Sometimes discoveries take centuries. In South Wales, a fossil jawbone collected in 1899 has finally revealed its secret. It sat quietly for more than a hundred years in the National Museum of Wales. Researchers wrote about it, but no one could say for sure what creature it came from.



Now, using modern technology, paleontologists at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> have identified it as a new dinosaur species. They have given it a new name too: Newtonsaurus, honoring the man who first described it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-newtonsaurus-a-distinctive-name">Newtonsaurus: A distinctive name </h2>



The fossil itself contains no bone. What remains are natural molds pressed into stone. At first glance, this seems disappointing. 



But those impressions preserved details invisible to the naked eye. With 3D scanning, the team brought the jawbone back to life in digital form.



“This specimen has been referred to many times in scientific papers but had yet to be successfully identified,” said study co-author Owain Evans. “It was named Zanclodon cambrensis by Edwin Tully Newton in 1899, but we knew the name Zanclodon had been abandoned because it referred to a broad variety of early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptile-ancestors-appeared-40-million-years-earlier-than-we-thought/">reptiles</a>.”



“Therefore, we name it after Newton, calling it Newtonsaurus. It is different from all other dinosaurs from that time and requires a distinctive name.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-rebuilt-through-3d-scans">Fossil rebuilt through 3D scans</h2>



Creating the digital model required patience. The team photographed every angle of the molds, then combined the images into a 3D shape. 



By flipping the data, they produced a negative of the impressions, which gave them a digital version of the original jawbone.



“The natural molds of the inner and outer faces of the jawbone show amazing detail - every groove, ridge, tooth, and even the serrations along the edges of the teeth,” said Michael Benton, professor of vertebrate paleontology at the University of Bristol.



“We decided to use digital photography to make a 3D model. We began by surface scanning the fossil using photogrammetry. Once we had our digital scan, we inverted it - essentially giving us a digital negative of the mold.”



By fusing the sides and analyzing its anatomy, the digital reconstruction revealed a clearer picture of the bone’s original structure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-predatory-flesh-eating-dinosaur">A predatory, flesh-eating dinosaur</h2>



Once reconstructed, the fossil’s features stood out clearly. The placement of the teeth and the jaw shape confirmed it belonged to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-footprints-reveal-a-dinosaur-that-changed-pace-while-walking/">theropod</a>. These were meat-eating dinosaurs, ancestors of later giants like Tyrannosaurus rex. 



The discovery proved that large predators prowled the Welsh coastline during the Triassic period.



“We can now confirm that this specimen very likely belonged to a large predatory theropod dinosaur that roamed the shores of South Wales during the latest Triassic,” said Evans.



“It has some definite unique dinosaur features in the emplacement of the teeth, and it is a theropod - a predatory, flesh-eating dinosaur. Otherwise, it sits near the origins of both major divisions of Theropoda, the Coelophysoidea and the Averostra.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-newtonsaurus-was-unusually-large">Newtonsaurus was unusually large</h2>



The<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-fish-bones-reveal-clues-about-the-evolution-of-eating/"> jawbone</a> alone measured 28 centimeters (11 inches). But this was only the front half. The full bone stretched around 60 centimeters (24 inches).



That means the dinosaur’s body reached five to seven meters (16 to 23 feet) in length. For the Triassic, this was huge. Most theropods of the time were much smaller.



The preserved 28 cm (11 in) jawbone, once 60 cm (24 in) in life, reveals a large Triassic theropod - unexpectedly large for its kind.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Newtonsaurus_new-dinosaur-species_jawbone-fossil_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Newtonsaurus_new-dinosaur-species_jawbone-fossil_1s.webp" alt="Using modern digital scanning techniques the researchers were able to shed new light on the fossil jawbone, which has been known since 1899 and been on display in the National Museum of Wales for many years. Credit: Owain Evans" class="wp-image-1985985"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Using modern digital scanning techniques the researchers were able to shed new light on the fossil jawbone, which has been known since 1899 and been on display in the National Museum of Wales for many years. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Owain Evans</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-adds-to-welsh-prehistory">Discovery adds to Welsh prehistory</h2>



For paleontologists, the discovery proves that museum collections still hold secrets. For Wales, it adds another important piece to its prehistoric record. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triassic-fossils-shed-new-light-on-ancient-ecosystems/">Triassic</a> beds of the region are rare and globally significant.



“These historical specimens are vitally important in paleontology and often yield new and exciting results - even if they have been sitting in collections for years. The Victorians were fascinated by the fossil record and prospected all across the UK for fossils,” said Cindy Howells at the <a href="https://museum.wales/cardiff/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Museum of Wales</a>.



“On top of this, the re-description of Newtonsaurus cambrensis once again highlights the significance of Wales in paleontological research."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wales-may-reveal-more-dinosaurs">Wales may reveal more dinosaurs</h2>



Triassic beds are rare worldwide, yet Wales holds several of them - each with the potential to reveal another hidden dinosaur.



Newtonsaurus is more than a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-rising-mountains-give-birth-to-new-species/">new species</a>. It proves that even old fossils can still surprise us, and that modern tools can finally solve questions that lingered for generations.



The find also reminds us that the cliffs and quarries of Wales may still conceal more giants waiting to emerge.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016787825000513?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Geologists Association</a>.



Image Credit: Owain Evans



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Newtonsaurus: Forgotten dinosaur fossil reveals a giant Triassic predator

Sometimes discoveries take centuries. In South Wales, a fossil jawbone collected in 1899 has finally revealed its secret. It sat quietly for more than a hundred years in the National Museum of Wales. Researchers wrote about it, but no one could say for sure what creature it came from. Now, using modern technology, paleontologists at the University of Bristol have identified it as a new dinosaur species. They have given it a new name too: Newtonsaurus, honoring the man who first described it. Newtonsaurus: A distinctive name...

During the time of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-largest-megaraptor-discovered-in-argentina/">dinosaurs</a> in the Late Triassic, variations in the abundance and diversity of plant and vertebrate animal species cannot be causally related to the climate changes that occurred during that period. This is the conclusion of a new study led by the <a href="http://www.conicet.gov.ar/">National Scientific and Technical Research Council</a> in Argentina (CONICET) and the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/">University of Utah</a> in the United States.



By analyzing multiple independent lines of evidence drawn from sedimentology, clay mineralogy, and geochemistry, the researchers explored changes in paleoclimatic conditions, such as mean annual temperatures and precipitation, within the Ischigualasto Formation – a collection of fossil-rich sedimentary rocks deposited by rivers and streams during the late Triassic period (about 231 to 226 million years ago) in what are now the San Juan and La Rioja provinces in Northwestern Argentina. Although the scientists managed to identify a clear change from warmer and drier to more temperate and humid conditions, no concurrent major changes could be identified in the fossil record.



“We conclude that variations in the abundance and diversity of species, as recorded by their first and last appearances in the fossil record, are better explained by preservation and sampling biases than by changes in climate,” said study lead author Adriana Mancuso, a paleontologist at CONICET.



“What we see is that how many specimens collected from each interval of the sequence, and the chemical and physical characteristics that allow greater or lesser preservation of the remains of animals and plants, were significant factors. These two factors, collection and preservation, have more influence on the increase or decrease of abundance and diversity than the climate changes recorded.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



However, Dr. Mancuso and her colleagues managed to identify a relationship between climatic variations and two groups of reptiles: the rhynchosaurs, a group of herbivorous early archosauromorphs, and pseudosuchians, a type of crocodilian-line archosaurs. “We did find that the abundance of rhynchosaurs and extinction of a few pseudosuchian species appear to coincide with a climate shift,” said study co-author Randall Irmis, a paleontologist at the University of Utah.



This study highlights the importance of an explicit framework for testing hypotheses about the correlation between the fossil record and climatic changes. “In addition to the contribution on the relationship of biotic and climatic events in the Ischigualasto Formation, the work provides a methodological framework to test climate-biota associations, highlighting the data gaps that must be filled, and makes new testable predictions that can be tested in future studies,” Dr. Mancuso concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2022.883788/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate did not impact dinosaur abundance in the Triassic

During the time of dinosaurs in the Late Triassic, variations...

A new study has revealed that one in seven rhinoceroses in a South African national park has been infected with a pathogen that causes bovine tuberculosis (bTB), known as Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis).&nbsp;The study is the largest ever conducted on free-ranging rhinos. 



The findings demonstrate the potential for diseases to disrupt conservation efforts. If unaddressed, this could lead to increased risks to human health.&nbsp;The study tested samples from 437 rhinos, collected from 2016 to 2020 in Kruger National Park. 



The results revealed the presence of M. bovis infection in an estimated 15.4 percent of rhinos. These results are crucial to supporting conservation efforts that protect the already vulnerable rhino population.&nbsp;



To aid conservation efforts, scientists with the Animal TB Research Group in SU’s Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, developed a novel diagnostic test to detect M. bovis infection in rhinos.



These results are also relevant in the United States, where bovine TB is occasionally found in domestic cattle and other livestock. It can travel by carrier species such as white-tailed deer, and it has reached endemic status among deer, bison and elk in parts of North America.



“There are examples of bovine tuberculosis in wildlife systems throughout the world,” said study senior author Dr. Carmel Witte. “In the United States, spillover of infection from cattle has spread to white-tailed deer in Michigan. This, in turn, can create spillback of infection into livestock, and carries a risk of spread to other wildlife and people.”



The presence of infection however, does not mean animals are diseased or dying. Professor Michele Miller, who leads the Animal TB Research Group and is the National Research Foundation (NRF) South African Research Chair in Animal TB, said most rhinos can contain the infection if they are otherwise healthy. Much like when humans are infected with COVID-19 and are asymptomatic.&nbsp;



“The infected rhinos are harboring the bacteria, but their immune system is keeping it in check. They are not losing weight or coughing, and if you looked at a group of 400 rhinos, you wouldn’t be able to pick out those that are infected. They can potentially live for years with infection if it is contained," said Professor Miller.&nbsp;



“Tuberculosis tends to be a disease that manifests over long periods of time, and when you compound an infectious disease with events such as climate change and unprecedented mortality due to poaching of endangered animals, it is cause for concern."



Monitoring rhinos, as well as other animals, can help understand long-term impacts of the infection and prevent further disease spread among wildlife.&nbsp;



This research is just as important from a human health perspective. For example, to help avoid the next pandemic, livestock and wildlife should be monitored for pathogens that could spread to humans.



The findings did not surprise the research team, as bovine TB is prevalent in at least 15 other species in Kruger - one of Africa’s largest reserves.



&nbsp;“While this pathogen may not appear to drastically impact the health of rhinoceros individuals, it has significant implications for conservation management decisions,” explained Rebecca Dwyer, lead author of the study.



“For example, tuberculosis testing in KNP rhinoceroses that are earmarked for translocation for conservation reasons can increase confidence of minimal risk of spread to other susceptible individuals at their destinations.”&nbsp;



South African rhinos face other threats such as poaching, habitat loss and drought. This makes it important to translocate them where they can be kept safe.&nbsp;



“But bovine TB is a controlled veterinary disease, so once our research group, in partnership with SANParks, found bovine TB in Kruger rhinos in 2016, the Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development (DALRRD) imposed movement restrictions to prevent spread of infection to other populations.” said Professor Miller.&nbsp;



By doing so, a barrier was created to prevent the rhinos from moving to other national or private reserves. Additional benefits were realized, such as conservation, as Kruger has historically been an important source population of rhinoceros for other conservation strongholds in South Africa and other African countries.&nbsp;



These findings are important for the conservation of all species, as the spread of pathogens has important consequences for many species, and the ecosystem as a whole.&nbsp;



Follow this link to the full article in PNAS: <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.2120656119">https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.2120656119</a>&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rhinos show that diseases can disrupt conservation efforts

A new study has revealed that one in seven rhinoceroses...

Prey often avoids predators by fleeing in seemingly random directions. Scientists have hypothesized that this unpredictable and sporadic behavior may help prey animals escape. Now, research published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">PNAS</a> has tested this theory.



For the study, researchers at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> observed robotic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-is-wiping-out-large-bodied-fish-in-the-amazon/">fish</a> with pre-programmed escape patterns that were either predictable or unpredictable. These robot prey fish were then presented to predatory blue acara cichlids. The robots initially remained still, like a prey fish momentarily paralyzed by fear. Then, the robots fled.&nbsp;



“Using robotic prey allowed us to present individual predators with one of two prey escape strategies: ‘predictable’ prey which repeatedly escaped in the same direction from one interaction with the predator to the next, or ‘unpredictable’ prey which escaped in random directions," explained study lead author Dr. Andrew Szopa-Comley.



The predators seemed to quickly adjust to the different types of prey robots. With the predictable prey, the predators adjusted their own speed upon approach, speeding up if the prey was expected to flee directly away but maintaining a slower speed for prey that fled sideways.&nbsp;



Interestingly, these speed adjustments were done from memory of past encounters, before the prey even moved. Unsurprisingly, the predators didn’t adjust their speed when approaching unpredictable prey.&nbsp;



The strange part of the results is that predators had very similar levels of success whether encountering an unpredictable prey robot or a predictable one. This flies in the face of the hypothesis that unpredictable behavior aids in escape.&nbsp;



“Our results suggest that the predators in our study were able to overcome the potential downsides of facing prey which behave unpredictably. From the prey’s point of view, this raises the question of whether unpredictable behaviour is as widely beneficial as was originally thought," explained study senior author Dr. Christos Ioannou.



The study shows how important it is for a predator to be able to adjust its own behavior to the success of the hunt or the failure of the hunted.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Robots reveal how fish hunt down unpredictable prey

Prey often avoids predators by fleeing in seemingly random directions....

Monarch butterflies, with their distinctive orange, black and white colors, are perhaps the most familiar butterflies in North America. They are also famous for making their annual late-summer migration from southern Canada and the northern and central U.S., all the way south to California, Florida and Mexico. During these migrations, the butterflies travel thousands of miles and suffer considerable risk of mortality from factors such as poor weather, predation, pesticides and vehicle strikes.



For many years, scientists have recorded decreasing numbers of monarchs in their wintering colonies in the south. In 2015, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reported a study that showed nearly a billion monarchs had vanished from the overwintering sites since 1990. Various researchers have warned that the butterflies are dying off in droves and that some populations are in danger of imminent extinction. However, a new research study from the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">University of Georgia</a> has found that the summer population of monarchs has remained relatively stable over the past 25 years. &nbsp;



“There’s this perception out there that monarch populations are in dire trouble, but we found that’s not at all the case,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ecology.uga.edu/directory/andy-davis/">Andy Davis</a>, corresponding author of the study and an assistant research scientist in UGA’s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ecology.uga.edu/">Odum School of Ecology</a>. “It goes against what everyone thinks, but we found that they’re doing quite well. In fact, monarchs are actually one of the most widespread butterflies in North America.”&nbsp;



In the current study, which is the largest and most comprehensive assessment of breeding monarch butterfly populations to date, researchers analyzed more than 135,000 observations from the North American Butterfly Association. These records were made between 1993 and 2018 by citizen scientists across North America, who took part in two-day butterfly surveys every summer. Each group of observers had a defined circle to patrol that spanned about 15 miles in diameter, and the observers counted all the butterflies they saw, including monarchs.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The findings of this analysis, published today in the journal Global Change Biology, indicate an overall annual increase of 1.36 percent in the relative abundance of monarchs in their summer locations. This is contrary to the declines reported for wintering populations in Mexico and California in the past few years, and suggests that the successful survival and summer breeding in North America makes up for the winter losses.&nbsp;&nbsp;



As Davis explained, the marathon migratory journey to Mexico or California each fall may be getting more difficult for the butterflies as they face traffic, bad weather and more obstacles along the way south. So fewer butterflies are getting to their overwintering grounds alive.&nbsp;



“But when they come back north in the spring, they can really compensate for those losses,” Davis said. “A single female can lay 500 eggs, so they’re capable of rebounding tremendously, given the right resources. What that means is that the winter colony declines are almost like a red herring. They’re not really representative of the entire species’ population, and they’re kind of misleading. Even the recent increase in winter colony sizes in Mexico isn’t as important as some would like to think.”



One of the major concerns for conservationists is that the abundance of milkweed has declined across the monarch’s range, as GMO crops are sprayed with herbicide to kill off unwanted weeds. Milkweed is the sole source of food for monarch caterpillars and its loss, due to replacement by crops and destruction by herbicides, has significantly reduced the distribution of this plant. Previous research has attributed the 90 percent decline in overwintering numbers of the eastern monarch population to the loss of breeding habitat and milkweed.&nbsp;



However, Davis believes this current study suggests that breeding monarchs already have all the habitat they need in North America. If they didn’t, Davis said, the researchers would have seen that in this data.



“Everybody thinks monarch habitat is being lost left and right, and for some insect species this might be true but not for monarchs,” Davis said. If you think about it, monarch habitat is people habitat. Monarchs are really good at utilizing the landscapes we’ve created for ourselves. Backyard gardens, pastures, roadsides, ditches, old fields – all of that is monarch habitat.”



However, the loss of millions of acres of milkweed habitat may be bringing about some subtle changes in monarch migratory behavior. In some parts of the U.S., monarchs have a year-round or nearly year-round presence, which leads some researchers to believe the insects may be moving away from the annual migration to Mexico. San Francisco, for example, hosts monarchs year-round because people plant non-native tropical milkweed in their gardens and parks. And Florida is experiencing fewer freezes each year, making its climate more attractive for monarchs that would normally head across the border.&nbsp;



“There’s this idea out there about an insect apocalypse – all the insects are going to be lost,” said <a href="https://ent.uga.edu/people/faculty/william-e-snyder.html">William Snyder</a>, co-author of the paper and a professor in UGA’s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.caes.uga.edu/">College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences</a>. “But it’s just not that simple. Some insects probably are going to be harmed; some insects are going to benefit. You really have to take that big pig picture at a more continental scale over a relatively long time period to get the true picture of what’s happening.”&nbsp;



The study authors warn that their findings do not necessarily mean that everything is rosy for monarch butterfly populations. Environmental conditions may change for monarchs as rising global temperatures bring new and growing threats, not just to monarchs but to all insects.&nbsp;



“There are some once widespread butterfly species that now are in trouble,” said Snyder. “So much attention is being paid to monarchs instead, and they seem to be in pretty good shape overall. It seems like a missed opportunity. We don’t want to give the idea that insect conservation isn’t important because it is. It’s just that maybe this one particular insect isn’t in nearly as much trouble as we thought.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monarch butterflies may not be threatened as previously thought

Monarch butterflies, with their distinctive orange, black and white colors,...

A research team led by the <a href="https://www.canterbury.ac.nz/">University of Canterbury</a> in New Zealand has found <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/understanding-the-effects-of-microplastics-on-our-environment/">microplastics</a> in fresh Antarctic snow for the first time. By collecting samples from 19 sites in Antarctica, the experts identified an average of 29 microplastic particles per liter of melted snow – a sufficient quantity to pose significant threats to the health of this continent’s delicate ecosystems and accelerate the melting of snow and ice.&nbsp;



Microplastics – tiny plastic fragments released from artificial clothing fibers, broken-down consumer products, and other sources – are currently ubiquitous on our planet. Previous research has discovered traces of microplastics almost everywhere, from the deep oceans to the peak of the Mount Everest, and even in the blood of humans and other animals.&nbsp;



While in Antarctica microplastics were already identified in sea ice and surface water, this is the first time they have been reported in fresh snowfall. Among the 13 different types of plastics that the researchers identified, the most common one – present in 79 percent of the samples - was polyethylene terephthalate (PET), which is mostly used in manufacturing soft-drink bottles and clothing.



According to the experts, the most likely origins of these airborne microplastics are clothing and equipment from local research stations. However, analyses suggest that some of the particles may have travelled through the air from more distance locations, up to 3,700 miles away.&nbsp;



“Microplastics can have harmful substances stuck on to their surfaces such as heavy metals or algae,” said study co-author Laura Revell, an associate professor of Environmental Physics at the University of Canterbury. “So they can provide a way in which harmful species can make it into some remote and sensitive areas, that otherwise wouldn’t get there.”



“It’s incredibly sad but finding microplastics in fresh Antarctic snow highlights the extent of plastic pollution into even the most remote regions of the world,” added study lead author Alex Aves, a PhD student at the same university.



Although the full range of effects microplastics have on health and the environment are not yet properly understood, previous studies suggest that they can be toxic for plants, animals, and humans, leading to allergic reactions and even cell death. Moreover, since they are highly efficient in trapping radiation emitted by the Earth, they can exacerbate climate change. Thus, in order to safeguard our planet and its diverse ecosystems, actions to curb plastic pollution are urgently needed.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/16/2127/2022/tc-16-2127-2022.html">The Cryosphere</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Microplastics found for the first time in Antarctic fresh snow

A research team led by the University of Canterbury in...

It’s well known to most that the iconic Amazon rainforest is dwindling; with trees under the saw and flame as you read this. Thousands of acres of forest are destroyed each year. We all know this story.&nbsp;



What is less common knowledge is the destruction of life in the Amazon River itself. Now a new study published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a> takes a hard look at fishing in the great river. This is the first, large-scale pan-Amazonian investigation of the river’s fisheries, and the findings aren’t good.



The research team looked at the places where fish catches are left to see what fish are present and which ones are becoming less common.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We are seeing a decline in large-bodied species,” said lead author Sebastian Heilpern, a Cornell Presidential Postdoctoral Fellow. “Large-body species are more vulnerable, as they are slower to develop. As they decline, we see they are also being replaced by smaller species. This pattern is consistent with overexploitation.”



The evidence is clear that fishes are being caught at rates which are unsustainable. There are simply not enough fish reproducing fast enough to replenish the numbers lost to hungry humans. Given that the Amazon is the most productive freshwater fishery in the world, it’s not surprising that the people living on its banks and the surrounding areas eat a lot of fish. In fact, at an average of 110 lbs of fish per year, per person, these are some of the highest fish consumption rates anywhere.&nbsp;



This problem is a long time coming. In 1990, the United Nations reported that 90 percent of the fish were still at sustainable levels. By 2017, this percentage had dropped to an estimated 65.8 percent.&nbsp;&nbsp;



There is still hope, however. The research suggests that greater enforcement of fishing regulations, improved monitoring and better laws could help the problem. “Additionally, expanding protected areas can maintain habitats that are critical for many fish species,” said Heilpern.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Overfishing is wiping out large-bodied fish in the Amazon

It’s well known to most that the iconic Amazon rainforest...

Ectothermic animals do not maintain a constant body temperature but, instead, have variable temperatures that largely reflect the ambient temperature of their surroundings. This often makes them dependent on environmental warmth for their metabolic functioning. In warmer conditions, their metabolic rates increase and they become more active and soon need to consume more food in order to support themselves.&nbsp;



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.si.edu/">Smithsonian Institute</a> and Temple University have now conducted a study to establish experimentally whether marine predatory fish are more active and voracious in the warmer oceans of the world, and what the possible consequences of this may be for marine food webs that have existed for millennia but that now face ocean warming.



“It’s taken thousands of years to get to this state, and then suddenly we’re ramping up the temperature at a much higher rate,” said Gail Ashton, lead author of the report and marine biologist with the&nbsp;<a href="https://serc.si.edu/">Smithsonian Environmental Research Center</a>&nbsp;(SERC). “And we don’t really know the implications of that temperature increase.”



Although it seems obvious that predators in tropical waters will be more active and have higher metabolic rates, past research on this topic has led to conflicting findings. And very few studies have tackled the question of how increased predator activity affects prey communities. These are very pertinent issues, given the gradual increases in ocean temperatures measured throughout the world.&nbsp;



“Warmer waters tend to favor animals high in the food chain, which become more active and need more food – and it’s their prey who pay for that increased activity,” said co-author Emmett Duffy, director of the Smithsonian’s&nbsp;<a href="https://marinegeo.si.edu/">Marine Global Earth Observatory</a>&nbsp;network (MarineGEO). “This suggests that warming seas could see big shifts in the life of sensitive seabed habitats.”



In order to investigate these issues, the researchers set up experimental sites, with international partners, at 36 locations along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the Americas. The sites spanned from Alaska in the north to Tierra de Fuego, at the southernmost tip of South America. At each site, the researchers performed the same three experiments on predators and prey.



The first experiment involved attracting predatory fish to bait stations using “squid pops.” Designed by Duffy and the MarineGEO team, squid pops resembled cake pops at coffee shops. They consisted of pieces of dried squid that were attached to a stake and left under water for an hour, after which the researchers checked how many baits had been devoured. The results of this experiment confirmed that predation was more intense at warmer sites while it dropped to near zero where the water was cold (below 68oF or 20oC).



“This temperature threshold represents an ecological tipping point in these coastal marine ecosystems, above which predation intensity increases,” said Amy Freestone, co-author and associate professor of biology at&nbsp;<a href="https://www.temple.edu/">Temple University.</a>&nbsp;“With climate change, more coastal waters will exceed this tipping point, or warm even further, fundamentally changing how these ecosystems function.”&nbsp;



In the second experiment, the researchers tried to quantify the effects of hungrier predators on some of their prey species. They looked at the stationary underwater invertebrates that fish like to feast on, like tunicates and bryozoans, and measured their rates of colonization and growth on underwater plastic panels for three months. Some of the panels were covered by protective cages that allowed normal water circulation but kept the predators out, while other panels were left exposed.&nbsp;



In a final experimental procedure, an entire set of panels was protected from predators for 10 weeks, by means of cages. After this time, half of the panels were uncaged and the prey communities left exposed for the following two weeks, while the other half of the panels remained protected.



The results, published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>, showed that in warmer water, the more voracious appetites of predatory fish had significant impacts on the prey communities. Total prey biomass plunged in the tropics when prey were left unprotected. But in the coldest zones, protecting prey from predators made little difference, suggesting that predators did not have as much of an impact in these conditions.&nbsp;



“We knew from previous work in Panama that predation in the neotropics can be intense,” said Mark Torchin, co-author and marine ecologist with the&nbsp;<a href="https://stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a>&nbsp;in Panama. “However, working with our colleagues across the Americas allowed us to test the generality of this and to evaluate how the effects of predation change in colder environments.”



In addition, the researchers found that predation changed the structure of prey communities in their experiments. Predators liked eating solitary, bottle-shaped tunicates (“sea squirts”), so those prey suffered major losses in the tropics when left unprotected. Meanwhile, encrusting bryozoans (“moss animals”) flourished in the newly freed space as fish largely left them alone. Tunicates are prolific filterers of seawater and provide microhabitats for other organisms to become established. Bryozoans do not do this as effectively, meaning that such a change in community structure is likely to result in changes in biodiversity as well.



“As predation changes, some species will be winners and some will be losers,” said co-author Greg Ruiz, head of SERC’s&nbsp;<a href="https://serc.si.edu/labs/marine-invasions-research">Marine Invasions Research Lab</a>. “Some will be defended; others will be vulnerable. But we don’t know exactly how that will play out.”



The findings of the study indicate that, as ocean waters warm, changes in the activity of predators can be expected to bring about changes in the communities of prey species. However, the nature of the changes that may take place in equatorial waters, which are already the warmest in the world, can only be guessed at, as these locations experience temperatures that rise even higher than what we see today.&nbsp;



“We don’t really know what might happen in the tropics, because we don’t have data from those warmer temperatures,” Ashton said.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Predatory fish become more voracious as waters warm

Ectothermic animals do not maintain a constant body temperature but,...

Although scientists have long assumed that changes to different genes - such as those controlling hormones that influence social behavior - played a fundamental role in the domestication of dogs, they did not manage to identify the precise genetic mechanisms behind this process. Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.azabu-u.ac.jp/english/">Azabu University</a> in Japan has found that two mutations in the melanocortin 2 receptor gene, which is involved in the production of the stress hormone cortisol, may have led to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/puppy-dog-eyes-emerged-during-domestication/">domestication</a> of dogs. These mutations allowed dogs to develop the necessary social cognitive skills to efficiently interact and communicate with humans.&nbsp;



The researchers used two tasks to examine the social cognitive interactions of 624 domestic dogs. In the first task, designed to test dogs’ understanding of human gestures and communication, the dogs had to decide which bowl had food hidden under it, by following a series of cues from the experimenters, including gazing, pointing, and tapping. In the second one, they were presented with a problem-solving test, which involved them attempting to open a container in order to reach food. During this task, the scientists measured the frequency and duration the dogs spent looking at the experimenters in order to assess their social attachment to humans.



The dogs were separated into two groups, depending on their breed: the Ancient group, consisting of breeds considered to be genetically closer to wolves, such as the Siberian Husky and Akita, and the General group, comprising all other breeds that are more genetically distant from wolves. The experiments revealed that dogs in the Ancient group spent less time looking at humans during the second task, suggesting that they well less attached to them. In the first task, no significant breed-related differences were found.&nbsp;



In a further step, the scientists looked for differences in genes associated with human-related social cognition, including genes for oxytocin (OT), oxytocin receptor (OTR), melancortin 2 receptor (MC2R), as well as a gene called WBSCR17, which plays a critical role in the William-Beuren Syndrome, characterized by hyper-social behavior in humans. 



The experts found that two changes to the MC2R gene were associated with both correctly interpreting gestures during the first task, and looking at the experimenters more often in the problem-solving task. These findings suggest that the MCR2 gene may have played an important role in the domestication of dogs, possibly by promoting lower levels of stress in the presence of humans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-11130-x">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How did dogs become man's best friend?

Although scientists have long assumed that changes to different genes...

According to a research team led by <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a> and <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a>, a giant tortoise species believed to be extinct since over a century ago is still living in the Galápagos Islands in the Ecuador. The Fernandina Island Galápagos giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-found-in-giant-tortoises-of-galapagos/">tortoise</a> (Chelonoidis phantasticus, or “fantastic giant tortoise”) was known only from a single specimen, discovered in 1906. However, in 2019, a new specimen – which the scientists call Fernanda - was found on the Fernandina Island. 



By sequencing the genome of both this tortoise and the museum specimen discovered over a century ago, and comparing them to the other 13 species of Galápagos giant tortoises, the experts have shown that the two known Fernandina tortoises are members of the same species, which is genetically distinct from all the others.



“For many years it was thought that the original specimen collected in 1906 had been transplanted to the island, as it was the only one of its kind,”&nbsp;said Peter Grant, an emeritus professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at Princeton. “It now seems to be one of a very few that were alive a century ago.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



When Fernanda was discovered, many scientists doubted that she was a phantasticus tortoise since she lacked the striking saddleback flaring of the male historical specimen. However, genetic analyses revealed that the tortoise belonged in fact to the same species. “We saw - honestly, to my surprise - that Fernanda was very similar to the one that they found on that island more than 100 years ago, and both of those were very different from all of the other islands’ tortoises,” said study lead author Stephen Gaughran, a postdoctoral fellow in Molecular Evolution at Princeton.



Dr. Gaughran and his colleagues estimate that Fernanda is well over 50 years old, but she is rather small, possibly due to the inadequate diet caused by limited vegetation on the Fernandina Island which may have stunted her growth. She is now kept at the Galápagos National Park Tortoise Center, a rescue and breeding facility, where scientists are exploring what they can do to keep the giant tortoise species alive.



“The finding of one alive specimen gives hope and also opens up new questions, as many mysteries still remain,” said study senior author Adalgisa Caccone, a senior research scientist in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at Yale. “Are there more tortoises on Fernandina that can be brought back into captivity to start a breeding program? How did tortoises colonize Fernandina, and what is their evolutionary relationship to the other giant Galápagos tortoises? This also shows the importance of using museum collections to understand the past,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s42003-022-03483-w">Communications Biology</a>.



Image Credit: Courtesy of the Galápagos Conservancy



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Giant tortoise believed extinct found in the Galápagos

According to a research team led by Princeton University and...

Millions of shipwrecks lie deep beneath the world’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-on-track-for-a-catastrophic-extinction-event/">oceans</a>. These provide new habitats for sea life, but also impact microbial communities. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) estimates that there are as many as three million shipwrecks around the world, most of which are made of wood.&nbsp;



A new study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a> has found that wooden shipwrecks provide microbial habitats similar to naturally occurring geological seabed structures. This research is the first to show the impact of human activity on ocean microbial environments.&nbsp;



“Microbial communities are important to be aware of and understand because they provide early and clear evidence of how human activities change life in the ocean,” said corresponding author Dr. Leila Hamdan of the University of Southern Mississippi.



For the study, the research team chose two wooden sailing ships that sank in the Gulf of Mexico in the late 19th century. The team collected samples by placing pieces of pine and oak between zero and 200 meters from the shipwreck. After four months, they measured all of the bacteria, archaea and fungi using gene sequencing.



The results showed that different types of wood had varying impacts on bacterial diversity (oak was more favorable than pine). Microbial diversity also varied depending on the proximity to the shipwreck site.



The researchers were surprised to find that samples taken closest to the shipwrecks did not show the most diversity, which instead peaked at about 125 meters from the wreck sites.



“Ocean scientists have known that natural hard habitats, some of which have been present for hundreds to thousands of years shape the biodiversity of life on the seafloor," said Dr. Hamdan. "This work is the first to show that built habitats (places or things made or modified by humans) impact the films of microbes (biofilms) coating these surfaces as well. These biofilms are ultimately what enable hard habitats to transform into islands of biodiversity.”



The presence of shipwrecks overall increased microbial richness in the surrounding area. The distribution of biofilms also depended on environmental factors such as the depth of the water and proximity to a nutrient source like the Mississippi River delta.



While this study is focused on wooden structures, there are thousands of oil platforms and pipelines in oceans around the world. The impact of these structures requires further research to better understand.&nbsp;



“While we are aware human impacts on the seabed are increasing through the multiple economic uses, scientific discovery is not keeping pace with how this shapes the biology and chemistry of natural under sea landscapes,” said Dr. Hamdan.&nbsp;



The researchers hope that their findings will encourage further research on how built habitats are changing the world’s oceans.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wooden shipwrecks have become diverse microbial habitats

Millions of shipwrecks lie deep beneath the world’s oceans. These...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a> are providing new insight into one of the most studied organisms on the planet, Darwin's finches in the Galápagos Islands. Until now, the range of the finches had not been sufficiently studied due to the treacherous nature of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-pandas-face-shrinking-habitats-and-tough-decisions/">habitat</a>.&nbsp;



However, an international team of researchers was able to track the birds on the island of Santa Cruz by using small electric backpacks. They found that the finches cover a lot of ground within 24 hours.&nbsp;



Study lead author Marc-Olivier Beausoleil explained why this subject was necessary to examine. "Understanding the real space needs of these birds is crucial both to refine the interpretation of previous studies and to ensure the conservation of these birds in a landscape increasingly threatened by the expansion of urban areas."



The researchers observed behaviors that they had not anticipated. For example, they found that the finches commute the equivalent of 30 soccer fields in a single day. The experts wondered why the finches traveled so far since, during the day, they rarely went more than 100 meters from their nests.



Although most birds don't roost in groups during the breeding season, Darwin's finches are an exception, according to the study.&nbsp;



"Almost all the tagged finches left their breeding territories after sunset and moved four times the distance they normally cover in the daytime," said Beausoleil. "The mysterious destination: a lush grove of poison apple trees (Hippomane mancinella) located by the sea where nearly a thousand finches gather nightly to rest."



The question is, why would they do this? Carlos Camacho, a researcher at Instituto Pirenaico de Ecología and coordinator of the study explained that sleeping in the company of others helps the birds fight the cold and reduces the risk of predation.



"Although the advantages of this behavior are not as evident in a place where temperatures are mild and predators are scarce," said Camacho. "This leads us to think that this behavior may have been inherited from their continental ancestors."&nbsp;



Even 150 years after Darwin proposed his theory of natural selection, his finches still have something to teach us. The researchers believe that their findings will help inform diversity conservation.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/20457758">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Darwin's finches continue to surprise scientists

Researchers at McGill University are providing new insight into one...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/">University of Southampton</a> has found that a drastic change in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-communities-are-being-reshuffled-by-climate-change/">climate</a> conditions in the North Atlantic around 800 years ago led to a marked decline in Atlantic salmon populations returning to rivers. According to the experts, the transition from a warm to a cold climate initiating what is known as the Little Ice Age (1300-1850) caused large-scale changes in marine habitats corresponding with a decline in salmon in the River Spey in Scotland. Over the following centuries, increased human exploitation played a significant role in further diminishing these populations.



Atlantic salmon lay their eggs in the gravels of headwater streams, where their offspring live for about a year or two before migrating out to sea. After spending their adulthood in the ocean, they finally return to the rivers to spawn, and eventually die. Since their sperm, eggs, and carcasses are rich in marine nutrients which can be detected in sediment even centuries later, scientists can now map the historic population levels of salmon.&nbsp;



By collecting and measuring nutrients left by salmon in the River Spey, the researchers found that larger salmon populations in the past declined during a cooling climate – a period that coincided with an intensification in human exploitation. These findings also suggest that previous theories arguing that beavers have significantly impacted salmon populations are unfounded: larger salmon populations in the past occurred at a time when rivers were also inhabited by beavers, showing that the two animal species could peacefully coexist.&nbsp;



“These results can help us understand some of the controls on salmon populations prior to and during major human exploitation,” said study lead author David Sear, a professor of Geography and Environmental Science at Southampton.&nbsp;



“Our study shows that historically, beavers – common in Scotland hundreds of years ago – do not appear to have significantly impacted salmon numbers. This is very relevant today, as the animals are being reintroduced to UK rivers and a debate continues about their potential impact on migratory species like salmon.”&nbsp;



Since migratory fish, such as salmon, bring marine nutrients into nutrient poor upland rivers, population declines negatively affect river ecosystems today. Further research is needed to untangle the complex relationships between salmon and other aquatic animals in order to properly asses the larger impact that diminishing salmon populations have on a variety of ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09596836221095983">The Holocene</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Decline in Atlantic salmon linked to humans and climate

A new study led by the University of Southampton has...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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