Portrait,Of,A,Wild,Octopus,Under,Water.

The octopus is a creature that continues to surprise scientists and inspire engineers. With eight arms that move in ways no human limb can, it demonstrates flexibility and control that seem almost otherworldly. 



Each arm bends, twists, elongates, and shortens with unmatched precision, enabling these animals to hunt, hide, and explore with ease. 



Researchers hope that unlocking the secrets of these movements may guide the design of flexible robotic arms capable of lifesaving missions.



Imagine a robotic arm slipping through rubble after a building collapse, delivering food or medicine to someone trapped below. 



This vision has motivated scientists to study octopus arms in detail - both in the laboratory and in their natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dumbo-octopus-species-carnarvon-flapjack-discovered-in-very-deep-ocean-waters/">environment</a>.



Until recently, most studies were limited to tanks, where behaviors may not reflect the complexity of life in the wild. That gap is now being addressed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-octopus-intelligence">Understanding octopus intelligence</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/">Octopuses</a> are some of the most intelligent invertebrates on Earth. Unlike most animals without backbones, they can solve puzzles, open jars, and even escape from aquariums by remembering routes back to the ocean. 



Their brains are incredibly complex, with about 500 million neurons - similar to a dog. What makes them even more fascinating is that two-thirds of those neurons are in their arms. 



This means each arm can sense, move, and even make decisions on its own while still communicating with the central brain. It’s like having eight mini-brains working together with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-are-tricked-by-the-rubber-hand-illusion-like-humans-suggesting-self-awareness/">one big brain</a>.



Their intelligence also shows up in how they hunt and survive. Octopuses use tools, like carrying coconut shells to hide inside when threatened, and they can change color and texture in an instant to camouflage perfectly against rocks or coral. 



They’ve been observed watching other animals and learning from them, which is rare in the animal kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexible-octopus-arms-inspire-robotics">Flexible octopus arms inspire robotics</h2>



A new study from the <a href="https://www.mbl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> in Woods Hole and Florida Atlantic University has provided the most comprehensive analysis of octopus arm movements in natural habitats. 



Researchers recorded 25 wild octopuses in six locations, ranging from the Caribbean to Spain. The footage captured thousands of arm movements across a variety of behaviors, including foraging, locomotion, and even defense.



“I’ve been trying for a long time to work out the natural behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-octopus-footage-could-revolutionize-flexible-robot-design-eyeris/">cephalopods</a> in their natural habitat,” said MBL Senior Scientist Roger Hanlon, who led the project. 



“Studying and recording octopus behavior from wild octopuses in the field gave us the opportunity to analyze a larger behavioral repertoire and further understand how they use their arms to achieve such complex behaviors,” added Chelsea Bennice, research fellow at <a href="https://www.fau.eu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAU</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guided-by-touch-not-sight">Guided by touch, not sight</h2>



Octopuses rely heavily on touch, guided by sensory organs in their arm suckers. “The octopus is a very tactile animal - it’s more tactile than visual,” said Hanlon. 



Each of their nearly 100 suckers per arm contains chemosensory-tactile receptors, combining functions similar to the human nose, lips, and tongue.



Finding octopuses to observe was not simple. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-squid-power-their-amazing-camouflage-abilities/">camouflage</a> skills make them almost invisible in coral reefs or sandy seabeds. Divers often relied on clues like discarded shells and food debris near their dens.



Once located, octopuses emerged briefly from hiding, offering precious opportunities to record their natural actions.



These moments revealed unique hunting strategies, arm movements, and subtle interactions with their environment otherwise impossible to witness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-arm-mechanics-of-octopuses">Complex arm mechanics of octopuses</h2>



The researchers identified 12 distinct arm actions across 15 behaviors, built from four fundamental deformations: shortening, elongating, bending, and torsion. They discovered a pattern of specialization within each arm. 



For instance, elongation and shortening were most common near the base, while bending occurred more at the tips. 



This functional partitioning allows octopuses to combine motions across arms for tasks like crawling, probing reef crevices, or launching sudden prey attacks.



“These are the actions that make up the whole complex of octopus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-and-squids-defy-the-slow-pace-of-evolution/">behaviors</a>,” said study co-author Kendra Buresch. 



In the wild, researchers observed octopuses using different combinations of arm actions - sometimes relying on a single arm for tasks like grabbing food, and other times coordinating multiple arms for behaviors such as crawling or launching a parachute attack.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior-that-guides-technology">Behavior that guides technology</h2>



The findings go beyond understanding animal behavior. With nearly 7,000 observed arm deformations, the study highlights an extraordinary degree of control and flexibility. 



This knowledge may inform robotics research, where engineers seek to design soft, adaptable arms capable of both precise and exploratory tasks.



“Understanding these natural behaviors not only deepens our knowledge of octopus biology but also opens exciting new avenues in fields like neuroscience, animal behavior, and even soft robotics inspired by these remarkable creatures,” Bennice said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-in-flexibility-and-change">Lessons in flexibility and change</h2>



From the ocean floor to robotics labs, octopuses continue to inspire, offering lessons in both biology and technology. 



Their flexible arms not only influence the design of machines that could navigate disaster zones or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-deep-sea-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-bahamas/">deep-sea environments</a>, but also remind us how problem-solving in nature often leads to solutions with real-world applications.



Beyond robotics, their adaptability symbolizes the broader principle that survival depends on innovation and change, a message equally relevant to ecosystems, human health, and future technologies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-10674-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Octopus arms are probably the most complex and flexible structures in nature

The octopus is a creature that continues to surprise scientists and inspire engineers. With eight arms that move in ways no human limb can, it demonstrates flexibility and control that seem almost otherworldly. Each arm bends, twists, elongates, and shortens with unmatched precision, enabling these animals to hunt, hide, and explore with ease. Researchers hope that unlocking the secrets of these movements may guide the design of flexible robotic arms capable of lifesaving missions. Imagine a robotic arm slipping through rubble after a building collapse, delivering food...

Researchers have collaborated to explore the unique growth and development patterns of early mammals from the Jurassic period. 



By examining growth rings in fossilized tooth roots, paleontologists have been able to determine the lifespan, growth rates, and even the timing of sexual maturity in these ancient creatures. Their findings have been published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ado4555" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



“Never before have we been able to reconstruct the growth patterns of these early mammals in such detail,” said Elis Newham, the lead author of the study and a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>. During the study, Newham was also a research fellow at the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/en/university/university" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bonn</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammals-during-the-jurassic-nbsp">Mammals during the Jurassic&nbsp;</h2>



The experts focused on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/teeth-fossils-prehistoric-dentistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossilized tooth</a> roots from various mammal species dating from the Early to Late Jurassic periods (200-150 million years ago) discovered at three distinct sites. 



The fossils found in Wales are among the oldest known mammalian precursors from the Early Jurassic, while those from Oxfordshire, UK, represent a diverse range of early mammals that coexisted. The third site in Portugal provided fossils dating from the Late Jurassic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synchrotron-x-ray-tomography">Synchrotron X-ray tomography</h2>



To analyze the fossils, the team employed synchrotron X-ray tomography, a technique where electrons are accelerated to near light speed, offering several advantages over traditional X-ray imaging.&nbsp;



This method allows the fossils to be analyzed intact, without the need for slicing, and produces higher quality images than conventional X-ray microtomography.



“We use synchrotron x-ray tomography of annual growth increments in the dental cementum of mammaliaforms (stem and crown fossil mammals) from three faunas across the Jurassic to map the origin of patterns of mammalian growth patterns, which are intrinsically related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ear-canals-may-reveal-when-mammals-became-warm-blooded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammalian endothermy</a>,” explained the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microscopic-growth-rings-nbsp">Microscopic growth rings&nbsp;</h2>



Using this advanced imaging technique, the experts were able to observe microscopic growth rings in the fossilized root cement, the bone tissue that connects teeth to the jaw.&nbsp;



“The rings are similar to those in trees, but on a microscopic level,” said senior author Thomas Martin from the University of Bonn's Vertebrates – Mammals working group.&nbsp;



“Counting the rings and analyzing their thickness and texture enabled us to reconstruct the growth patterns and lifespans of these extinct animals.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jurassic-mammals-grew-more-slowly">Jurassic mammals grew more slowly</h2>



The study revealed that the first signs of growth patterns typical of modern mammals, such as puberty growth spurts, began to appear around 150 million years ago.&nbsp;



Unlike today's small mammals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/incredible-discovery-some-mammals-attacked-dinosaurs-and-they-often-won-the-battle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early</a> mammals grew much more slowly but had significantly longer lifespans, living eight to fourteen years instead of the one or two years typical of modern small mammals like mice. 



However, early mammals also took much longer to reach <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/respiratory-stress-is-linked-to-the-sexual-maturation-of-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sexual maturity</a>, often requiring several years, compared to the few months needed by their modern counterparts.



“Although all fossils studied exhibited slower growth rates, longer life spans, and delayed sexual maturity relative to comparably sized extant mammals, the earliest crown mammals developed significantly faster growth rates in early life that reduced at sexual maturity, compared to stem mammaliaforms,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinctive-life-history-patterns-of-mammals">Distinctive life history patterns of mammals</h2>



The experts noted that the estimation of basal metabolic rates (BMRs) suggests that some fossil crown mammals had BMRs approaching the lowest rates of extant mammals.&nbsp;



“We suggest that mammalian growth patterns first evolved during their mid-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jurassic-extinction-may-hold-clues-about-our-oceans-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jurassic</a> adaptive radiation, although growth remained slower than in extant mammals.”



According to Newham, the findings suggest that the distinctive life history patterns of mammals, characterized by high metabolic rates and extended parental care phases for example, have evolved over millions of years. “The Jurassic period appears to have been a crucial time for this shift,” said Newham.



According to the study authors, the the mid-Jurassic radiation of crown mammals occurred coevally with the acquisition of the modern mammalian growth strategy.&nbsp;



“However, physiological evolution followed a long-fuse pattern, with considerable developments remaining between the earliest crown mammals and extant species.”



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Early mammals had slower growth rates and lived longer 

Researchers have collaborated to explore the unique growth and development...

Once upon a time, around 135 million years ago, a unique crocodile roamed the seas during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spinosaurid-found-in-portugal-had-a-crocodile-like-skull/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">age of dinosaurs</a>. This marine predator, recently identified as Enalioetes schroederi, offers a fascinating glimpse into the diversity and lifestyle of ancient marine creatures.



The discovery of this species unveils a new chapter in our understanding of prehistoric crocodiles. The tale is set in the shallow seas of Germany during the Cretaceous Period, when Enalioetes schroederi thrived. 



The crocodile belonged to the unique Metriorhynchidae family, distinguished by their dolphin-like bodies, smooth scaleless skin, flippers, and a tailfin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-well-preserved-three-dimensional-skull">Well-preserved, three-dimensional skull</h2>



Metriorhynchids, primarily known from the Jurassic Period, hunted various prey - squid, fish, and even other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-known-marine-reptile-a-giant-ichthyosaur-has-been-found/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine reptiles</a>. 



But as Earth moved into the Cretaceous Period, their fossils began to fade from the record. The well-preserved, three-dimensional skull of the Enalioetes schroederi stands as the most significant metriorhynchid discovery from this era.



Sven Sachs, the project leader from <a href="https://namu-ev.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Naturkunde-Museum Bielefeld</a>, expressed his fascination. "The specimen is remarkable as it is one very few metriorhynchids that is known by a three-dimensionally preserved skull."



The exceptional condition of the specimen enabled CT scans, revealing hidden secrets of the internal anatomy of these marine crocodiles. The experts were able to reconstruct internal cavities and even the inner ears of the animal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-ancient-crocodiles">Evolution of ancient crocodiles</h2>



Enalioetes sheds light on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-and-ecology-shaped-250-million-years-of-crocodile-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of metriorhynchids during the Cretaceous Period. Dr. Mark Young from the University of Edinburgh’s School of GeoSciences gives us a deeper understanding of the significance of the discovery.



"During the Jurassic, metriorhynchids evolved a body-plan radically different from other crocodiles - flippers, tailfin, loss of bony armor and smooth scaleless skin," explained Dr. Young. This transformation was driven by adaptations to an increasingly marine lifestyle.



Enalioetes had larger eyes and more compact bony inner ears than other metriorhynchids, which indicates it was a faster swimmer. These traits also suggest that the transformation of metriorhynchids continued into the Cretaceous.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-tale-of-the-lost-and-found-fossil">The tale of the lost and found fossil</h2>



Interestingly, the perfectly preserved skull and first neck vertebrae were discovered more than a century ago by German government architect D. Hapke in a quarry near Hannover. The specimen was assumed lost during WWII, but was later rediscovered in the Minden Museum, Western Germany.



Initially studied by Henry Schroeder of the Prussian Geological Survey in Berlin, the species was eventually named in his honor.



The conclusions drawn from this discovery were possible only through a meticulous comparison of the newly found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pseudosuchians-ancient-crocodile-like-reptile-discovered-brazil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> with other museum collections. 



This comparative study confirmed that the fossil belonged to a species new to science, reinforcing our curiosity and fascination with the world's prehistoric times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ecological-role-of-an-ancient-crocodile">The ecological role of an ancient crocodile </h2>



Understanding the ecological role of Enalioetes schroederi provides valuable insight into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-secrets-of-the-evolution-of-prehistoric-reptiles/">prehistoric marine</a> ecosystems. 



As a member of the Metriorhynchidae family, this ancient marine crocodile occupied a significant niche in the Cretaceous seas. With its streamlined body and adaptations for aquatic life, Enalioetes was likely an apex predator, preying on a variety of marine life, including fish and cephalopods.



Fossil evidence suggests that metriorhynchids, including Enalioetes, played a crucial role in maintaining the balance of prehistoric marine ecosystems. The hunting habits would have influenced the populations of their prey, helping to shape the biodiversity of their environment. 



Furthermore, the presence of such predators indicates a thriving ecosystem with a range of prey species, underscoring the importance of these creatures in our understanding of ancient marine life.



Moreover, studying the dietary habits and ecological interactions of Enalioetes schroederi can shed light on how marine reptile predators adapted over time in response to environmental changes. As climate and sea levels fluctuated throughout the Cretaceous, these adaptations would have been critical for survival. 



The fossil record not only provides a glimpse into the physical characteristics of these ancient creatures but also presents an opportunity to explore their behavior and ecological significance in the broader context of Earth’s history.



As researchers continue to analyze the find from Hannover, it opens up avenues for further studies into the evolutionary trends of marine reptiles and their ecosystems. 



Image Credit: Joschua Knüppe



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14772019.2024.2359946" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Systematic Palaeontology</a>.



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Ancient crocodile had dolphin-like flippers and smooth skin

Once upon a time, around 135 million years ago, a...

The moon has fascinated astronomers and poets alike for centuries, but did you know it also holds sway over the life-and-death struggles of some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-in-some-parts-of-the-world-actually-benefit-from-warming-el-nino-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef</a> fish? As it turns out, for the sixbar wrasse, the moon's cycle plays a pivotal role in deciding their sex and survival.



Jeff Shima, an esteemed professor of ecology at Te Herenga Waka—<a href="https://www.wgtn.ac.nz" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Victoria University of Wellington</a>, trekked into the depths of reef life to understand the spawning patterns of the sixbar wrasse. 



His latest study illuminates how this fish species manipulates the moon's cycle to give their offspring the best chance at survival, and throws open the doors to some mind-boggling biological strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cracking-the-moon-cycle-code">Cracking the moon cycle code</h2>



It's no secret that sixbars spawn most often on a new moon. But here's the clincher: offspring born at this time are least likely to survive. A downright paradox, right? 



Drilling deeper, Shima's research revealed that sixbar offspring born on a new moon needed to change their developmental rates. 



"We've known sixbars spawn most often on the new moon, but this pattern has been particularly puzzling because&nbsp;offspring&nbsp;born at this time are least likely to survive. In contrast, offspring born closer to the full moon do much better.



"What we found is that in order to survive, sixbar offspring born on a new moon needed to alter their development rates, which ultimately shaped their sexual maturation and meant they were more likely to become male," said Professor Shima.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-gambles-and-the-reef-fish">Moon gambles and the reef fish</h2>



It may sound like a high-stakes gamble. However, the study suggests that it might be a calculated risk. Surprisingly, the few babies who <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-coral-reef-fish-survive-in-the-worlds-warmest-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">manage to survive</a> are more likely to become male. And in the unique mating system of the sixbar wrasse, males have the advantage as they can produce many more offspring.



"Most of these babies won't survive, but the few that do are more likely to become male and that's akin to winning the lottery as males can produce many more offspring in the sixbar mating system.



"However, we think the spawning patterns of these fish may be calculated to spread their bets, with low-risk wagers (full moon spawning) coupled with some high-risk ones - in this case, spawning on the new moon."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reef-fish-in-the-company-of-the-moon">Reef fish in the company of the moon</h2>



The moon's influence doesn't end here. Its cycle has also been linked to the growth rates of young sixbars. 



"As larvae, sixbar wrasse can lengthen or delay their development to arrive at the reefs at the most opportune times, under cover of darkness," adds Shima. 



The mystery of the lunar cycle and sea-life continues to unfold. Yet, the challenges in this delicate balance are many.



"Moonlight is affected by artificial light at night from coastal urban areas, as well as from dramatic changes in the distribution and intensity of cloud cover - a result of climate change," notes Shima.



"These human-induced changes in nocturnal illumination may have large, and largely unrecognized, consequences for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-corals-and-fish-in-an-exclusive-relationship-its-complicated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">growth, survival</a>, and reproductive success of organisms in some areas."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-moon-phases-for-reef-fish">Importance of moon phases for reef fish</h2>



The timing of spawning events for the sixbar wrasse is an elegant dance shaped by the rhythmic pulse of the moon’s phases. 



As Shima’s research underscores, this synchronization is not merely coincidence; it reflects an evolutionary strategy fine-tuned over generations. 



By aligning their reproductive cycles with the new moon, sixbars increase the chances of their eggs being released amid the ebb and flow of ocean currents, dispersing them across vast areas.



This strategy enhances genetic diversity, which is paramount for the species’ resilience against environmental changes and predation. The challenge lies in ensuring that enough offspring survive to continue this delicate balance, as the numbers are heavily skewed against them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-reef-ecosystems">Implications for reef ecosystems</h2>



The implications of Shima's findings extend beyond the sixbar wrasse, touching upon broader conservation concerns within marine ecosystems. 



With the moon's luminance swinging between extremes and the introduction of artificial light, there is an urgent call to preserve the natural darkness of coastal habitats. This artificial illumination can disrupt the delicate synchrony between spawning and survival, potentially leading to cascading effects on reef biodiversity. 



The resilience of the sixbar wrasse, as unveiled in Shima's research, serves as a poignant reminder of how intricately connected the lives of marine species are to their environmental context. 



Thus, understanding these interactions is critical for the effective preservation of not only the sixbar wrasse but also the rich tapestry of life within reef ecosystems.



The findings lead us to an intriguing question: Have some species evolved reproductive strategies that use the moon to determine the sex of their offspring? Has nature devised a celestial ballet between the moon and marine life?



While researchers work to unravel these mysteries, we might just have to be content with marveling at the intelligence of species like the sixbar wrasse, who've found a way to dance with the moon.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.0613" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



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Some fish use the moon cycle to manipulate their offspring's sex

The moon has fascinated astronomers and poets alike for centuries,...

New research from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> has revealed significant differences in how male and female wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honoring-the-king-of-the-jungle-on-world-lion-day/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lions</a> experience changes in their social networks as they age, and these differences may have a profound impact on their survival. 



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.07.040" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>, provides new insights into the emerging field of social aging, which examines how individuals' social behavior evolves with age and the consequences this has for various aspects of their lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-relationships-of-lions">Social relationships of lions</h2>



Among big cats, African lions (Panthera leo) are unique in their heavy reliance on social relationships for essential activities, including hunting, territory defense, and raising cubs.&nbsp;



Despite this, until now, it was not well understood how a lion's social connections change over time and what implications these changes might have for their survival and overall well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-aging-in-lions">Social aging in lions</h2>



This study is the first to investigate social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aging-may-be-driven-by-genetic-imbalances/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a> in wild lions, taking into account both sexes and spanning multiple generations. 



The research is based on an extensive dataset compiled over 30 years, involving more than 150,000 field observations of 665 individual lions in the Serengeti, collected by the Serengeti Lion Project from 1984 to 2013.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-patterns-in-social-connections-nbsp">Distinct patterns in social connections&nbsp;</h2>



The findings reveal distinct patterns in how social connections evolve with age for male and female lions. For female lions, their connections to males are strongest in midlife, after which they gradually weaken as the females age.&nbsp;



In contrast, their connections to other females steadily decline from early adulthood onwards. This decline in female-to-female social connectivity suggests that as female lions grow older, they become less socially integrated within their pride.



Male lions, on the other hand, exhibit a different pattern. Their social connections to other males are weakest during midlife but strengthen again as they age.&nbsp;



Males' connections to females, however, are strongest during midlife and weakest at the beginning and end of their lives. These shifting social dynamics reflect the complex and competitive nature of male lion life, where alliances and rivalries can change rapidly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-of-the-social-lions">Survival of the social lions</h2>



The study highlights the critical role that these social connections play in the survival of lions. For female lions, maintaining strong connections with “friends” is crucial for a longer life. 



The researchers found that females with stronger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-bonds-are-more-advantageous-for-long-lived-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social bonds</a> tend to live longer, likely because these connections provide protection and support in critical activities such as defending territory, rearing cubs, and cooperative hunting. 



“The importance of close female bonds, particularly in early adulthood, could be because 'friends' can help protect against threats such as infanticidal males,” explained lead author Lauren Rudd from the Department of Biology at Oxford.&nbsp;



“They could also be valuable allies for territory defense, hunting, and cub rearing - all of which require cooperation. Combined these factors potentially explain why better-connected females live longer.”



For male lions, however, it is not just the strength but the number of social connections that appears to be key for survival.&nbsp;



The study suggests that having a larger number of associates is associated with a longer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-mammals-live-longer-than-males-in-the-wild/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lifespan</a> in males. This may be because a broad social network provides males with greater opportunities to form coalitions, which are vital for acquiring and maintaining dominance and access to mates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study-nbsp">Broader implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The implications of these findings extend beyond understanding lion behavior. The researchers pointed out that changes in sociality based on age and sex could have significant consequences for the dynamics of disease outbreaks in wild lion populations.&nbsp;



Rudd noted that while aging females may be less exposed to pathogens as their social connections decline, aging males' exposure risk could increase as they gain new associates. This insight could be critical for wildlife management and conservation efforts, particularly in predicting and controlling disease transmission in lion populations.



This study marks an important step forward in the field of social aging, but there is still much more to learn. The researchers are now focusing on how the loss of social connections throughout a lion's life influences their behavior and position within their social network.&nbsp;



This ongoing research aims to uncover the underlying mechanisms of social aging and to understand how the death or departure of certain individuals affects the social structure and dynamics of the remaining population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-aging-across-various-species-nbsp">Social aging across various species&nbsp;</h2>



“Natural animal populations, where many individuals are being simultaneously monitored in detail across their entire lives and across many generations, offer unique opportunities to better understand social aging and how this process operates across many different types of societies,” said co-author Josh Firth from the Department of Biology at the University of Oxford and the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a>.



This work on lions could pave the way for similar studies in other wild animal societies, helping to reveal how different sex roles influence social aging across various species.&nbsp;



The research underscores the complex interplay between social behavior and survival, providing valuable insights into the life dynamics of one of the most socially intricate big cats in the wild. As scientists continue to explore these patterns, our understanding of social aging and its broader implications for animal populations will undoubtedly deepen.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



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<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h--0">-----</h3>

Male and female lions have different social strategies for survival 

New research from the University of Oxford has revealed significant...

Each year on August 12th, World Elephant Day turns the planet’s gaze toward the plight of elephants. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-movement-is-influenced-by-habitat-suitability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">majestic beings</a>, carrying the weight of historical richness on their sturdy backs, sit at the heart of their ecosystems.



Yet, through the fog of habitat loss, the shadow of illegal poaching and the threat of human-wildlife conflicts, their survival hangs by a thread.



A special mention should be given to Patricia Sims and the Elephant Reintroduction Foundation of Thailand. They started this critical dialogue on August 12, 2012, by founding World Elephant Day. 



The day is now celebrated by over 100 organizations worldwide, all rallying to protect elephant habitats and promote their conservation. The spotlight is also turned to the elephants, the keystones of the ecosystems they inhabit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-act-of-elephants">Balancing act of elephants</h2>



The 2024 theme, "Personifying Prehistoric Beauty, Theological Relevance, and Environmental Importance," captures the significance of the occasion. 



Known as gardeners of the forest, elephants are catalysts in seed dispersal and necessary partners in forest regeneration. By safeguarding their habitats, we also help to shield biodiversity and ensure the survival of the ecosystems that elephants support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-world-without-elephants">A world without elephants? </h2>



Can we imagine a world without elephants? Absolutely not! These hulking creatures are not just symbols of strength and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-use-specific-names-to-address-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligence</a>. 



Their everyday activities <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-dung-feeds-over-2-million-beetles-daily/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shape the structure of various ecosystems</a> and provide essential support to a multitude of species. Without the jumbo-sized helping hand of our elephants, many forests and savannas would simply wither away.



At the core of the threats against elephants lies the insatiable and illicit ivory trade. Despite international bans, the demand for ivory continues to fuel poaching, with tens of thousands of elephants falling victim to this atrocity every year.



Adaptation under such distress has led to a shocking genetic mutation, resulting in some female elephants being born tuskless. This modification stands as a poignant symbol of survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-to-action-world-elephant-day-2024">A call to action: World Elephant Day 2024</h2>



Now that you know what's at stake, are you ready to leap into action this World Elephant Day? You can donate to reputable organizations working to protect elephants, such as the <a href="https://elephantcrisisfund.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Elephant Crisis Fund</a>, or the David Sheldrick Wildlife Trust.



Take a pledge to learn more about the challenges faced by elephants and raise awareness. Use the power of social media and trending hashtags like #WorldElephantDay.



Invite your circle of friends and family to sign petitions, share relevant information, and participate in local events for elephant conservation. You can even <a href="https://gifts.worldwildlife.org/gift-center/gifts/Species-Adoptions/African-Elephant.aspx?sc=AWY1800OQ18681A01695RX&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjw5ea1BhC6ARIsAEOG5pwO_Xm0ZGhK-m8qeFCFNQ3MMZKr0jTf28R_U1XlPvC9jMuobTduvUsaAub9EALw_wcB" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adopt</a> an African elephant symbolically through the World Wildlife Fund. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intricate-social-structures">Intricate social structures </h2>



Elephants are not just individuals; they form tight-knit family units that showcase some of the most complex social structures in the animal kingdom. 



Matriarchs lead these groups, possessing vast knowledge of the environment, including water sources and safe migration routes. The bonds between members are profoundly emotional, with displayed affection, empathy, and grieving processes akin to human behaviors. 



These remarkable relationships ensure the survival of both the group and its traditions, as younger elephants learn survival skills essential for their future. Understanding these social dynamics deepens our appreciation for their roles in promoting the ecological balance of their habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephant-conservation">Elephant conservation</h2>



Saving elephants is a long-term effort, not a quick fix. The challenges which threaten their survival require sustained attention and resources over time. 



Furthermore, elephants have long gestation periods (around 22 months) and typically give birth to a single calf. This means their populations grow slowly, making recovery from threats like poaching or habitat loss a prolonged process.



Therfore, elephant conservation is not something that can be resolved quickly; it requires a persistent, multi-faceted approach over decades. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-initiatives">Global initiatives</h2>



Elephants face many challenges, but there are global efforts to help them. Governments, NGOs, and local communities are coming together to promote conservation that benefits both wildlife and people.



Projects focus on getting locals involved in protecting their natural resources, creating reasons to save elephants instead of harming them.



Educational campaigns are also working to spread awareness about why elephants are important to our ecosystem, rallying support for their protection. Moving forward, we need to work together to ensure that we can coexist peacefully with these amazing animals.



Today, on World Elephant Day, let’s join forces with passion and purpose to make a powerful difference in the protection and preservation of these magnificent creatures.



-----



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World Elephant Day 2024: Saving the gentle giants

Each year on August 12th, World Elephant Day turns the...

The world is on the brink of a major breakthrough in discovering elusive marine species, unlocking secrets hidden in the depths of our oceans. 



With the majority of the planet's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-is-the-climate-impacting-aquatic-life-in-mountain-streams/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aquatic life</a> remaining largely unexplored, we are about to take a deep dive into an initiative that is revolutionizing marine species discovery and documentation.



This innovative effort promises to shed light on the countless unknown organisms dwelling beneath the waves, significantly advancing our understanding of marine biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-turning-tide-for-marine-species-discovery">A turning tide for marine species discovery</h2>



The magnitude of Earth's biodiversity is staggering, encompassing a vast array of life forms across various ecosystems. 



However, most of the estimated two million marine organisms have not yet been identified, leaving significant gaps in our understanding of oceanic life. 



A primary hindrance to studying and conserving these species has been the painfully slow process of scientific description, with delays of 20-40 years before a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-deep-sea-squid-discovered-that-broods-giant-eggs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new species</a> is officially recognized.



In response to this daunting challenge, the Ocean Species Discoveries initiative was launched. This ambitious project, led by the Senckenberg Ocean Species Alliance (SOSA), offers a revolutionary platform for rapid, yet comprehensive taxonomic description of marine invertebrate species.



SOSA's mission goes beyond mere discovery, aiming to foster protection, awareness, and appreciation of marine invertebrates before they fall into oblivion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-wave-of-collaborative-research">A new wave of collaborative research</h2>



A team of 25 researchers from around the world collaborated for this groundbreaking project, resulting in data on thirteen marine invertebrate taxa.



The significant discoveries include the identification of a new genus, eleven new species, and the reinstatement of one previously described species.



These remarkable creatures originate from various global locations and inhabit depths ranging from a shallow 5.2 meters to an astounding 7,081 meters beneath the ocean surface.



The findings have been compiled and made accessible through open-access publications via the <a href="https://bdj.pensoft.net/article/128431/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biodiversity Data Journal</a>.



The publication format breaks away from the traditional approach of isolating species' descriptions. Instead, it allows for diverse marine invertebrate taxa to be elucidated collectively.



This collaborative approach not only expedites the scientific process but also incentivizes researchers to disclose their new discoveries more promptly, fostering a more dynamic and integrated understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-biodiversity-could-shift-rapidly-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine biodiversity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-marine-species-discovered">New marine species discovered</h2>



Among the new species featured in the Ocean Species Discoveries initiative is Cunicolomaera grata, an amphipod whose intricate burrowing patterns along the seafloor have sparked significant scientific icuriosity.



This tiny creature's behavior and habitat offer valuable insights into the complexities of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine ecosystems</a>. 



Contrastingly, there's Lepetodrilus marianae, a wrinkly-shelled limpet that thrives in the extreme environment of hydrothermal vents, where temperatures can soar up to a sweltering 400 degrees Celsius.



The unique adaptations of this limpet to such harsh conditions highlight the incredible resilience and diversity of marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-race-against-time">The race against time</h2>



These discoveries underscore the urgent need to reduce the time taken from discovering a new species to its public description. 



Speeding up this process is critical to ensuring that new species are recognized and protected before it is too late. 



Many of these organisms reside in fragile and threatened environments, such as hydrothermal vent zones that are at risk due to deep-sea mining activities. 



Others, like the purple sea cucumber Psychropotes buglossa, inhabit areas of significant economic interest, endangered by polymetallic-nodule extraction.



Such scenarios highlight the very real risk of losing unknown species even before they are discovered, studied, and understood, underscoring the importance of rapid and effective documentation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-to-arms">A call to arms</h2>



"Only by leveraging the collective strengths of global progress, expertise, and technological advancements, will we be able to describe the estimated 1.8 million unknown species living in our oceans," said Dr. Julia Sigwart.



This beckoning call invites taxonomists specializing in marine invertebrates from around the globe to contribute their expertise to the Ocean Species Discoveries initiative. 



By joining this crucial effort, these scientists can play a pivotal role in accelerating the identification and protection of marine species, many of which are at risk of being lost forever. 



Their contributions will not only enhance our understanding of marine biodiversity but also ensure that these unique and often fragile organisms are recognized and conserved for future generations. 



The collective efforts of the global scientific community are essential to safeguard our oceans' rich and diverse life forms before they disappear into oblivion.



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1.8 million species are yet to be identified in the ocean

The world is on the brink of a major breakthrough...

Have you ever wondered how butterflies remain firmly attached to branches during their fascinating transformation, known as metamorphosis? The answer springs from the world of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-love-pretty-butterflies-and-that-complicates-data-for-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tiny yet mighty creatures</a>, revealing a remarkable testament to nature's ingenuity.



Researchers Qingyou Xia and Zhaoming Dong have explored the familiar yet enigmatic realm of butterfly metamorphosis. The team made some unexpected discoveries about their ability to stay anchored during this critical period of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-silk-s-role-in-the-metamorphosis-of-butterflies">Silk's role in the metamorphosis of butterflies </h2>



While we may often associate silk with the industrious silkworm, our fluttering friends – the butterflies - also play their part in this web of life. 



In their caterpillar stage, the future butterflies leverage silk for many purposes: to build safety nets that protect them from falls, to create ingenious hiding spots within leaf bundles, and to craft silk carpets that play a crucial role during metamorphosis.



When it's time for a caterpillar to morph into a chrysalis, it utilizes a unique structure known as a cremaster. This arm-like feature grips onto the spun silk carpet, anchoring the chrysalis to a branch and providing a stable base for the miraculous transformation about to unfold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strength-of-the-silk">Strength of the silk</h2>



The researchers raised caterpillars of two species of butterflies – Danaus chrysippus, also known as the Plain Tiger, and Papilio polytes, or Common Mormon – along with two species of silkworms in controlled environments. They then measured the diameter and tensile strength of the silk threads spun by these creatures.



The results showed that despite its utility, butterfly silk, surprisingly, was thinner and weaker compared to that spun by silkworms.



When the experts analyzed the primary structural proteins in the silks, they found that butterfly silk had a lesser number of beta sheet structures, explaining its relative weakness.



Butterflies, however, are not daunted by the weakness of their silk. Instead, they employ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-use-static-electricity-to-catch-pollen-without-touching/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique and intricate strategies</a> to maximize their silk's efficiency. They use the cremaster in a hook and loop mechanism, much like a Velcro fastener, to attach themselves firmly to the silk carpet.



Some species even spin a safety tether around their thorax for added security. It's this ingenious application of relatively weak silk that ensures the chrysalis stays put until it's time for the butterfly to emerge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chrysalis-stage-of-butterfly-metamorphosis">Chrysalis stage of butterfly metamorphosis</h2>



The chrysalis stage is not just a transitional phase; it is vital for the development of a butterfly's body. During this period, the caterpillar's cells undergo a remarkable transformation, reorganizing into newly formed tissues and organs essential for the adult butterfly.



This complex process is known as histolysis, where the caterpillar tissues break down, and histogenesis, where new structures develop. 



The resilience of the chrysalis, which protects the delicate developing butterfly within, highlights the importance of a secure anchoring system that comes from the silk and cremaster interplay, ensuring the transformation can occur without disturbance.



After days or weeks of transformation, the moment arrives for the butterfly to break free from its chrysalis. With tremendous energy, the freshly emerged butterfly struggles to escape, often taking several minutes to fully unfurl its damp wings. 



This process is crucial, as it not only strengthens the wings but also helps pump fluid into them, allowing for proper expansion and eventual flight. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-silk-seatbelt-in-butterfly-metamorphosis">Silk seatbelt in butterfly metamorphosis</h2>



When forming their protective "seatbelts," caterpillars can spin together nearly 20 different strands into a rope-like form, multiplying its strength eight-fold. This illustrates that these creatures are not mere victims of their circumstances but active agents who make the best of what they have.



The diligent work of researchers like Xia, Dong, and their team provides us with an enlightening peek into these marvelous strategies that caterpillars use to remain safe and secure until they take flight in their final, radiant butterfly forms.



This study was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, the National Key Research and Development Program of China, the Natural Science Foundation of Chongqing, and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities. 



So, the next time you see a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-learn-about-butterflies-day-an-enchanting-world-awaits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly fluttering by</a>, take a moment to appreciate its remarkable journey. Against all odds, it has managed to stick to branches, overcome its limitations, and transform into the absolute beauty we behold.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsbiomaterials.4c00237" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Biomaterials Science &amp; Engineering</a>.



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Butterflies create silk 'seatbelts' to strap in for metamorphosis

Have you ever wondered how butterflies remain firmly attached to...

A symphony of roars fills the air - a familiar yet haunting soundtrack that never fails to shoot a thrill down one's spine. Yet, have you ever stopped to wonder how every throaty roar that escapes the king of the jungle is also a plea? A plea for help, a plea for survival. This fact gains new importance on August 10 - World Lion Day, a date that draws attention to the ever-shrinking world of these royal beasts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-national-geographic-big-cats-initiative">National Geographic Big Cats Initiative </h2>



In the face of this adversity, hope is yet alive, thanks to Dareck and Beverly Joubert. This couple has dedicated their lives to protecting big cats. The founding idea of World Lion Day - first celebrated in 2013 - sprouted from their minds.



Their collaboration with the well-respected institution National Geographic led to the inception of the Big Cat Initiative (<a href="https://greatplainsfoundation.com/big-cats-initiative/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BCI</a>) in 2009. The objective? A formidable one indeed - the protection and conservation of the dwindling lion populations worldwide. 



To date, the National Geographic Big Cats Initiative has clinched over 150 grants, thwarted 3,000 threats aimed at wild cats, and removed a staggering 13,000 poaching snares.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glimpse-into-lion-life">Glimpse into lion life</h2>



What captures our attention about lions? Besides being the second-largest cats globally, tipping the scales anywhere between 300-600 pounds, lions are also unique in their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-ants-have-a-big-impact-on-the-hunting-behavior-of-lions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a>. 



Unlike other feline species which prefer a solitary life, lions are social creatures. They form close-knit groups known as prides, a trait that increases their hunting prowess.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-importance-of-world-lion-day">The importance of World Lion Day</h2>



World Lion Day is more than a day marked on the calendar. It is a call to arms - a prompt for immediate awareness and action. 



And here's why: since 1990, lion numbers have fallen by nearly half, earning them the status of "vulnerable" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.



Lion conservation is inextricably linked with habitat preservation. Urbanization and agricultural expansion treads relentlessly forward, leaving the territories of our lion friends fragmented, detrimentally impacting their welfare. 



As such, conservation plans like establishing wildlife corridors and protected areas play a pivotal role in ensuring lion survival and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/steller-sea-lions-threatened-by-rising-mercury-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity preservation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-be-a-part-of-the-change">Be a part of the change</h2>



The lion, or "Felis Leo" as the renowned Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus labeled them in 1758, was declared vulnerable in 1996 due to rapid population decrease.



But, thanks to the Jouberts and National Geographic, the tides began to turn in 2009 with the launch of the Big Cat Initiative. Four years later, World Lion Day made its debut, signaling a crucial turning point in lion conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-local-communities">Role of local communities</h2>



Local communities play a vital role in lion conservation efforts. Engaging thes communities in conservation initiatives fosters a sense of ownership and responsibility towards their natural heritage.



By investing in sustainable livelihoods, such as eco-tourism and community-based wildlife management, locals can benefit economically while protecting their environment. 



Successful programs have demonstrated that when people see tangible benefits from preserving wildlife, they are more likely to support conservation efforts. 



Furthermore, educating communities about the importance of lions in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/video-two-lions-swimming-across-dangerous-river-crocodiles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maintaining ecological balance</a> helps to mitigate human-wildlife conflict. The ultimate goal is for lions and communities to thrive together in harmony.



Collective action is essential for securing a future where lions roam the savannahs freely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-participating-in-world-lion-day">Participating in World Lion Day</h2>



The power to spark a change lies in each of our hands. Spreading awareness about the threats faced by lions and the promotion of sustainable tourism practices can be the catalyst for significant change.



World Lion Day serves as a powerful reminder that every individual has a part to play in preserving these iconic creatures. Refraining from buying lion products, supporting conservation organizations, or merely learning about the challenges lions face - every little act counts.



The allure of lions has, for decades, been woven into our cultural fabric, from the beloved Simba in "The Lion King" to countless other representations that have enchanted us.



However, as we revel in their cinematic representation, let's not forget that the real-life lions need our help to ensure that their roars keep resounding across the wild. Together, we can make every day a World Lion Day.



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Honoring the king of the jungle on World Lion Day

A symphony of roars fills the air - a familiar...

Populations of squaretail grouper are facing an uncertain future as new research reveals that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-fleets-hidden-industrial-fishing-activity-exposed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishing</a> targeting their spawning sites is causing males to repeatedly flee from their territories during their brief mating periods. 



This disruption leads to significant challenges in courtship and mating behaviors, posing potential long-term consequences for the survival of these fish populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-squaretail-grouper-spawning-sites">Squaretail grouper spawning sites</h2>



A study led by scientists at <a href="https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lancaster University</a> indicates that the impacts of fishing at squaretail grouper spawning sites extend beyond the fish that are caught. 



The study shows widespread behavioral changes among those left behind, affecting their ability to reproduce. With disrupted mating, fewer offspring are likely to be produced, potentially jeopardizing the population's future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crucial-reproduction-opportunities-nbsp">Crucial reproduction opportunities&nbsp;</h2>



Squaretail grouper gather at specific spawning aggregation sites for only a few days, a handful of times each year, during the new and full moons between December and March.&nbsp;



Male groupers arrive at these sites a few days before the lunar phases and establish mating territories to attract females. Females arrive a day before the new moon, and the fish attempt to pair and spawn in synchrony with the moon's cycles before the females leave.



These gatherings are crucial as they may be the only opportunities for these populations to reproduce.&nbsp;



However, fisheries, particularly spearfishing and hook and line fishing, which involve free-diving, have begun targeting these gatherings intensively to ensure catches while the fish are distracted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-squaretail-grouper-behavior-nbsp">Changes in squaretail grouper behavior&nbsp;</h2>



In India’s Lakshadweep archipelago, located north of the Maldives, increased fishing at some grouper spawning sites over the last five years has led to a sharp decline in aggregation densities, with a 70% drop in a decade due to year-round targeting by fisheries.



The marine scientists who conducted the research had studied these sites more than a decade ago and noticed a significant change in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-use-collective-behavior-to-reduce-energy-costs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish behavior</a> when they attempted to replicate their earlier study. 



“We discovered that we couldn’t film or study the fish as easily at the aggregation sites as we could in the past,” said lead author Rucha Karkarey, a biologist at Lancaster.&nbsp;



“We couldn’t get as close to them, they would swim away as though we were predators. It was obvious to us that there was a difference in their behavior and we realized that the major thing that had changed in the decade since our previous study was the start of fishing at the site.”



The researchers compared male squaretail grouper behavior at both fished and unfished spawning sites, as well as data from their earlier studies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-squaretail-grouper-fear-responses-nbsp">Squaretail grouper fear responses&nbsp;</h2>



The team analyzed the fish's fear responses by simulating a threat, with divers swimming towards spawning groupers to see how close they could get before the fish fled, and measuring the time the fish spent defending territory and courting in the absence of a direct threat.



Although males who had already partnered with females at the fished sites took greater risks during courtship - fleeing later and returning earlier - the study found that single males at fished sites were twice as likely to flee and took two and a half times longer to return to territories than fish at unfished sites.&nbsp;



Fewer than half of the single males returned to their territories at the fished sites, compared to two-thirds at the unfished sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lost-mating-opportunities-nbsp">Lost mating opportunities&nbsp;</h2>



While escaping early can ensure individual survival, it also means lost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-mating-calls-protect/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mating</a> opportunities. Squaretail groupers, which can live up to 12 years, may exhibit this behavior change due to their experiences with fishing.



“Our findings suggest that the stresses caused by fishing are making the fish more nervous and on guard,” explained Karkarey. “In turn, this is reducing the opportunities for single male groupers to find a mate and reproduce because they are being more vigilant and compromising territorial defense by fleeing.”&nbsp;



The researchers noted that paired males, who are fitter and more successful at reproducing, are the ones being fished, which can have consequences for the fitness of this population in the future. “If a spawning aggregation event only lasts for a short period of time then every hour counts,” said Karkarey.



The researchers also found that male groupers at fished sites spent significantly less time and energy aggressively defending their territories from rivals.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduced-aggression-at-fished-sites">Reduced aggression at fished sites</h2>



At the fished sites, males engaged in nearly ten times less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/color-patterns-influence-aggression-among-reef-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aggressive behavior</a> compared to those at the unfished sites. 



This change could be due to various factors, including females becoming less choosy in high-risk situations or bolder fish being removed from the population by fishers, though this aspect was not specifically studied.



“Decreased aggression can hold significant evolutionary implications in mating aggregations, specifically through a relaxation in sexual selection, which could have implications for mate choice, population fitness, and long-term resilience,” said co-author Sally Keith from Lancaster University.



“This study is the first of its kind in these atoll reef islands, and the findings can play an important role in fishery resource management in this archipelago,” added Idrees Babu from the Department of Science and Technology at UT Lakshadweep.



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0292" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>, highlights the urgent need for targeted conservation efforts to protect squaretail grouper populations from the adverse impacts of fishing on their reproductive behaviors.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



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<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h--0">-----</h3>

Frightened fish are fleeing from their spawning sites

Populations of squaretail grouper are facing an uncertain future as...

The natural world is full of wonders, one of which involves the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-symbiotic-relationships-evolve-between-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symbiotic relationship</a> between plants and the animals that assist in seed dispersal.



The conventional wisdom is that birds and mammals, tempted by the sight of red fruit hanging from branches, are the primary players in this relationship. 



A study from <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a>, however, has shown that insects might be doing more to help plants reproduce than we previously realized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-allure-of-tasty-fruit">The allure of tasty fruit</h2>



Plants offer delicious fruit to animals like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> and mammals with the aim of getting them to swallow their smooth, sturdy seeds. 



These creatures then move away from the plant and excrete the seeds, giving them a chance to grow in a new location. 



But are bigger animals the only ones playing this seed-dispersal role? Traditional thought may have led us to believe so, but the intriguing new study offers a different perspective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insects-unsung-heroes-of-seed-dispersal">Insects: Unsung heroes of seed dispersal</h2>



Led by botanist SUETSUGU Kenji, the research team focused on interactions between plants and arthropods, particularly those plants that produce dust-like seeds.



These are often encapsulated in whitish, somewhat translucent fruit that promptly falls to the ground once ripe. 



Due to their minute size and ground-dwelling habits, insects become the best candidates for dispersing these subtle seeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-insects-in-action">Investigating insects in action</h2>



The researchers traveled to Amami-Oshima Island in Japan to study a shrub-like plant called Rhynchotechum discolor, which produces such translucent fruit with dust seeds. 



The team undertook nocturnal photography, capturing images of insects feasting on the fallen fruit. They also trapped <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-silent-language-decoding-the-chemical-signals-of-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> nearby and examined their excrement to identify whether plant seeds were present and viable.



The team's findings verified that insects, specifically camel crickets, were the primary consumers of the Rhynchotechum discolor fruit.According to the researchers, roughly 80% of the seeds found in the insects' excrement were still viable.



"This result provides the first evidence of insects acting as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodlice-prove-crucial-players-plant-seed-dispersal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seed dispersers</a> for a light-harvesting, green plant in regions inhabited by land-dwelling mammals," said SUETSUGU Kenji.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-conventional-wisdom">Challenging conventional wisdom </h2>



These findings challenge the traditional thought that insects only play a major role in seed dispersal in special situations. 



"Our findings challenge the notion that insect-mediated seed dispersal is a special case and suggest that it may be more widespread and ecologically important than previously understood," noted SUETSUGU Kenji.



The research also sheds light on the evolution of dust seeds. The small size and minimal energy reserves of dust seeds have often been linked with heterotrophy.



Yet, the study on Rhynchotechum discolor suggests that small seed size could have evolved as a strategy to transform seed-eating insects into seed-dispersing agents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-paving-the-way-for-future-studies">Paving the way for future studies</h2>



The Kobe University team believes that similar seed dispersal systems might be common in plants that produce dust seeds, which are found in at least 13 families. 



"We have laid the groundwork for future studies to investigate similar interactions in other regions and with other plant species," rapid SUETSUGU Kenji. 



"This research enhances our knowledge of how plants adapt to their environments and the roles that different organisms play in their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-life-cycles-predicting-the-impacts-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life cycles</a>."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-insect-mediated-seed-dispersal">Implications of insect-mediated seed dispersal</h2>



Understanding the role of insects in seed dispersal opens new avenues for appreciating ecosystem dynamics. 



Insects are abundant and diverse, often occupying various ecological niches that larger animals cannot. This means they can facilitate plant reproduction in environments that are less accessible to traditional seed dispersers. 



For instance, in densely packed forests or urban areas where larger mammals might be scarce, insects can ensure that plant species continue to thrive by spreading their seeds effectively.



Moreover, the relationship between plants and their insect seed dispersers emphasizes the interconnectedness of life forms in an ecosystem. 



As insects help disperse seeds, they also contribute to genetic diversity by allowing plants to colonize new areas and creating opportunities for adaptation to changing environments. 



This ecological function is vital in the face of climate change, as plants that can distribute their seeds effectively may have a better chance of survival.



Finally, recognizing insects as significant players in seed dispersal can inform conservation strategies. Protecting insect populations is crucial not only for their intrinsic value but also for maintaining healthy plant communities and ecosystems. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.10556" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants People Planet</a>.



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Insects play a much bigger role in seed dispersal than we thought

The natural world is full of wonders, one of which...

A new study has provided clear evidence that significantly more birds are killed by window collisions than previously thought.



The researchers noted that building collisions impact hundreds of bird species, killing between 365 million and one billion birds a year in the United States alone.&nbsp;



The study was led by experts at the <a href="https://www.fordham.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fordham University</a>, the <a href="https://nycbirdalliance.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NYC Bird Alliance, Inc</a>, and the <a href="https://www.gea.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Geoanthropology</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collisions-are-a-leading-source-of-bird-mortality-nbsp">Collisions are a leading source of bird mortality&nbsp;</h2>



“Even common avian species in North America are declining, so identifying and addressing threats to bird populations is critical for the conservation of not only individual species, but the ecosystems they belong to,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



“Collisions with buildings are a leading anthropogenic cause of death for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activities-linked-to-1430-bird-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> in the United States, with major collision events garnering national attention and, as of 2024, 25 U.S. cities or states have passed legislation that requires new buildings to be bird-friendly.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-severe-injuries-and-near-instant-deaths">Severe injuries and near-instant deaths</h2>



Previously, scientists have shown that windows are a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/window-collisions-are-a-leading-cause-of-bird-mortality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">major hazard</a> for a great variety of birds, which often don’t notice them and fly directly into them. 



In some cases, these collisions lead to a “stunning effect,” with birds crashing to the ground, only to recover moments later and fly away. In other cases, the impacts lead to severe injuries or near-instant-deaths.



“Building collisions are a leading threat to wild birds; however, only those that are found dead or fatally wounded are included in current mortality estimates, with injured or stunned birds largely assumed to survive long-term. Avian building collision victims are often brought to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildlife-conservation-can-help-stabilize-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> rehabilitators for care, with the hopes they can be released and resume their natural lives,” the authors explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-deaths-are-underestimated">Bird deaths are underestimated </h2>



According to the experts, although scientists have previously estimated that hundreds of millions of birds die annually in the United States due to such collisions, the number may in fact be much larger.&nbsp;



While previous window collisions calculations are derived by adding up counts of dead birds found on the ground, they fail to take into account the cases of birds surviving the initial collisions but dying later due to injuries.



In order to estimate the number of birds dying after the initial impacts, the scientists examined data from eight states on 3,100 avian-window collisions between 2016 and 2021. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-injuries-are-common">Brain injuries are common</h2>



The analysis revealed that most birds that were discovered and treated for their injuries - about 60 percent -&nbsp; still died later on, mainly due to brain injuries.



“The number of admissions varied by season; fall migration had the highest number of cases and winter had the least number of cases, and summer having the lowest release proportion and winter having the highest. The most common reported injury was head trauma and concussion,” the authors explained.



Thus, while it is not uncommon for a bird to wake up after a collision and fly away apparently unharmed, they nevertheless seem to experience the same type of symptoms happening to people after car accidents, such as brain swelling, which nearly always leads to death in birds.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-bird-building-collisions-nbsp">A new perspective on bird-building collisions&nbsp;</h2>



Taking this data into account, the experts estimate that the total number of bird deaths after window collisions may in fact significantly exceed one billion a year in the United States alone.



“This study reports different data than carcass studies and views bird-building collisions from the perspective of surviving victims to explore longer-term effects of these collisions on mortality,” noted the researchers.



The experts recommend increased communication and collaboration between wildlife rehabilitators and conservation researchers to better understand building collisions and how to respond to this leading threat to wild birds.&nbsp;



“These findings, along with our estimate of delayed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-light-is-luring-birds-to-their-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mortality</a>, suggest that overall collision mortality estimates based on carcass collection far exceed one billion birds in the U.S. each year,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0306362" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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More than a billion birds are killed in window collisions each year

A new study has provided clear evidence that significantly more...

Anyone who has picnicked on the beach has likely experienced the unpleasant crunch of a sandwich laced with sand. For primates, however, their tolerance for sand may be influenced by whether their energy is better spent on survival or on protecting their teeth from grit, according to a new study led by <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dartmouth College</a>.



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.98520.1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>, suggests that social rank can determine whether animals prioritize immediate energy consumption over long-term health. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-primate-sacrifices-for-short-term-survival">Primate sacrifices for short-term survival</h2>



The researchers observed the eating habits of long-tailed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hurricane-on-monkey-island-made-macaques-more-socially-tolerant/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">macaques</a> on Thailand's Koram Island and discovered that the dominant and lowest-ranked animals briefly rubbed sand-covered food on their fur or between their paws before quickly consuming it, along with most of the sand, and moving on to the next morsel.



In contrast, middle-ranked monkeys, who had more time, carried their food to the water's edge to wash it in the sea, effectively removing the sand. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-early-primates-lived-in-pairs-and-were-not-solitary-creatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monkeys</a> often spent considerable time and energy scrubbing their snacks clean and would even amble down the beach on their hind legs with their front paws full of food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-primate-survival-over-longevity">Primate survival over longevity </h2>



Nathaniel Dominy, the study's corresponding author and a professor of anthropology at Dartmouth, explains that the findings provide insight into how animals, even those in hierarchical groups, choose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-combine-different-strategies-to-survive-the-cold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival strategies</a> based on individual needs. 



The study supports the “disposable soma hypothesis,” which proposes that animals sometimes prioritize immediate survival and reproduction over longevity. “Delayed gratification has its limits,” Dominy said.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-rank-influences-priorities-nbsp">Social rank influences priorities&nbsp;</h2>



This appears to be the case for monkeys at the top and bottom of the social ladder, for whom life is short and hard. As a result, these primate consume and conserve energy whenever possible for survival. 



Existing research shows that sand causes significant damage to macaque tooth enamel, but for dominant males, this may not matter in a life filled with challengers.



“High-ranking males are constantly lunging at or chasing other males, behaviors that maximize their siring of offspring. So, they need to eat rapidly to make up for that energy expenditure, and that's exactly what we saw them doing,” Dominy said.&nbsp;



“They just stuff food into their mouths - sand be damned - because they don't have time to walk to the water. It's the urgency of now that matters, not their teeth. To humans, it seems like a shrewd calculation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maximizing-reproductive-success">Maximizing reproductive success</h2>



Conversely, the monkeys that wash their food may be playing a long game, said Amanda Tan, the study's co-corresponding author and an assistant professor of anthropology at <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a> who worked on the project as a postdoctoral fellow in Dominy’s research group. 



“We think these animals invest a lot more time in washing their food because they cannot afford to damage their teeth and compromise their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-rated-genes-help-capuchin-monkeys-live-longer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">longevity</a>. This strategy could allow them to maximize their potential reproductive success by living longer and producing more offspring over their lifetime,” she explained.



The findings also could shed light on the wear and pitting observed in the fossilized teeth of early humans and how these relate to social structure and access to water. “What if tooth wear is telling us about rank, not food properties?” Dominy said.&nbsp;



“If we find more variable wear on a male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hominin-fossils-are-a-million-years-older-than-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hominin</a> tooth, the classic interpretation is that it's the result of a varied diet. We ought to consider the possibility that he was eating quickly and couldn't be bothered to clean his food. Or maybe he lived in an area that was historically arid. We have cause to be more open-minded about variable tooth wear.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eating-habits-of-macaques">Eating habits of macaques </h2>



To observe the macaques' eating habits, Tan and study first author Jessica Rosien arranged plastic trays on the beach containing cucumber slices. 



The slices were either on their own, placed on top of sand, or buried in sand. Rosien and Tan recorded the animals every day for six weeks as they foraged for cucumbers in the trays, capturing nearly 1,300 instances of food-handling by 42 individual macaques.



The monkeys that washed their food devoted an average of five seconds to over a minute to each cucumber slice - often washing multiple slices - while the average amount of time spent just brushing sand off a slice was effectively zero, the researchers report.&nbsp;



That time makes a difference. In lab trials with sand-coated cucumbers, the researchers found that washing removed 93 percent of sand, while brushing removed only 75 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-primate-social-rank-and-survival">Primate social rank and survival</h2>



The researchers determined social rank using established methods of observing how the animals interact. But the social order was not subtle, Rosien said. She recalls a low-ranking male that, rejected by his peers, spent his time sitting next to her on the beach.&nbsp;



A high-ranked female would fearlessly challenge other macaques for their cucumbers and steal anything Rosien left unattended, including her backpack of supplies.&nbsp;



“I loved getting to know the different monkeys' personalities over time and I definitely got a sense of the impact of social rank,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-short-term-energy-vs-long-term-health">Short-term energy vs. long-term health</h2>



Before the study, Tan had spent years on Koram Island observing how the macaques developed skills using tools through social learning. She knew that some animals washed their food while others did not.&nbsp;



It was Dominy who wondered if there was a rank-based trade-off between getting calories quickly versus preventing tooth wear. “To our knowledge, no one had tested the hypothesis that food-washing served as an adaptive function for removing grit,” Tan said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncommon-behavior-among-primates-nbsp">Uncommon behavior among primates&nbsp;</h2>



Food-washing among primates is not common. The Koram Island macaques were first observed doing so after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. Their habit became a draw for tourists, who, before authorities put a stop to it, would throw fruit on the beach from boats to watch the animals wash it in the surf.



The other known instance is among the Japanese macaques on Japan's Kōjima Island. In the 1950s, researchers studying the animals lured them toward the beach with wheat and sweet potatoes to observe them more clearly.&nbsp;



In 1953, a young female named Imo first picked up a sandy sweet potato and washed it in a stream. Five years later, the other animals had taken up the practice, washing their food in the sea. Today, 92% of the Kōjima Island macaques wash their food.



“I love the story of Imo,” Rosien said. “It shows how an individual can cause a shift in a whole population. To see such a significant advance in real time makes it easier to understand how small changes can lead to big changes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-value-of-food-washing-nbsp">The value of food washing&nbsp;</h2>



The spread of a similar habit in two independent populations separated by 50 years and 5,000 miles speaks to the value of culture.&nbsp;



“You have to be experimental and entrepreneurial to invent a new behavior out of whole cloth, but it has to be clear enough that other individuals will understand its purpose and copy it,” Dominy said.&nbsp;



“And they have to be smart enough to recognize when another animal has figured out something valuable. That's what culture is - seeing the value of a new behavior and adopting it.”



The value for the macaques of washing their food was considered so obvious that no one had studied it before. “Even if something seems intuitive, it’s still important to be curious, ask questions, and test assumptions,” Tan said.&nbsp;



“In this case, our study provides a fuller picture of the various trade-offs that animals may juggle relative to their place in a social structure and gives us a better understanding of how that leads individuals to behave distinctly,” she concluded.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-">-----</h3>



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<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h--0">-----</h3>

Some primates must prioritize survival over long-term health

Anyone who has picnicked on the beach has likely experienced...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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