2>



Now, it's crucial to mention that the whales' sound-based navigation system is not a new kid on the evolutionary block. This sophisticated system has been helping whales find food in the pitch-dark ocean depths for the past 25 million years.



However, plastic pollution is a relatively new challenge faced by whales, and according to Merrill's findings, it's messing with their ultrasonic grocery shopping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-debris-around-whales">Plastic debris around whales</h2>



Merrill and his team collected typical plastic trash items like shopping bags, ropes, bottles, and balloons from beaches in Beaufort and Atlantic Beach, North Carolina.



These items were then suspended underwater and subjected to sonar transponder tests on Duke Marine Lab's ship, the R/V Shearwater. 



The team performed acoustic testing on these items at three varying sonar frequencies that span the range of 'clicks' emitted by different species of deep-diving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-a-warming-climate-will-change-the-humpback-whales-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a>.



The sounds of real squid (albeit deceased ones) and pieces of squid beak were also recorded for comparison.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-mistake-plastic-for-prey">Whales mistake plastic for prey</h2>



The results were as alarming as they were surprising. The plastic debris almost always sounded like food, especially plastic films and fragments, which are among the most commonly found items in the stomachs of deceased whales.



Merrill suggests that we could consider re-engineering some plastics to not have an acoustic signature. But he also warns of potential risks. 



For instance, if fishing net and fishing line became "acoustically invisible," that could lead to increased entanglements where whales wouldn't be able to identify and avoid these threats.



For this pioneering study, Merrill collaborated with scientists from neighboring marine labs operated by NOAA, NC State University, and UNC – Chapel Hill.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation-efforts">Implications for conservation efforts</h2>



The findings from Merrill's study have profound implications for marine conservation strategies aimed at protecting whales. 



Traditional approaches have largely focused on reducing the amount of plastic that enters the oceans - a task vital to the health of marine ecosystems.



However, understanding that plastic can acoustically resemble prey to whales suggests that addressing the challenge could require innovative solutions within the manufacturing sector as well. 



This could involve developing materials that emit distinct acoustic signatures detectable by marine life without posing any risk of ingestion. 



Such multidisciplinary cooperation between conservationists and material scientists could pave the way for groundbreaking strategies to safeguard these majestic creatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-plastic-crisis">Addressing the plastic crisis</h2>



In light of these revelations, there is an urgent need to collectively address the plastic pollution crisis. Reducing our reliance on harmful plastics and advancing research into safer alternatives is paramount.



Moreover, stringent regulations on plastic manufacturing could play a crucial role in mitigating this crisis. By innovating responsibly and enforcing global standards, we can not only protect marine biodiversity but also ensure a healthier planet. 



While technological innovations and alternatives to plastic are critical in addressing this issue of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-rarest-whale-found-on-new-zealand-beach/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a>, perhaps the more immediate and straightforward action we can all take is responsible disposal of our waste.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025326X24010464?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Pollution Bulletin</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Plastic trash sounds just like food to deep-diving whales

A new study has revealed an intriguing phenomenon that could...

The global invasion of microplastics is an unfortunate reality that we are facing. These microscopic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hotspots-of-microplastic-pollution-found-in-the-north-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic contaminants</a> have become an unwelcomed guest, trespassing into the bodies of numerous creatures worldwide.



Food ingestion is the most common way that microplastics enter the bodies of both humans and wildlife.



For us humans, and even rodents, researchers have established a disturbing connection between these invasive particles and adverse health impacts. The culprits? Oxidative stress and inflammation, to name a couple.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-to-breathe-or-not-to-breathe">To breathe or not to breathe?</h2>



While ingesting contaminated food isn't exactly "fine dining," another potential exposure method lurks in the shadows - inhalation. Although notorious among humans, this path has been quite neglected in wildlife research. 



But now, experts have discovered that bottlenose dolphins are exhaling microplastic particles, indicating that inhalation may be a relevant route of exposure for wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-in-dolphin-breath">Microplastics in dolphin breath</h2>



Our quest for knowledge leads us to two places - Sarasota Bay, Florida, and Barataria Bay, Louisiana. Here, Miranda Dziobak of the <a href="https://charleston.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Charleston</a> and her team have been busy gathering samples.



Their subjects? Five bottlenose dolphins from Sarasota and six of their kin in Barataria. And the object of interest? Air, or more specifically, the air they exhale.



Here's an unexpected shocker. The analysis revealed every single one of these 11 dolphins was "breathing plastic." The team discovered suspected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastic-pollution-is-everywhere-even-in-newborns-and-getting-worse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastic particles</a> in the exhaled air of each dolphin.



The microplastics came in the forms of both fibers and fragments and included several plastic polymers: polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyester, polyamide, polybutylene terephthalate, and poly(methyl methacrylate), also known as PMMA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evaluating-microplastics-exposure-in-dolphins">Evaluating microplastics exposure in dolphins</h2>



To ensure the study's credibility, the researchers also sampled the surrounding air. This step reinforced the stark reality that microplastics were not just passersby in the ambient air but residents in the dolphins' exhaled breath. 



The findings fuel the suspicion that inhalation, like ingestion, is another high-priority exposure route for dolphins. However, everyone loves a good mystery, and the researchers emphasize that these results are preliminary. 



The scientific community must roll up its collective sleeves and dive deeper into evaluating the degree of various microplastic inhalations among bottlenose dolphins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-implications">Long-term implications </h2>



Also, what are the longer-term implications of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-process-converts-microplastics-into-valuable-graphene-wonder-material/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exposure</a>? Lung damage? It's time to find out. 



“We know that microplastics are floating around in the air, so we suspected that we would find microplastics in breath samples," noted the researchers.



"We are concerned by what we are seeing because dolphins have a large lung capacity and take really deep breaths, so we are worried about what these plastics could be doing to their lungs."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-and-dolphin-health">Microplastics and dolphin health</h2>



Going forward, the experts aim to scrutinize the comprehensive impact of microplastics on marine mammal health.



This pursuit involves deploying more sophisticated analytical techniques to pinpoint not only the presence but also the concentrations of various microplastic polymers specific to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-microplastics-are-here-to-stay-so-what-can-we-do-now/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different environmental contexts</a>. 



The need for collaborative ventures among marine biologists, ecologists, and material scientists grows urgent, as these efforts could unveil critical insights into mitigating the risks plastic particles pose to the delicate balance of marine ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



The experts noted that further research is also needed to understand health implications following inhaled microplastic exposure, especially among vulnerable populations experiencing adverse pulmonary impacts.



"A systematic assessment of particle exhalation in Sarasota Bay dolphins is planned to examine life history influences on exposure and associations with health impacts in the well-studied Sarasota Bay dolphin community."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engaging-the-public">Engaging the public</h2>



Addressing microplastics exposure among marine creatures like dolphins transcends the realm of scientific inquiry - it calls for widespread public awareness and action.



Leveraging educational campaigns can play a pivotal role in informing communities, policy makers, and industries about the pervasive nature and adverse effects of microplastics. 



Such efforts should advocate for reduced plastic consumption, enhanced waste management practices, and the development of biodegradable alternatives. 



Empowering individuals and institutions to make environmentally responsible choices is vital, as these collective actions could substantially reduce the microplastic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-pose-a-greater-threat-to-some-ocean-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">load in our oceans</a>, ultimately fostering a healthier environment for dolphins and other marine inhabitants.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0309377" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS ONE</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Microplastics found in dolphin breath

The global invasion of microplastics is an unfortunate reality that...

Nano- and microplastic particles (NMP) are increasingly contaminating both urban and rural landscapes, bringing bees and other beneficial insects into contact with them.&nbsp;



If insects ingest these plastic particles from food or the air, it can damage their organs and alter their behavior, hindering their ability to perform essential ecosystem services like pollination and pest control.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-it-still-possible-to-save-the-ocean-from-plastic-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plastic pollution</a> thus poses considerable risks to biodiversity, agricultural production, and global food security, according to a new review study conducted by an international team including researchers from the <a href="https://uni-freiburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Freiburg</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-particles-in-agricultural-environments">Plastic particles in agricultural environments</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastic-pollution-is-everywhere-even-in-newborns-and-getting-worse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microplastic</a> particles, measuring between one micrometer and five millimeters, and even smaller nanoplastics are making their way onto farmland.



While the harmful effects of NMP in water and on individual species are well documented, there has been a lack of systematic reviews on how these particles affect agricultural ecosystems.&nbsp;



To address this gap, the authors summarized 21 previously published studies. They focused on how pollinator insects and other beneficial insects come into contact with NMP and the consequences of ingestion for the insects, dependent ecosystems, and agricultural production.



The researchers identified different sources through which NMP end up on agricultural land, including plastic films, fertilizers, polluted water, and atmospheric depositions.&nbsp;



These plastic particles accumulate in the soil, and important pollinators and pest control insects ingest them from the air and food or use them to build nests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-plastic-on-bees-nbsp">Impacts of plastic on bees&nbsp;</h2>



The study established that bees' ingestion of plastic leads to damage to their digestive systems, weakening of their immune systems, and changes in their behavior. This makes bees more susceptible to diseases, possibly causing them to pollinate plants less effectively.&nbsp;



Study co-author Alexandra-Maria Klein is a professor of nature conservation and landscape ecology at the University of Freiburg.&nbsp;



“We find microplastic in the gut of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-is-wiping-out-bees-and-other-wild-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> and see how wild bees use plastic to build nests. We therefore urgently need to investigate what interaction this has with other stressors, such as climate change, for the bees and their pollination services,” said Professor Klein. 



A decline in pollination services negatively affects crop yields, and plastic pollution could further aggravate existing uncertainties in the global food supply, the researchers warn.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exacerbation-of-environmental-stressors">Exacerbation of environmental stressors</h2>



In addition, NMP exacerbate threats posed by other environmental stressors such as pesticides, chemical pollution, fungi, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-pandemic-looms-as-pathogens-move-from-wild-plants-to-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pathogens</a>. 



Some areas become “hotspots” where plastic particles interact with harmful viruses. As a result of such interactions, NMP could have serious effects on pollinators and thus on the stability of the food system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-urgently-needed-nbsp">Further research is urgently needed&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers emphasized the limitations of their review. For example, they noted that only limited data is available on important pollinators and beneficial insects like bumblebees and ladybirds.&nbsp;



Moreover, the current data does not allow for a differentiated account of the effects of different sizes and amounts of nano- and microplastic particles.



The researchers emphasized that further studies are urgently needed to better understand the growing problem of plastic pollution and find solutions to it.&nbsp;



“It is already clear today, however, that there is a pressing need for political control of plastic pollution,” said Professor Klein.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



“In addition to acknowledging plastic pollution as a key concern for biodiversity and associated services, we advocate for research on how diversified agricultural landscapes mediate the tradeoff between pollinator and pest control benefits and accumulation effects at 'NMP hotspots' to ensure long-term maintenance of crop yields and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaccinating-plants-could-boost-global-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food security</a>,” wrote the study the authors.



The experts noted that future research should target the development and refinement of methods that can be applied in laboratory, semi-field, and field studies to address global food security implications.&nbsp;



“Additional funding should be allocated specifically to understand NMP effects across scales on biodiversity-associated ecosystem services such as pollination and biological pest control in pursuit of the Global Biodiversity Framework’s roadmap for biodiversity conservation and a food-secure future,” concluded the researchers.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bees are the latest victims of plastic pollution 

Nano- and microplastic particles (NMP) are increasingly contaminating both urban...

Bonobos, a species of endangered great apes that are among our closest relatives, might be more vulnerable to extinction than previously thought.&nbsp;



This is the conclusion of a genetic study co-led by scientists from the University College London (<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">UCL</a>), the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/">University of Vienna</a>, and the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-separate-bonobo-populations-nbsp">Three separate bonobo populations&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers discovered that three groups of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/">bonobos</a> have been living separately in different regions of Central Africa for tens of thousands of years.&nbsp;



Using genetic tests, the researchers confirmed previous evidence suggesting that these groups originate from central, western, and far-western regions of the bonobo range.&nbsp;



By quantifying the differences between these groups, the research team found that they can be as distinct from one another as the most closely related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-mean-chimpanzees-fare-better-in-life-than-nice-ones/">chimpanzee</a> subspecies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-our-endangered-relatives">Bonobos: Our endangered relatives</h2>



Bonobos, commonly seen as the peace-loving primate, are, together with chimpanzees, the closest living relatives to humans, with our genomes differing from theirs by only one percent.&nbsp;



Despite this close relationship, bonobos are endangered, with about 20,000 individuals alive in the wild.&nbsp;



They are also the most understudied great apes, as they live exclusively in the Congo Basin of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where social unrest has constrained research activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-social-behaviors-of-bonobos-nbsp">Unique social behaviors of bonobos&nbsp;</h2>



“Bonobos are a fascinating species, very closely related to humans, with unique patterns of social behavior,” said co-first author Sojung Han, a scientist at the University of Vienna.&nbsp;



“They live in tight <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-animals-interact-within-social-groups/">social groups</a> which, despite some conflicts, are markedly peaceful and egalitarian. Interestingly, males stay in their birth social group while females migrate across groups, but females still form close alliances and can have higher dominance than males.”



The research team analyzed the genomic data of 30 bonobos born in the wild but now living in captivity. They sequenced the exomes (the protein-coding part of the genome) of 20 individuals residing in an African sanctuary and analyzed the full <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genome-mapping-completed-for-dozens-of-common-animals/">genomes</a> of 10 other bonobos.&nbsp;



While the exact regions of origin within the Congo Basin for each bonobo were not always certain, the researchers cross-referenced their dataset with previously published mitochondrial DNA data collected from 136 wild bonobos to create a comprehensive picture of genetic diversity across the species' range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-endangered-bonobos-populations-nbsp">Endangered bonobos populations&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers estimated that the central group diverged from the other two groups approximately 145,000 years ago, with the two western groups diverging around 60,000 years ago, showing little mixing between the groups since then.&nbsp;



“Bonobos may be even more vulnerable than previously thought, as their population actually consists of at least three smaller populations, some of which may historically have been amongst the smallest across similar primates,” said study senior author Aida Andrés, an expert in genetics at UCL.&nbsp;



“In order to survive, every species needs sufficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/">genetic diversity</a> to adapt to a changing environment, and for bonobos, losing one of these three groups would be a devastating loss to the total genetic diversity of the species.”



According to Andrés, it is vital that all three groups of bonobos are conserved in order to protect this fascinating and charismatic species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation-efforts">Implications for conservation efforts</h2>



The researchers advocate that the genetic differences between bonobo groups should be further studied and considered in conservation strategies.&nbsp;



This includes habitat preservation, translocations, or potential reintroductions, especially if individuals are adapted to specific environments.



“Unlike modern humans, who are spread all over the world, bonobos are limited to the Congo basin, but our work shows that there are indeed genetic differences between groups,” said Han.&nbsp;



:This is exciting, and it will be very interesting to study, in the future, if there are any differential adaptations among these groups.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genomes-of-endangered-bonobos">Genomes of endangered bonobos </h2>



According to study co-author Cesare de Filippo from the Max Planck Institute, this work demonstrates how studying the genomes of endangered species can help better understand their populations and eventually aid conservation efforts.&nbsp;



“Even the genomes of captive individuals can help us, sometimes, understand their wild populations. Our findings show the vulnerability of bonobos as an endangered species, and stress the need to protect their environment to ensure their conservation,” said de Filippo.



This groundbreaking genetic study highlights the critical need to preserve all three distinct bonobo populations to maintain the species' genetic diversity and adaptability.&nbsp;



As one of humanity's closest relatives, understanding and protecting bonobos not only aids in their conservation but also enriches our knowledge of primate evolution and social behavior.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.09.043">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bonobos are more endangered than we previously understood 

Bonobos, a species of endangered great apes that are among...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



Like what you saw and read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—–



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.



—–

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



-----

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

News coming your way