In the wild mountain ranges of Morocco and northeast Algeria, there’s a small, shimmering butterfly that most people have never heard of. It flutters through cedar forests and scrubby hillsides, unnoticed by nearly everyone. But deep inside its cells, this insect is doing something no other animal has ever been seen to do.



This butterfly, called the Atlas blue, just set a world record. And scientists are paying attention - not just because it’s rare, but because its strange biology could help us understand one of the most complex problems in science: how species evolve, and even how cancer works.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-with-chopped-up-chromosomes">Butterfly with chopped up chromosomes </h2>



Inside every living thing, from a mushroom to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-whale-species-is-already-threatened-with-extinction/">whale</a>, there’s DNA - the instruction manual of life. That DNA is packaged into structures called chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs, and most butterflies have 23 or 24 pairs.



The Atlas blue butterfly carries 229 pairs of chromosomes - more than any other multicellular animal. Scientists had long suspected it held the record, and new genome sequencing has now confirmed it.



And here’s what’s even more surprising: the butterfly's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-analysis-can-predict-which-animals-are-at-risk-of-extinction/">DNA</a> hasn’t been duplicated. Instead, the chromosomes have been chopped up into smaller pieces - like taking 24 books and ripping them into 229 booklets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-peek-into-evolution-s-toolbox">A peek into evolution’s toolbox</h2>



The researchers behind the new study came from the <a href="https://www.sanger.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a> in the UK and the Institute of Evolutionary Biology in Barcelona. They produced the first-ever high-quality genome for the Atlas blue and discovered that its extra chromosomes were not caused by copying, but by splitting.



This process happened fast in evolutionary terms. In about three million years, the butterfly went from 24 to 229 chromosomes. That’s like a blink of an eye for species development.



The cuts happened in parts of the DNA that were loosely packed. That means the total genetic information didn’t really change, it was just reorganized. All of the chromosomes, except for sex chromosomes, were broken up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rapidly-evolving-butterfly">A rapidly evolving butterfly </h2>



Changes in chromosome number are one way that species evolve. They can affect how genes are turned on or off, how traits are passed down, and how well an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genomics-can-help-farm-animals-adapt-to-climate-change/">animal adapts</a> to its environment. The Atlas blue butterfly belongs to a group that evolved rapidly, creating lots of closely related species.



This new research helps explain how that might have happened. The split chromosomes may have allowed more mixing and matching of DNA, possibly helping the species survive in tough environments.



But that same complexity could also come with risks. Too many chromosomes might make a species more vulnerable over time. And unfortunately, the Atlas blue is already in trouble. Climate change, overgrazing, and destruction of cedar forests are putting pressure on its populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-chromosomes-and-cancer">Butterfly chromosomes and cancer</h2>



The implications go far beyond butterflies. Professor Mark Blaxter noted that genomes hold the key to how a creature came to be, but also, where it might go in the future.



“To be able to tell the story of our planet, we must have the story of each species and see where they overlap and interact with each other. It also allows us to apply learnings from one genome to another."



"For example, rearranging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-chromosomes-have-conserved-specific-elements-for-600-million-years/">chromosomes</a> is also seen in human cancer cells, and understanding this process in the Atlas blue butterfly could help find ways to limit or stop this in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-scientist-discovers-that-common-non-cancer-drugs-when-combined-can-kill-cancer-cells/">cancer cells</a> in the future.”



That might seem like a stretch - a tiny insect helping us battle a major disease - but it’s happened before. From bacteria to mice and worms, scientists have used all kinds of living things to understand human health. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-extreme-atlas-blue-butterfly">The extreme Atlas blue butterfly</h2>



There are still big questions to answer. What benefits, if any, come from having so many chromosomes? Are there specific genes that make this butterfly more adaptable? Could this give clues about how life responds to a changing planet?



“When we set out to start to understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> in butterflies, we knew we had to sequence the most extreme, and somewhat mysterious, Atlas blue butterfly,” said Dr. Charlotte Wright, first author of the study. 



She noted that it was thanks to Dr. Roger Vila, who had previously worked with his colleague to find and identify this elusive butterfly, that the team was able to sequence this species.



"Being able to see, in detail, how the Atlas blue butterfly chromosomes have been split over time in specific places, we can start to investigate what benefits this might have, how it impacts their ability to adapt to their environment, and whether there are any lessons we can learn from their DNA that might aid conservation in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-species-evolution">Understanding species evolution</h2>



This kind of research is just the beginning. The team now has a “gold-standard” genome to compare with other butterflies and moths, opening the door to understanding more about how species split, adapt, or vanish.



“Breaking down chromosomes has been seen in other species of butterflies, but not on this level, suggesting that there are important reasons for this process which we can now start to explore," said Dr. Vila, senior author of the study. 



"Additionally, as chromosomes hold all the secrets of a species, investigating whether these changes impact a butterfly’s behavior could help form a full picture of how and why new species occur."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)01098-X?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS096098222501098X%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Current Biology</a>.



Image Credit: Roger Vila



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Butterfly sets an astonishing  chromosome record

In the wild mountain ranges of Morocco and northeast Algeria, there’s a small, shimmering butterfly that most people have never heard of. It flutters through cedar forests and scrubby hillsides, unnoticed by nearly everyone. But deep inside its cells, this insect is doing something no other animal has ever been seen to do. This butterfly, called the Atlas blue, just set a world record. And scientists are paying attention - not just because it’s rare, but because its strange biology could help us understand one of the...

Winter poses a significant challenge to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-colonies-are-collapsing-as-climate-change-progresses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">honey bee colonies</a> in the United States, with beekeepers reporting a loss of one-third of their colonies during this season annually.



Research now indicates that employing multiple pest management strategies could enhance colony survival through harsh winter months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multiple-defenses-better-than-one">Multiple defenses better than one</h2>



A team of researchers from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pennsylvania State University</a> has discovered that beekeepers who apply various treatments for Varroa mites (a major parasitic threat) see higher winter survival rates in honey bee colonies compared to those using a single treatment method.



Varroa mites significantly weaken bees by spreading diseases. These mites attach to bees, feeding on their bodily fluids and transmitting harmful viruses. This process severely compromises the health of bees and can lead to the collapse of entire colonies.



The study highlights that weather conditions also play a crucial role in the survival of bee colonies during winter. 



However, beekeepers utilizing integrated pest management approaches, which involve multiple strategies to tackle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breeding-cleaner-bees-may-stop-varroa-mites-in-their-tracks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Varroa mites</a>, tend to achieve better colony survival rates, even in adverse weather conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-honey-bee-dynamics">Honey bee dynamics</h2>



"Understanding how beekeeping strategies and environmental factors affect honey bees is crucial, especially under the increasing variability of weather," said Darcy Gray, the study's lead researcher.



Gray emphasized that this knowledge is vital not only for maintaining honey bee populations, which are critical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hornets-are-the-most-important-pollinators-for-some-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> of various North American crops, but also for gaining insights into the challenges faced by native bee species, which are similarly threatened by habitat loss and climate change.



Christina Grozinger, who contributed to the study, noted the complexity of habitat and weather factors affecting bees. "To truly understand these impacts, extensive data is needed."



Grozinger pointed out the enormous value of long-term data provided by Pennsylvania beekeepers through annual surveys, which include details about their management practices and the outcomes over the winter months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varied-treatments-yield-better-results">Varied treatments yield better results</h2>



As discussed, the research revealed that beekeepers who actively treated their honey bee colonies for Varroa mites reported significantly higher survival rates than those who did not.



More interestingly, those employing a mix of treatment types - whether chemical or organic - saw better results than those relying on a single method.



The study also addressed the effectiveness of soft chemicals like naturally derived organic compounds versus hard chemicals, which are synthetic and can leave long-lasting residues in colonies.



Surprisingly, both types of chemicals were found to be equally effective in increasing winter survival, challenging the notion that harder chemicals might induce resistance among Varroa mites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-winter-and-honey-bee-survival">Winter and honey bee survival</h2>



The relationship between seasonal weather conditions and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-causing-honey-bee-colony-collapse-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bee colony</a> survival was another focal point of the study.



While spring, fall, and winter precipitation correlated with increased bee survival, summer rain appeared to negatively affect colonies. 



"Prolonged rain during summer can diminish bees' foraging time, leading to reduced food storage for winter and lower brood production," explained Grozinger.



This dynamic highlights the critical role of weather on the flowering plants bees rely on for sustenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-integrating-pest-management-for-climate-resilience">Integrating pest management for climate resilience</h2>



This research is not just about improving bee survival over the winter but also serves as a foundation for future studies. 



Gray hopes that the insights gained will help beekeepers optimize their apiary management strategies and serve as a basis for additional research. 



"Our findings suggest that integrated pest management could buffer honey bee colonies from the severe impacts of weather, which is vital for adapting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-beekeeping-is-equally-productive-as-methods-using-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beekeeping</a> to climate change," concluded Gray.



The outcomes of this research provide a clear message to beekeepers: diversifying pest management strategies is essential for enhancing honey bee resilience, particularly as environmental conditions grow more unpredictable.



 Implementing multiple treatments for Varroa mites increases the chances of colony survival during winter. This approach addresses the complexity of challenges faced by bees, including disease transmission and adverse weather conditions. 



By adopting integrated pest management, beekeepers can improve the health and longevity of their colonies. This strategy is crucial not only for the survival of honey bees but also for maintaining the broader ecosystem that relies on their pollination services.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jinsectscience/article/24/3/15/7683872" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Insect Science</a>.



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Winter poses a challenge to the survival of honey bees

Winter poses a significant challenge to honey bee colonies in...

Amid the looming threats of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-calls-and-voices-of-frogs-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>, even species that seem ubiquitous - like the tiny tropical puddle frogs of Central Africa's rainforests - face significant risks.



Scientific studies have consistently shown that protecting genetic diversity is essential for the survival of species as they navigate environmental upheavals.



Through meticulous DNA analysis of puddle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-tiniest-fanged-frogs-lay-their-eggs-on-leaves-and-guard-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a>, researchers have discovered that regions with high environmental variability tend to support greater genetic diversity.



This genetic richness is crucial, as it might be the key to enabling these frogs to evolve and survive in changing climates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-keys-to-climate-adaptation">Genetic keys to climate adaptation</h2>



The research was led by Dr. Courtney Miller from the <a href="https://www.uno.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of New Orleans</a> and Dr. Geraud Tasse Taboue from the <a href="https://www.ubuea.cm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Buea</a>.



"Generally, the more genomic variation within a population, the more capable it is of adapting to environmental changes, such as those brought by future climate scenarios," explained Dr. Miller.



"Our goal was to pinpoint what drives genomic variation and predict how populations might cope with future climatic shifts," said Dr. Tasse Taboue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-evolutionary-adaptability">Understanding evolutionary adaptability</h2>



The reality of the climate crisis is that it could transform our planet swiftly and drastically. Species like the puddle frogs will need to either find new suitable habitats or adapt through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wood-frogs-achieved-significant-biological-evolution-25-years-salt-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> or behavioral changes. Genetic diversity enhances a species' ability to evolve successfully under such pressures.



The research was focused on the Gulf of Guinea and the Congo Basin - areas which are predicted to be severely impacted by climate changes and recognized as biodiversity hotspots.



Factors like geographical distances, physical barriers, environmental variability, and historical changes in landscape connectivity during the Pleistocene era all contribute to the genetic segregation and uniqueness of species populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-responses-to-environmental-changes">Genetic responses to environmental changes</h2>



The team's method involved sampling 191 frogs from various locations and habitats, extracting their DNA, and identifying different genetic variants. 



The experts analyzed how environmental factors such as temperature and rainfall variability relate to the frogs' habitats and how these might shift due to climate change.



This comprehensive approach helped the researchers understand both current and historical influences on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-with-higher-genetic-variation-are-much-more-adaptable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic variation</a>.



The results of the analysis indicated that genetic diversity in puddle frogs was not only a product of geographical separation but was also closely linked to environmental conditions, particularly seasonal precipitation patterns.



"Variation in precipitation is the primary environmental driver of genomic variation for this frog species," noted Dr. Miller.



"Regions like the Cameroonian highlands and the forest-savanna boundaries in south-central Cameroon, stretching across the equator to the interiors of Gabon, are crucial as they likely enable frogs to keep pace with future climate changes."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-of-puddle-frogs">Conservation of puddle frogs</h2>



However, certain areas - such as southwest Gabon - were identified where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eu-responsible-for-extinction-of-frog-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog populations</a> lack sufficient genetic variation, potentially limiting their ability to adapt to sudden environmental changes.



While the research has provided valuable insights into the genomic makeup of puddle frogs, it has its limitations.



"We weren't able to pinpoint variants under selection, which could have offered more insights into their adaptive potential," said Dr. Tasse Taboue.



"Nonetheless, conservation efforts might focus on preserving areas rich in genomic variation, assuming these areas harbor individuals more likely to endure given environmental changes."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-puddle-frogs-in-a-changing-climate">Puddle frogs in a changing climate</h2>



The study underscores the importance of maintaining genetic variation as a buffer against the unpredictable shifts of the climate crisis.



The insights gained from the research may help to guide targeted conservation efforts aimed at sustaining biodiversity in some of the planet's most vulnerable regions.



As we continue to witness the unfolding impacts of climate change, such research becomes ever more critical in shaping our strategies to protect the natural world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-puddle-frogs">More about puddle frogs</h2>



Puddle frogs, scientifically known as Occidozyga, are a genus of frogs commonly found in Southeast Asia.&nbsp;



They are named after their preference for living in puddles and other small, temporary bodies of water. These environments are ideal for puddle frogs due to their typically shallow depth, which helps in temperature regulation and provides protection from predators.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptations">Adaptations</h3>



Puddle frogs have unique adaptations to these habitats; for instance, they often have flattened bodies that enable them to stay submerged in shallow water without being easily spotted.



These frogs are small to medium in size and have a varied diet, primarily feeding on insects and other small aquatic or semi-aquatic creatures.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-nbsp">Reproduction&nbsp;</h3>



They are known for their explosive breeding habits, taking advantage of the sudden availability of temporary pools formed by heavy rains.&nbsp;



During breeding season, males call to attract females, and the eggs are laid in the water, where they develop rapidly to complete their lifecycle before the puddles dry up.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-role-nbsp">Ecological role&nbsp;</h3>



Puddle frogs play a crucial role in their ecosystems, not only as predators of insects but also as prey for a variety of larger animals. They are also indicators of environmental health, with their presence and population sizes helping gauge the condition of their habitats.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2024.1366248/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Conservation Science</a>.



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Puddle frogs have a secret weapon against climate change

Amid the looming threats of climate change, even species that...

Recent research has revealed a fascinating development in the Arctic: Pacific salmon, traditionally scarce in these icy waters, are venturing into the Canadian Arctic in greater numbers. 



This shift, linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-ocean-heating-signals-alarm-for-a-3c-warmer-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warmer ocean temperatures</a>, suggests that climate change is paving new pathways for these fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pacific-salmon-in-the-arctic">Pacific salmon in the Arctic</h2>



Salmon have not typically thronged the Arctic Ocean and its tributaries. However, in recent years, local fishermen have reported occasional increases in salmon catches.



This uptick in sightings and captures has been particularly notable among subsistence fishermen, hinting at significant ecological changes.



These changes suggest that Pacific salmon are not only adapting to - but also thriving in -environments previously considered too harsh for their survival, potentially altering the local marine ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-salmon-navigate-new-waters">How salmon navigate new waters</h2>



Researchers at <a href="https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/index-eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fisheries and Oceans Canada</a> and the <a href="https://www.uaf.edu/uaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alaska Fairbanks</a>, in collaboration with local communities in the western Canadian Arctic, have discovered that the surge in salmon numbers correlates with a series of warm, ice-free periods in the Arctic Ocean north of Alaska.



The study highlights a two-part mechanism facilitating this migration. Initially, warm late-spring conditions in the Chukchi Sea, northwest of Alaska, lure the salmon northward.



If these conditions extend into the summer in the Beaufort Sea, northeast of Alaska, the salmon journey continues into Canadian waters.



This correlation was confirmed by comparing data from the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA) with local salmon catch rates since the year 2000, underscoring a clear link between salmon abundance and favorable ocean conditions.



“You need both gates to be open, which is fascinating in itself. If they don’t align in terms of having open, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-rivers-undergoing-dramatic-change-thawing-permafrost-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice-free water</a>, salmon don’t turn that corner," noted Professor Curry Cunningham. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications">Broader implications</h2>



The Arctic Salmon Program, a collaborative effort with Indigenous communities, has tracked these unexpected salmon appearances for over two decades. 



Subsistence harvesters, targeting species native to Arctic waters, have documented salmon catches outside their typical range, providing valuable insights into the changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-geese-have-a-large-impact-on-arctic-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic ecosystem</a>.



Karen Dunmall, a research scientist, noted the broader implications of these findings. "It really helps to address some questions from community members about biodiversity change and subsistence and how they feed their families," she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-observations">Local observations</h2>



The research not only informs local communities but also contributes to a greater understanding of how species adapt to rapidly changing climates.



Frankie Dillon, an Indigenous fisherman, shared his surprise upon encountering his first salmon in 2010 in the northern Yukon. "I had to ask, ‘What kind of fish was that?’” Dillon recalled. 



Before this encounter, the only salmon he had seen were on television, highlighting the rarity of such sightings in the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northward-pacific-salmon-migration">Northward Pacific salmon migration </h2>



With climate models predicting that the conditions enabling this northward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-unpredictable-effects-on-salmon-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a> of salmon through the Chukchi and Beaufort seas will become more common by the 2040s, the study's findings are not just a local phenomenon but a sign of broader ecological shifts affecting the entire region.



These changes are not confined to Canada; salmon are also appearing off the coast of Alaska, indicating a region-wide impact.



Joe Langan, a postdoctoral fellow who co-led the research, emphasized this broader perspective: “It’s not as if these fish are all skipping Alaska and heading to Canada. Some of these salmon are ending up on Alaska’s North Slope too.”



As the Arctic waters continue to warm, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salmon-migration-routes-discovered-using-historical-data/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration of salmon</a> into these new territories not only reshapes local fishing practices but also provides a clear, swim-by-swim report of how global climate change is altering our world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pacific-salmon-nbsp">Pacific salmon&nbsp;</h2>



Pacific salmon are a group of fish known for their anadromous life cycle, meaning they are born in fresh water, migrate to the ocean for their adult life, and then return to fresh water to reproduce and die.&nbsp;



This fascinating life journey is marked by remarkable transformations in their body physiology and coloration to adapt to different environments.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-main-species">Main species</h3>



The five main species of Pacific salmon - Chinook, Coho, Sockeye, Pink, and Chum - are primarily found in the rivers and coastal waters of the northern Pacific Ocean, particularly around North America and northeastern Asia.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-role-nbsp">Ecological role&nbsp;</h3>



These fish play critical roles in their ecosystems. They serve as prey for a variety of wildlife, including bears, eagles, and orcas, and their decaying bodies provide important nutrients to aquatic systems and forest ecosystems when they die after spawning.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-and-economic-significance-nbsp">Cultural and economic significance&nbsp;</h3>



Pacific salmon are also culturally significant to many indigenous groups in the Pacific Northwest, who rely on them for food, trade, and as a central element of their spiritual and cultural practices.



Commercially, Pacific salmon are a valuable resource for fisheries, with their rich, oily meat being highly prized for its flavor and nutritional content.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-nbsp">Threats&nbsp;</h3>



However, they face several threats, such as habitat loss, pollution, climate change, and overfishing, which have led to significant declines in some populations, prompting efforts to manage and conserve these iconic fish.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.17353" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Warming oceans welcome salmon to the Arctic

Recent research has revealed a fascinating development in the Arctic:...

All domestic horses, from sleek racetrack champions to sturdy draft breeds, trace <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-horse-protection-day-respecting-the-needs-and-rights-of-horses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">their lineage</a> back to the western Russian steppes in the third millennium BCE.



Despite their common ancestry, the timeline and process through which horses were domesticated and integrated into human societies have long been subjects of academic debate. 



Recent breakthroughs in genetic research have shed light on these historical mysteries, revealing that the widespread use of domestic horses began around 4,200 years ago. 



This pivotal moment significantly enhanced communication and trade across Eurasia, fostering an era of unprecedented cultural exchanges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-genetic-footprint-of-domestic-horses">Tracing the genetic footprint of domestic horses</h2>



The research was led by Ludovic Orlando, director of the <a href="https://cagt.cnrs.fr" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centre of Anthropobiology and Genomics of Toulouse</a>. The study involved 133 researchers from 113 institutions worldwide, marking a significant milestone in the field of genetic archaeology.



By analyzing a vast array of horse archaeological remains across the Eurasian continent, the team employed radiocarbon dating alongside ancient DNA sequencing. 



This approach enabled them to construct a detailed genetic timeline that clarifies the evolutionary adaptations coinciding with the advent of equestrianism.



Pablo Librado, the study's first author from the <a href="https://www.ibe.upf-csic.es/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institut de Biologia Evolutiva</a> of Barcelona, reflected on the evolution of this research field.



"A decade ago, we only had access to a handful of ancient genomes. Today, we've analyzed several hundreds, allowing us to resolve longstanding debates about the role of horseback riding in massive human migrations from the steppes approximately 5,000 years ago," noted Librado.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-pillars-of-horse-domestication">Three pillars of horse domestication</h2>



The researchers focused on three key indicators of early horse husbandry. They first traced the expansion of domestic horse progenitors beyond their initial domestication zone.



Next, they mapped out horse demography throughout the third millennium BCE to pinpoint the earliest signs of systematic breeding and large-scale production. 



Lastly, they identified significant shifts in horse reproductive lifespans, suggesting early breeders' deliberate efforts to manipulate animal reproduction.



These combined findings align around 4,200 years ago, suggesting that it was only then that domestic horses were bred in numbers large enough to meet the growing demand across the continent. 



This era marks the true beginning of horse-based mobility, which remained the fastest mode of terrestrial transportation until the 20th century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-insights-and-historical-impacts">Genetic insights and historical impacts</h2>



The study also addressed the genetic changes in Europeans during the first half of the third millennium BCE, a period marked by significant human migrations from the steppes, likely by proto-Indo-European language speakers. 



The researchers found that changes in the domestic horse genetic map occurred much later, allowing them to dismiss horseback riding as a primary driver of these human migrations, despite the common linguistic roots related to horses.



Orlando highlighted the breakthrough in understanding horse breeding scales. "For years, I wondered how such a substantial number of horses could suddenly be bred from a relatively small area to meet global demands by the second millennium BCE. We discovered that breeders significantly reduced the time between generations, essentially doubling their production rate," he explained.



The team's innovative method for measuring generational times offers a new perspective in archaeozoology. It calculates the number of mutations and DNA crossovers in genomes to establish a direct timeline of generational changes.



This methodology not only sheds light on horse breeding but also provides insights into the generational intervals of other domestic species and even our hunter-gatherer ancestors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-domestic-horse-history">Complexity of domestic horse history</h2>



Further complicating the history of horse domestication are findings from Botai, a Central Asian site known for its evidence of horse milking, harnessing, and corralling. 



The study revealed unusually short generational intervals in a distinct horse lineage at Botai, supporting theories that settled human groups there domesticated horses for consistent access to resources like meat and milk. 



Unlike their counterparts, these Botai horses did not contribute to the genetic pool that expanded across Eurasia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-milestones-in-horse-domestication">Milestones in horse domestication</h2>



The research concludes that there were likely two distinct phases of horse domestication. The initial phase, around 5,500 years ago, aimed to stabilize declining horse <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/42000-horse-liquid-blood-urine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> for sustenance in Central Asia. 



The more transformative second phase, around 4,200 years ago, introduced fast mobility on a scale that had never been seen before, profoundly influencing the course of human history.



This study not only illuminates the complex genetic history of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-wild-species-find-forbidden-love-domestic-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domestic</a> horses but also enhances our understanding of human-animal relationships and their impact on societal developments across millennia.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07597-5">Nature</a>.



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Discovery reveals when and where horses were first tamed for domestic use

All domestic horses, from sleek racetrack champions to sturdy draft...

Important scientific discoveries often come from the most unassuming sources. Such is the case with a modest, 6-centimeter-wide fossil of bone and teeth discovered on a Texas beach that belonged to a prehistoric large cat. 



Initially, this fossil might not catch the eye, looking more like a nondescript, lumpy rock than a window into the past. However, its ordinary appearance belies its significant contribution to our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-highlight-dinosaur-diversity-in-prehistoric-patagonia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-s-hidden-secrets">Fossil's hidden secrets</h2>



John Moretti, a doctoral student leading the research at The University of Texas at Austin's <a href="https://www.jsg.utexas.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jackson School of Geosciences</a>, found the fossil to be more intriguing upon closer inspection. He compared it to a geode - unremarkable on the outside but holding valuable secrets within.



An X-ray conducted at the university's Computed Tomography Lab revealed an unerupted hidden canine tooth nestled within the jawbone, a critical clue to identifying the fossil's origins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valuable-clues-in-a-saber-tooth">Valuable clues in a saber tooth</h2>



This particular fossil was determined to be from a Homotherium, a genus of large cats that roamed the Earth for millions of years.



The presence of the unerupted tooth, indicative of a juvenile not yet fully matured, was crucial. This stage of development meant the tooth was protected from damage, unlike fully erupted teeth which could have been broken off and lost.



"Had that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smilodon-fatalis-young-saber-toothed-cats-had-double-fangs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">saber tooth</a> been fully erupted and in its adult form, it would have just snapped right off," Moretti explained. "It wouldn’t have been there, and we wouldn’t have had it to use as evidence."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-the-cat-fossil">Insights from the cat fossil</h2>



Homotherium was not only a large cat but also robust, resembling a jaguar in size, with an elongated face and a distinctive sloping back that ended in a bobtail. These cats had serrated canine teeth covered by large gum flaps, similar to those seen in domestic dogs today.



The discovery of this particular large cat fossil on the now-submerged continental shelf connecting Texas and Florida provides new insights into the region's past ecology.



This area, which is believed to have been a Neotropical corridor during the Late Pleistocene, likely facilitated the movement of various animals including capybaras and giant armadillos from Mexico through Texas to Florida.



The presence of big carnivores like Homotherium would have played a significant role in controlling prey populations and shaping the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-biodiversity-crisis-more-than-a-third-of-species-are-threatened/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> of the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-past-and-present">Connecting past and present</h2>



The cat fossil's journey from discovery to scientific revelation spans over six decades. Initially found by Russell Long, a professor at <a href="https://www.lamar.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lamar University</a>, it was later donated by U.S. Representative Brian Babin, a former student of Long's and a trained dentist.



Babin's unique background in paleontology and dentistry enabled him to recognize the true nature of the fossil.



"Without question, my professional knowledge and what I’ve learned as a dentist helped me in that regard," Babin noted, highlighting the interdisciplinary contributions that often aid in such discoveries.



The research is part of a broader study on McFaddin Beach fossils initiated in 2018, involving multiple co-authors and institutions. This collaborative effort underscores the collective endeavor of science to piece together the complex puzzle of our planet's ancient history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lost-group-of-large-cats">Lost group of large cats</h2>



Homotherium, commonly called the "scimitar-toothed cat," is an extinct genus of large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-species-of-sabertooth-cat-discovered-in-south-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">saber-toothed cats</a> that lived during the Pleistocene epoch. These formidable predators roamed across multiple continents, including North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa, for over 5 million years.



Unlike their famous relatives, the Smilodon (saber-toothed tiger), Homotherium had shorter, serrated canine teeth and a more robust, muscular build. Their teeth were adapted for slicing through flesh, indicating they were highly efficient predators.



The large cat's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/declawing-large-cats-is-a-cruel-practice-with-shocking-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">physical features</a> included an elongated face, a sloping back, and elongated limbs, suggesting they were built for endurance running.



These adaptations likely made the cats successful pack hunters, capable of chasing down large prey such as mammoths, rhinoceroses, and other large herbivores. Their presence in diverse environments, from open plains to coastal regions, demonstrates their adaptability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extinction-of-homotherium">Extinction of Homotherium </h2>



The extinction of Homotherium around 10,000 years ago coincides with significant climate changes, human expansion, and the extinction of many large prey species. 



These factors likely contributed to their decline. Despite their extinction, the large cat's fossils continue to provide valuable insights into prehistoric ecosystems and predator-prey dynamics.



As more findings like this come to light, they enrich our understanding of the natural world and its former inhabitants. Each piece of bone or tooth, no matter how small or unappealing, could be the key to unlocking secrets of the Earth's vast, untold past.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ar.25461" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Anatomical Record</a>.



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"Ugly" fossil find reveals secrets of large prehistoric cats

Important scientific discoveries often come from the most unassuming sources....

Scientists have recently developed a remarkable equation that accurately describes the flapping frequencies of various flying and diving creatures, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-have-adapted-to-human-activities-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, insects, bats, and whales.



This discovery spans species with vastly different sizes, wing shapes, and evolutionary backgrounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-universal-equation-of-flapping-frequencies">Universal equation of flapping frequencies</h2>



Flying is a complex feat of nature that has evolved independently across multiple animal groups. To optimize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-flight-is-powered-by-an-extraordinary-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flight</a>, the frequency of wing flaps is ideally aligned with the wing’s natural resonance frequency.



Historically, creating a universal mathematical model for such a diverse range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-silent-flight-of-owls-is-one-of-natures-great-mysteries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flying abilities</a> has been challenging.



In a new study, Jens Højgaard Jensen and his team at <a href="https://ruc.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roskilde University</a> in Denmark used dimensional analysis to craft an equation that captures the essence of flapping flight.



This formula not only accounts for the flapping frequencies of birds, insects, and bats but also includes the fin movements of diving animals like penguins and whales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-validating-the-universal-flapping-equation">Validating the universal flapping equation</h2>



The researchers validated their model by comparing its predictions with existing data on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazing-fact-insect-wings-flap-faster-than-their-brain-speed-can-command/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wingbeat</a> frequencies of a variety of species, from bees and dragonflies to bats and hummingbirds.



Their findings reveal a consistent proportionality between the wing or fin-beat frequency and the square root of the animal's body mass divided by its wing area.



This universal equation of flapping frequencies holds true even when extending the research to fin strokes of diving creatures, including penguins and several whale species like the humpback and northern bottlenose.



The model's predictions closely align with observed data across these diverse forms of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-a-universal-flapping-equation">Implications of a universal flapping equation </h2>



The study reveals a surprisingly consistent relationship between body mass, wing area, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-makes-the-gentoo-penguin-the-worlds-fastest-swimming-bird/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flapping</a> frequency, which persists despite significant physical differences among species.



This constancy is remarkable, especially considering the varied evolutionary histories and body structures of these animals.



Moreover, the researchers estimated that Quetzalcoatlus northropi, an extinct pterosaur and the largest known flying animal, would have flapped its massive 10 meter-square wings at a frequency of about 0.7 hertz. 



This insight into extinct species' movements is a testament to the robustness of the equation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-future-research">Challenges and future research</h2>



Despite these successes, the study faced limitations, particularly in gathering comprehensive data for swimming animals. The team often had to integrate data from multiple sources or estimate certain parameters.



Furthermore, the flapping equation may not apply to extremely small creatures, as the physics of fluid dynamics changes at very small scales. This finding has potential implications for the development of flying nanobots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-simple-yet-effective-model">A simple yet effective model</h2>



The simplicity and effectiveness of this universal equation of flapping frequencies have surprised even the physicists behind the study.



"Differing almost a factor of 10,000 in wing/fin-beat frequency, data for 414 animals from the blue whale to mosquitoes fall on the same line," the authors noted. 



Their findings underscore the predictive power of their model across an impressively broad range of species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-principles-of-flapping-frequencies">Exploring the principles of flapping frequencies</h2>



This research not only deepens our understanding of the equations of physical dynamics governing the flapping frequencies in both flight and diving but also highlights the interconnectedness of life forms on Earth.



By revealing consistent patterns across such diverse species, the study invites us to look at wildlife from a new perspective, emphasizing the universal principles that govern natural movement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-body-mass-and-wing-area">Significance of body mass and wing area</h2>



In understanding how animals <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-flying-insects-fight-the-wind-to-reach-food-sources/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fly</a> or swim, body mass and wing area play crucial roles in determining the efficiency and style of movement. These factors influence the energy expenditure and aerodynamic properties of the animal. 



Larger animals typically have more muscle mass, which enables them to generate greater thrust. However, they also need larger wings or fins to support their weight during flight or swimming.



Wing area is vital because it affects the lift generated during flight. A larger wing area allows for greater lift, which is especially important for heavier animals. Conversely, smaller animals with less body mass can afford smaller wings, as their weight requires less lift to remain airborne.



The frequency of wing flaps or fin strokes also ties into these factors. Larger animals, like whales and large birds, tend to have slower, more powerful strokes. In contrast, smaller creatures like insects and small birds flap their wings much more rapidly. This difference in frequency helps maintain the necessary balance of lift and thrust needed for their respective sizes and weights.



In addition to body mass and wing area, other factors such as wing shape, muscle power, and flight style (gliding vs. flapping) also significantly affect how animals move through air or water. For instance, birds with long, narrow wings are optimized for gliding, whereas those with shorter, broader wings excel in flapping flight.



Understanding these relationships helps in various fields, from designing efficient aircraft to developing bio-inspired robotic systems. Researchers continue to explore these dynamics to uncover more about the fascinating mechanics of animal locomotion.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0303834" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS ONE</a>.



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Universal equation predicts the flapping frequency of birds, insects, and even whales

Scientists have recently developed a remarkable equation that accurately describes...

A recent breakthrough in paleontology has shed light on the early evolution of sponges, one of the Earth's oldest known animal groups. Researchers have unearthed a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/470-million-year-old-animal-fossils-discovered-in-frances-cabrieres-biota/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> from the late Ediacaran period, around 550 million years ago, that offers new insights into this ancient lineage.



This finding from the Shibantan Biota in Hubei Province reveals a crown-group sponge, Helicolocellus, which showcases features that are both unique and instructive about the origins of marine life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-missing-sponge-fossils">Mystery of missing sponge fossils</h2>



Traditionally, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-sponges-discovered-in-unexplored-deep-sea-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sponges</a> are viewed as the most basal and primitive group within the metazoans.



However, despite molecular estimates that suggest sponges appeared around 700 million years ago, concrete fossil evidence from before the Cambrian period (about 539 million years ago) was conspicuously absent.



This 160-million-year gap, often referred to as the "lost years," posed a significant mystery in the evolutionary timeline of sponges.



Two main hypotheses have tried to explain this absence. The first suggests that early sponges had mineralized spicules made of siliceous or calcareous materials, which should have left a fossil record. The lack of such fossils was attributed to potential issues with preservation due to the chemical composition of ancient porewaters.



The second hypothesis posits that the earliest sponges were non-biomineralizing, meaning they lacked hard, mineralized components, making their preservation in the fossil record more challenging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-helicolocellus">Discovery of Helicolocellus</h2>



The discovery of Helicolocellus supports the latter hypothesis. This ancient sponge shows a structure strikingly similar to modern glass sponges, featuring a radially symmetric, conical body and a complex internal architecture including a possible central cavity and inferred excurrent canals.



Its surface is composed of a unique grid pattern, subdivided into progressively smaller boxes, reminiscent of structures seen in some Paleozoic sponges. 



Unlike its later relatives, however, Helicolocellus's grids are made of organic matter, not biomineralized spicules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-analysis-and-implications">Scientific analysis and implications</h2>



To solidify their findings, the research team conducted a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis using a morphological data matrix that included both extinct and extant animals. 



The results confirm that Helicolocellus belongs to the crown group of sponges, closely related to hexactinellids, or glass sponges. 



This suggests that the evolutionary ancestors of modern sponges might have first constructed their skeletal structures from organic materials before evolving to incorporate siliceous biominerals during the Cambrian period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-ediacaran-and-cambrian-life">Connecting Ediacaran and Cambrian life</h2>



This discovery not only fills a crucial gap in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiktaalik-fossil-discovery-sheds-light-on-how-fish-walked-onto-land/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> record but also links the enigmatic Ediacara Biota with Cambrian animals, suggesting a continuity between these two major evolutionary stages.



One reviewer aptly noted that Helicolocellus could be considered the "Rosetta Stone" of animal evolution, providing key insights into how modern marine ecosystems began to take shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-fossil-sponges">Significance of fossil sponges</h2>



The discovery of Helicolocellus is a significant milestone in understanding the early evolution of sponges and, more broadly, the origins of animal life. 



It challenges the conventional reliance on biomineralization for fossil preservation and underscores the diversity and complexity of early metazoan life. 



As research continues, each fossil discovery like Helicolocellus adds a piece to the puzzle of our planet's biological heritage, offering a clearer picture of the intricate tapestry of life that has spanned millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications">Broader implications</h2>



The discovery influences several broader scientific discussions. For instance, it provides a fresh perspective on the debate about early animal evolution, particularly the development of skeletal structures in ancient marine organisms. 



Helicolocellus's organic grid pattern challenges existing notions about the timeline of biomineralization in sponges and other early animals.



Moreover, this find could spark interest in re-examining other fossil records from the Ediacaran period, potentially revealing more about the diversity and complexity of pre-Cambrian life. 



It might also encourage exploration in less-studied fossil sites worldwide, potentially uncovering more early sponge fossils and offering new insights into early marine ecosystems.



Helicolocellus's discovery could inspire advancements in biomimetic materials. The unique structural features observed in this ancient sponge might lead to innovations in material science, particularly in developing lightweight and durable materials inspired by nature's earliest designs.



Ultimately, the discovery of Helicolocellus not only fills a significant gap in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ugly-fossil-unveils-secrets-of-extinct-cats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> record but also opens new avenues for scientific exploration and innovation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07520-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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550-million-year-old fossil sponge discovered in China

A recent breakthrough in paleontology has shed light on the...

The southern cassowary, with its velociraptor-like legs and neon blue neck, stands as a modern-day dinosaur in the rainforests of northeast Australia. Fiercely territorial, these birds hiss and rumble when threatened. 



They have an imposing figure, standing five feet tall and weighing up to 165 pounds. "It's a modern-day dinosaur," said Peter Rowles, president of a community group dedicated to protecting these endangered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/renewable-energy-is-the-latest-threat-to-bird-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keystone-species-southern-cassowary">Keystone species: Southern cassowary</h2>



Cassowaries play a vital role in maintaining biodiversity in the rainforests of northeast Australia. One of their most important functions is seed dispersal. These birds consume a variety of fruits, some of which have seeds too large to be dispersed by other animals. 



After eating the fruits, cassowaries travel long distances, excreting the seeds in different locations. This process helps maintain plant diversity and forest structure, as the seeds have a better chance of germinating and growing into new plants far from the parent tree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collapse-of-ecological-networks">Collapse of ecological networks </h2>



If cassowaries go extinct, the rainforests will suffer significantly. Without these natural gardeners, many plant species that rely on cassowaries for seed dispersal would struggle to reproduce. 



This decline in plant diversity would impact other animals that depend on these plants for food and shelter. Over time, the entire ecosystem could degrade, leading to a loss of biodiversity and the collapse of ecological networks.



The Australian government lists the southern cassowary as <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/the-12-endangered-birds-most-at-risk-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered</a>, with an estimated 4,500 remaining in the wild. These flightless birds are native to Australia, New Guinea, and some Pacific islands. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-a-hostile-environment">Threats: A hostile environment</h2>



Studies show that their population has declined due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat loss</a>, car strikes, dog attacks, and climate change. Hence, conservation efforts are crucial to prevent their extinction and protect the delicate balance of their rainforest habitat.



"Cassowaries are not aggressive when they're treated well," said Rowles, noting that few recorded deaths have been caused by the species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-southern-cassowary-attacks">Southern cassowary attacks</h2>



There are a few notable incidents related to cassowary attacks. In 1926, a young Australian boy tragically lost his life following an encounter with a cassowary. The boy had chased the bird, prompting a defensive response. The cassowary, feeling threatened, used its powerful legs and razor-sharp talons to strike back.



One of the talons severed the boy's jugular vein, leading to his death. This incident serves as a reminder of the potential danger posed by these large, territorial birds when they feel cornered or threatened.



Another notable incident occurred in 2019 in Florida, involving a man who kept a cassowary as a pet. The man fell on his property, and the cassowary attacked him. 



The bird’s sharp talons inflicted fatal injuries, leading to the man's death. This tragic event highlights the risks of keeping wild and potentially dangerous animals in domestic settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-dinosaur-bird">Protecting the dinosaur bird</h2>



Efforts to save cassowaries involve various strategies. Rowles' group runs a cassowary hospital for injured <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-population-north-america-dramatic-decline-lost-3-billion-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, redesigns roads to protect native habitats, and installs signs urging drivers to slow down. 



"We thought if we could save cassowaries, we also could save enough habitat to keep a lot of other species alive," said Rowles.



The World Wide Fund for Nature (<a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WWF</a>) warns that Australia's extinction rate will likely increase. "There is so much that has to be done and resources are not available to have a significant impact," said Darren Grover, WWF Australia's acting chief conservation officer.



"We're looking at around 2,000 species on the Australian government's threatened species list and more and more species are added to that list yearly."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-national-recovery-plan">National recovery plan</h2>



The Australian government has a national recovery plan to save the iconic cassowary bird. This plan involves collaboration with Indigenous and conservation groups. Much of the country's conservation efforts focus on protecting keystone species, a strategy developed by zoologists in the 1960s. 



"This is the best approach when resources are limited, as it provides flow-on effects to other animals in that habitat," said Grover.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-intricate-web-of-life">The intricate web of life</h2>



Cassowaries are vital to their ecosystem, yet they are naturally cranky and powerful. "Cassowaries are amazing species and whenever you get to see them in the wild is fantastic," said Grover. "But be careful because they are naturally cranky birds, they are big and powerful and we need to give them some space."



The fight to save the southern cassowary reflects broader challenges in conservation. With limited resources and growing threats, efforts must intensify to protect these modern-day dinosaurs. 



As Rowles and Grover highlight, saving cassowaries means preserving the intricate web of life in Australia's rainforests. The extinction of this keystone species would signify a profound loss, not just for the ecosystem but for the planet's biodiversity.



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Dinosaur bird may soon go extinct

The southern cassowary, with its velociraptor-like legs and neon blue...

Slugs and snails, in bustling urban environments, typically shy away from the hustle and bustle of city life. 



However, a recent study suggests these mollusks are unique exceptions, showing a surprising preference for the urban landscapes of Los Angeles. 



This intriguing behavior provides valuable insights into urban biodiversity and offers a roadmap for city planning and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slugs-and-snails-among-city-s-diverse-inhabitants">Slugs and snails among city's diverse inhabitants</h2>



The study, conducted by researchers including Joseph Curti from the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Los Angeles</a>, utilized iNaturalist - a comprehensive database of species observations by both professional scientists and community scientists.



By analyzing the data, the researchers calculated an "urban tolerance score" for 512 terrestrial animal species native to Southern California.



These species were grouped into various categories such as mammals, reptiles, amphibians, birds, butterflies, moths, spiders, bees, wasps, and notably, slugs and snails.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preference-for-developed-parts-of-the-city">Preference for developed parts of the city</h2>



The results revealed a clear trend: While the majority of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-species-in-the-eastern-mediterranean-are-vanishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">native species</a> prefer less urbanized areas, slugs and snails are frequently found in more developed parts of the city. 



By contrast, butterflies and moths displayed the lowest tolerance for urban settings. Other groups, like mammals and reptiles, also showed a significant aversion to urban areas. 



Species like lady beetles, spiders, and birds were somewhat more adaptable, though they still generally favored less urbanized environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhancing-urban-biodiversity">Enhancing urban biodiversity</h2>



This research is pivotal for city planners aiming to enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-greening-projects-can-dramatically-boost-urban-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban biodiversity</a>. For instance, the observed patterns of butterfly distribution can guide targeted conservation initiatives, such as efforts to protect the endangered Palos Verdes blue butterfly. 



Furthermore, the study establishes a baseline for evaluating the effectiveness of local biodiversity programs.



The use of crowd-sourced data, while not without its limitations - such as potential biases in species detection - proves to be a powerful tool in understanding and managing urban ecological communities. The data’s richness and accessibility make it an excellent resource for ongoing environmental efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-urban-impact-on-native-species">Understanding urban impact on native species</h2>



In partnership with the city of Los Angeles, the researchers explored the distribution of native species, including slugs and snails, throughout the city. The team also investigated their relationship with urban intensity.



"We sought to understand how native species were distributed across the city and to describe their association with urban intensity," noted the study authors.



They found that, on average, native species are negatively affected by urban intensity, but areas with higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urbanization-is-a-threat-to-78-of-the-worlds-bird-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urbanization</a> levels tended to harbor more urban-tolerant species.



The methodology developed for this study is set to be reevaluated regularly. This will help track and potentially enhance efforts to sustain and increase native species populations within urban settings, aligning ecological health with urban development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-landscape-of-los-angeles">The landscape of Los Angeles </h2>



Slugs and snails in Los Angeles thrive in an environment that offers a mix of urban greenery, moisture, and shelter. The city's diverse landscape provides these mollusks with ideal living conditions, combining both natural and human-made elements.



Los Angeles is known for its sprawling urban areas interspersed with parks, gardens, and green spaces. These green pockets within the city offer a variety of plants, which provide food and moisture essential for slugs and snails. 



Residential gardens, especially those with lush vegetation and mulched soil, create perfect microhabitats for these creatures. They find shelter under leaves, rocks, and garden debris, which protect them from predators and harsh weather conditions.



Moreover, the city's irrigation systems and regular watering of lawns and gardens create moist environments that slugs and snails favor. 



Moisture is crucial for their survival as it helps them move and prevents their bodies from drying out. Urban structures such as walls, fences, and buildings also offer additional protection and shaded areas, making the urban landscape even more appealing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slugs-and-snails-in-the-city">Slugs and snails in the city</h2>



The unexpected preference of slugs and snails for urban areas highlights the complex nature of city ecosystems and the varying impacts of urbanization on different species.



By leveraging community-contributed data and rigorous scientific analysis, researchers and city planners can better understand these dynamics and work towards more biodiverse and resilient urban environments.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0295476" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS ONE</a>.



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Slugs and snails prefer Los Angeles city life over rural areas

Slugs and snails, in bustling urban environments, typically shy away...

Pteranodon,Eating,Captured,Fish.3d,Illustration,3d,Rendering

Dinosaurs might get all the press, but let's not forget their high-flying cousins, the pterosaurs. These weren't birds, but rather reptiles that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-jurassic-pterosaur-found-on-the-isle-of-skye/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ruled the skies</a> long before feathered friends took flight. Now, the discovery of a new pterosaur species, named Abfab, is rewriting what we thought we knew about these ancient aviators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digging-up-abfab-the-pterosaur">Digging up Abfab the pterosaur</h2>



In an unassuming gravel pit near Abingdon-on-Thames,&nbsp;an unexpected discovery unfolded.&nbsp;Geologist Dr.&nbsp;James Etienne, initially searching for fossilized remains of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiktaalik-fossil-discovery-sheds-light-on-how-fish-walked-onto-land/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine creatures</a>,&nbsp;unearthed a remarkable specimen:&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Low-Res_Bone.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a large bone fragment</a> belonging to a pterosaur,&nbsp;an ancient flying reptile.&nbsp;



This was no ordinary pterosaur. It's estimated wingspan exceeded three meters, a measurement equivalent to approximately ten feet. 



To grasp the enormity of this creature, imagine its outstretched wings stretching as wide as a compact car, dominating the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-pterosaur-bones-found-in-australia-date-back-107-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric skies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jurassic-heavyweight-champion">Jurassic heavyweight champion</h2>



"When the bone was discovered, it was certainly notable for its size," says Professor David Martill from the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Portsmouth</a>, one of the lead researchers on the project.



 After careful analysis, they concluded that this winged wonder belonged to a group of pterosaurs called ctenochasmatoids, known for their slender wings, long jaws, and bristle-like teeth.



What makes this discovery so remarkable? Well, pterosaurs from the Jurassic Period (think 200 to 145 million years ago) were typically much smaller, with wingspans averaging between 1.5 and 2 meters. 



This new specimen, nicknamed "Abfab" by the researchers, <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/jurassic-pterosaur-wingspans_illustration_UPortsmouth_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blows those figures out of the water</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-abfab-game-changer-for-pterosaur-evolution">Abfab: Game-changer for pterosaur evolution</h2>



Abfab's impressive size challenges the prevailing idea that pterosaurs only reached their gargantuan proportions in the later <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-shed-new-light-on-europes-enigmatic-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous Period</a>. 



"This specimen is now one of the largest known pterosaurs from the Jurassic period worldwide, surpassed only by a specimen in Switzerland with an estimated wingspan of up to five meters," Professor Martill notes.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/pterodactylus-kochi_credit-dino-frey_1s.jpg" alt="Pterodactylus kochi. Artwork by Dino Frey" class="wp-image-1935983"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Pterodactylus kochi. Artwork by Dino Frey</figcaption></figure>



This discovery is a clue that the evolution of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-extinct-species-of-flying-reptile-nicknamed-elvis-is-officially-named-petrodactyle-wellnhoferi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flying reptiles</a> might have been more complex and diverse than previously thought.



“Abfab, our nickname for the Abingdon pterosaur, shows that pterodactyloids, advanced pterosaurs that completely dominated the Cretaceous, achieved spectacularly large sizes almost immediately after they first appeared in the Middle Jurassic right about the time the dinosaurian ancestors of birds were taking to the air,” explains Dr. Dave Unwin from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-did-abfab-eat-with-those-wings">What did Abfab eat with those wings?</h2>



Although a complete skeletal reconstruction of the pterosaur is not available,&nbsp;scientists can infer certain aspects of its behavior and diet based on its close relatives.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-had-good-parenting-skills-but-only-the-larger-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ctenochas</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-had-good-parenting-skills-but-only-the-larger-species/">matoids</a>, the group to which Abfab belongs, are thought to have employed their elongated jaws and bristle-like teeth to filter food from the water, much like modern-day flamingos. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/pterodactylus-kochi_credit-Hamzah-Imran_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/pterodactylus-kochi_credit-Hamzah-Imran_1s.jpg" alt="Pterodactylus kochi. Artwork by Hamzah Imran" class="wp-image-1935985"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Pterodactylus kochi. Artwork by Hamzah Imran</figcaption></figure>



This suggests that Abfab likely soared above ancient Jurassic lagoons,&nbsp;skillfully skimming the water's surface to capture small aquatic organisms for sustenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-treasure-trove">Fossil treasure trove</h2>



The Oxfordshire gravel pit where Abfab was discovered proved to be a rich source of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-had-good-parenting-skills-but-only-the-larger-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paleontological finds</a>. 



In addition to the pterosaur, the site yielded a diverse array of Jurassic marine fossils, showcasing the abundance of prehistoric life that once thrived in the region. 



Among the notable discoveries were the remains of ichthyosaurs, dolphin-like marine reptiles, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plesiosaur-fossils-are-the-first-evidence-of-jurassic-vertebrates-in-texas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plesiosaurs</a>, large marine reptiles with long necks. 



The site also yielded numerous ammonites, extinct cephalopods with coiled shells, as well as fossils of ancient sharks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-still-much-to-learn-about-prehistoric-creatures">Still much to learn about prehistoric creatures</h2>



This remarkable collection of fossils indicates that the area served as a thriving ecosystem for a wide variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-the-first-ancestors-of-scorpions-and-spiders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prehistoric creatures</a>,&nbsp;inhabiting both the skies and the waters.



This unexpected discovery of a giant pterosaur reminds us that the fossil record still holds many secrets. What other surprises are waiting to be unearthed? 



One thing's for sure: Abfab has earned its place in the pterosaur hall of fame, and it's given scientists a whole new perspective on the evolution of these magnificent creatures.



So, the next time you think of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koleken-inakayali-dinosaur-arms-smaller-than-t-rex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>, spare a thought for the pterosaurs. They were the aerial aces of their time, and Abfab proves they were capable of reaching truly impressive sizes much earlier than we thought.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016787824000191?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Geologists Association</a>.



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New Pterosaur species named 'Abfab' had wings as wide as a car

Dinosaurs might get all the press, but let's not forget...

A recent study has revealed that 62% of marine protected areas (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-fall-short-on-2030-biodiversity-targets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPAs</a>) aimed at protecting migratory fish, especially rare species, fail to cover their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-are-quickly-losing-ability-to-support-fish-due-to-plankton-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">essential habitats</a>.



The research, conducted by a team from the <a href="https://www.ofb.gouv.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">French Biodiversity Agency</a>, <a href="https://www.institut-agro.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institut Agro</a>, and <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">INRAE</a>, highlights a significant gap in conservation efforts and underscores the need for better alignment between MPAs and the actual habitats of these fish.



The mismatch poses a significant challenge for conservation efforts, especially for threatened species such as shads and the critically endangered European eel, as listed by the IUCN.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-marine-protected-areas">What are marine protected areas?</h2>



MPAs are specific regions in oceans, seas, and large lakes where human activities are regulated to protect natural and cultural resources. These areas are established to conserve marine biodiversity, safeguard endangered species, and preserve vital ecosystems. 



MPAs vary in their level of protection, from fully protected reserves where all extractive activities like fishing and mining are prohibited, to partially protected areas where certain activities are allowed under strict management.



The primary goal of MPAs is to create safe havens for marine life, allowing ecosystems to thrive without the pressures of human interference. 



This helps maintain ecological balance, supports sustainable fisheries, and ensures the resilience of marine environments against threats such as climate change, pollution, and overfishing. 



By protecting critical habitats, breeding grounds, and nursery areas, MPAs contribute to the overall health and sustainability of the world's oceans, benefiting both marine life and human communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-protecting-diadromous-fish">Challenge of protecting diadromous fish</h2>



Diadromous fish,<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-catastrophic-decline-in-migratory-freshwater-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> migratory fish</a> that transition between fresh and marine waters, face a unique set of challenges.



These species are subject to various threats, including agricultural runoff, habitat destruction, and climate change, which affect them throughout their complex life cycles. 



Despite these pressures, the study shows that only 55% of the core habitats for these migratory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-catastrophic-decline-in-migratory-freshwater-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> fall within MPAs, and of those, only half have specific conservation measures in place.



For individual species, the situation is even more dire. The endangered Mediterranean twaite shad, for example, has less than 30% of its core habitat protected by MPAs. 



For the European eel and European smelt, around 70% of their habitats are covered, but protection measures are scarce. Only 9% of MPAs have specific protections for the European eel, and none are in place for the European smelt.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-model-for-protecting-migratory-fish">New model for protecting migratory fish</h2>



The research team, based in France and collaborating across multiple institutions, has developed a new modeling approach to predict the core and unsuitable habitats for these migratory fish. 



This "Combined Model for Accurate Prediction" aims to refine how conservation areas are designated by integrating more accurate data on species distribution and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/">habitat</a> needs.



Dr. Sophie Elliott, the study's lead author, highlighted the urgency of the situation, noting the sharp decline in diadromous fish populations reported by the Living Planet Index. "Given these declines, it's surprising that more isn't being done to protect these species," she stated.



Dr. Anthony Acou, a co-author of the study, emphasized the challenges posed by the lack of data on rare species, which often leads to spatial protective measures being implemented with little understanding of their actual distribution and habitat needs. He refers to this dilemma as "the rare species paradox."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhanced-protection-of-fish-habitats">Enhanced protection of fish habitats</h2>



The study's findings underscore the need for targeted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-conservation-does-not-have-to-mean-neglecting-people/">conservation</a> measures that are precisely aligned with the habitats of at-risk species.



"We hope that our 'Combined Model for Accurate Prediction' methodological framework can help improve accurate rare species distribution modelling for reliable biodiversity assessments, meaning conservation measures can be targeted in specific areas that protect rare and poorly detected species while also minimising conservation impacts on human activity," said study co-author Dr. Laurent Beaulaton.



As the researchers look to expand their modeling approach to larger areas in the Northeast Atlantic, they emphasize the need for additional data to better characterize functional habitats such as migratory corridors, nursery areas, and refuges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-to-action-for-migratory-fish-habitats">A call to action for migratory fish habitats</h2>



The study serves as a call to action for policymakers, conservationists, and researchers to reevaluate and enhance the effectiveness of marine protected areas.



By aligning conservation efforts more closely with the actual needs and habitats of rare and migratory fish species, there is hope for reversing the troubling declines in these important populations.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1365-2664.14664" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.



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Marine protected areas lack critical fish habitats

A recent study has revealed that 62% of marine protected...

Approximately two million species inhabit the world's oceans, but scientists have only described about 10% of them. With rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-on-track-for-a-catastrophic-extinction-event/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a> rates and global biodiversity threats, many species could vanish before being identified or their benefits understood.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-national-ocean-biodiversity-strategy-nbsp">National Ocean Biodiversity Strategy&nbsp;</h2>



The National Ocean Biodiversity Strategy, led by the <a href="https://www.si.edu/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian</a> and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has recently called for a more unified approach to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-fall-short-on-2030-biodiversity-targets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean conservation</a>. This strategy aims to enhance the ability of scientists to gather and share knowledge and use it for more effective protections.



“We are confronting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-help-predict-ocean-biodiversity-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity loss</a> and its implications for human well-being, alongside the challenges posed by climate change and social inequity,” said Ellen Stofan, Under Secretary for Science and Research at the Smithsonian.&nbsp;



“But we hold the power to overcome these obstacles with a united, society-wide effort to preserve nature and its benefits.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-benefits-will-degrade-with-biodiversity-loss-nbsp">Ocean benefits will degrade with biodiversity loss&nbsp;</h2>



The health and prosperity of the U.S. are closely tied to the ocean, contributing nearly $400 billion annually to the economy and providing 2.4 million jobs. The U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone, covering an area larger than all 50 states combined, benefits greatly from the ocean's diverse species and habitats.



“Life in the ocean touches everyone,” said Gabrielle Canonico, leader of the U.S. Marine Biodiversity Observation Network at NOAA and co-chair of the strategy team.&nbsp;



“Every other breath we take comes from the oxygen produced by microscopic ocean plants, and more than a billion people worldwide rely on food from the ocean as their primary source of protein. But these and other benefits will degrade with biodiversity loss, with dire consequences especially for frontline communities.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-gaps-in-our-knowledge-of-ocean-wildlife">Critical gaps in our knowledge of ocean wildlife </h2>



Despite the ocean's vast benefits, critical gaps remain in the protection and knowledge of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monitoring-ocean-life-through-underwater-soundscapes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean life</a>. Current information is scattered across different organizations, making it difficult to share.&nbsp;



Many smaller organisms, crucial for maintaining ecosystems, are barely studied. The strategy aims to address this by strengthening the ocean observing system and information pipeline.



“We are advancing frontier technologies for biodiversity science and understanding,” said Sarah Kapnick, NOAA chief scientist. “But it is critical that we come together around the use of evidence-based metrics and indicators for decision-making in ocean spaces, and for monitoring, reporting, and verification to ensure that investments in conservation or development deliver the desired outcomes while minimizing negative impacts to ocean life.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-biodiversity-is-in-trouble-nbsp">Ocean biodiversity is in trouble&nbsp;</h2>



“Biodiversity is the beating heart of the ocean that supports society, but it’s in trouble,” noted Emmett Duffy, chief scientist of <a href="https://serc.si.edu/research/projects/marinegeo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MarineGEO</a> at the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center and co-chair of the strategy team.&nbsp;



“This strategy is our best chance yet to turn the tide. We need to implement it to reach a future where people and the rest of nature thrive together by joining forces and leveraging the power of people and technology to understand the living ocean ecosystem.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roadmap-to-a-more-sustainable-ocean">Roadmap to a more sustainable ocean</h2>



The National Ocean Biodiversity Strategy outlines a three-pronged plan to create a more inclusive, evidence-based network of protection in U.S. ocean waters and the Great Lakes:



<ul>
<li>Coordinate ocean research and conservation across the entire nation: This involves bringing together federal agencies with ocean-related missions to engage stakeholders, including states, Tribes, and local communities, to co-design solutions. Part of this process includes documenting the economic and cultural values of the ocean to reveal hidden costs of degrading nature and incorporating them into economic decision-making across government and private sectors.</li>



<li>Strengthen the U.S. information pipeline: The U.S. has a wealth of data on ocean life, but much of it is inaccessible to policymakers and managers. The strategy calls for stronger support of centralized, open-source databases accessible to all stakeholders. This also involves revamping taxonomy to reveal undiscovered species and using new technologies like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/racing-boat-collects-edna-samples-on-a-round-the-world-sailing-competition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental DNA</a> (eDNA), satellites, and artificial intelligence to track biodiversity.</li>



<li>Conserve, restore, and sustainably use ocean biodiversity: Success hinges on partnerships with states, Tribes, local communities, NGOs, and the private sector. Listening sessions will help build collaborations based on trust, allowing managers to co-create protection measures that work long-term with community input.</li>
</ul>



According to the experts, this strategy is a high-level roadmap to a more sustainable ocean and a first step toward implementing a plan to outline specific actions tailored to regions and communities based on stakeholder feedback.



The full strategy can be found on the <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/NSTC_National-Ocean-Biodiversity-Strategy.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Office of Science and Technology Policy website</a>.



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World Ocean Day: A unified approach to protect biodiversity 

Approximately two million species inhabit the world's oceans, but scientists...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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